View source for Original six frigates of the United States Navy

{{Short description|First six ships of the United States Navy}}
{{Use mdy dates|date=December 2022}}

{{Use American English|date=May 2024}}

{|{{Infobox ship begin}}
{{Infobox ship image
| Ship image = USS Constitution Departs.jpg
| Ship caption = {{USS|Constitution}}, the last of the original six frigates of the United States Navy still in commission
}}
{{Infobox ship class overview
| Name = 
| Builders = 
| Operators = United States Navy
| Class before = 
| Class after = [[Java-class frigate (1813)|''Java''-class frigate]]
| Subclasses = 
| Cost = 
| Built range = 1794–1800
| In service range = 1794–1881
| In commission range = 1797–present
| Total ships planned = 6
| Total ships completed = 6
| Total ships laid up = 
| Total ships lost = 2
| Total ships retired = 3
| Total ships active = 1
}}
{{Infobox ship characteristics
| Hide header = 
| Header caption = (''Constitution'', ''President'', ''United States'')
| Ship class = 44-gun frigate<ref name="USNFF">{{cite web | title=US Navy Fact File – Constitution| publisher=United States Navy| date=July 7, 2009| url= http://www.navy.mil/navydata/fact_display.asp?cid=4200&tid=100&ct=4| access-date=June 30, 2011| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170701203833/http://www.navy.mil/navydata/fact_display.asp?cid=4200&tid=100&ct=4| archive-date=July 1, 2017| url-status=dead}}</ref>
| Ship tonnage = 1,576<ref name="Hollis39">Hollis (1900), p. 39.</ref>
| Ship displacement = 2,200 tons<ref name="Hollis39"/>
| Ship length = *{{convert|204|ft|abbr=on}} ([[length overall]]);
* {{convert|175|ft|abbr=on}} at waterline<ref name="USNFF"/>
| Ship beam = {{convert|43|ft|6|in|abbr=on}}<ref name="USNFF"/>
| Ship draft = *{{convert|21|ft|abbr=on}} forward
* {{convert|23|ft|abbr=on}} aft<ref name="Hollis39"/>
| Ship hold depth = {{convert|14|ft|3|in|abbr=on}}<ref name="Constitution">{{cite DANFS|title=Constitution|url=https://www.history.navy.mil/research/histories/ship-histories/danfs/c/constitution.html}}</ref>
| Ship complement = 450 officers and enlisted, including 55 [[Marine (military)|Marines]] and 30 boys<ref name="USNFF" />
}}
{{Infobox ship characteristics
| Hide header = 
| Header caption = (''Congress'' and ''Constellation'')
| Ship class = 38-gun frigate<ref name="Constellation-I">{{cite DANFS|title=Constellation|url=https://www.history.navy.mil/research/histories/ship-histories/danfs/c/constellation-i.html|link=off}}</ref>
| Ship type = 
| Ship tonnage = 1,265 tons<ref name="Constellation-I"/>
| Ship displacement = 
| Ship tons burthen = 
| Ship length = {{convert|164|ft|m|abbr=on}} [[length between perpendiculars|between perpendiculars]]<ref name="Constellation-I"/>
| Ship beam = {{convert|41.0|ft|m|abbr=on}}<ref name="Constellation-I"/>
| Ship height = 
| Ship draft = 
| Ship hold depth = 
| Ship decks = 
| Ship deck clearance = 
| Ship propulsion = 
| Ship sail plan = 
| Ship speed = 
| Ship complement = 340&nbsp;officers and enlisted<ref name="Constellation-I"/>
| Ship armament = 
}}
{{Infobox ship characteristics
| Hide header = 
| Header caption = (''Chesapeake'')
| Ship class = 38-gun frigate<ref name="Chesapeake">{{cite DANFS|title=Chesapeake|url=https://www.history.navy.mil/research/histories/ship-histories/danfs/c/chesapeake-i.html|link=off}}</ref>
| Ship type = 
| Ship tonnage = 1,244<ref name="Chesapeake"/>
| Ship tons burthen = 
| Ship length = {{convert|152.8|ft|m|abbr=on}} between perpendiculars<ref name="Chesapeake"/>
| Ship beam = {{convert|41.3|ft|m|abbr=on}}<ref name="Chesapeake"/>
| Ship height = 
| Ship draft = {{convert|20|ft|m|abbr=on}}<ref name="Chesapeake"/>
| Ship hold depth = {{convert|13.9|ft|m|abbr=on}}<ref>Chapelle (1949), p. 535.</ref>
| Ship decks = 
| Ship deck clearance = 
| Ship propulsion = 
| Ship sail plan = 
| Ship speed = 
| Ship boats = 
| Ship complement = 340 officers and enlisted<ref name="Chesapeake"/>
| Ship armament = 
| Ship notes = 
}}
|}
The [[United States Congress]] authorized the original six [[frigate]]s of the [[United States Navy]] with the [[Naval Act of 1794]] on March 27, 1794, at a total cost of $688,888.82 (equivalent to ${{Format price|{{Inflation|US-GDP|688,888.82|1794|r=-5}}}} in {{Inflation/year|US-GDP}}). These ships were built during the formative years of the United States Navy, on the recommendation of designer [[Joshua Humphreys]] for a fleet of frigates powerful enough to engage any frigates of the [[French Navy|French]] or [[Royal Navy|British]] navies, yet fast enough to evade any [[ship of the line]].

One of these original six, the {{USS|Constitution}}, is still in commission and is the world's [[List of oldest surviving ships|oldest]] commissioned naval warship still afloat.<ref name="US Navy">{{cite web |title=USS Constitution |url=https://ussconstitutionmuseum.org/locations/uss-constitution/ |website=USS Constitution Museum |publisher=United States Navy |access-date=23 September 2023 |language=en}}</ref>{{efn|{{HMS|Victory}} is the oldest commissioned vessel by three decades, but she has been in [[dry dock]] since 1922.<ref name="Victory">{{cite web |url=https://www.nmrn.org.uk/hms-victory/history |title=History of HMS Victory |website=National Museum of the Royal Navy}}</ref>|name="Victory"}}

== Purpose ==
{{See also|History of the United States Navy}}

After the [[American Revolutionary War|Revolutionary War]], a heavily indebted United States disbanded the [[Continental Navy]], and in August 1785, lacking funds for ship repairs, sold its last remaining warship, the {{USS|Alliance|1778|2}}.<ref>Daughan (2008), p. 240.</ref><ref>Fowler (1984), p. 8.</ref> But almost simultaneously troubles began in the [[Mediterranean]] when [[Regency of Algiers|Algiers]] seized two American merchant ships and held their crews for ransom.<ref name="Daughan242">Daughan (2008), p. 242.</ref><ref>Fowler (1984), pp. 6–7.</ref> Minister to France [[Thomas Jefferson]] suggested an American naval force to protect American shipping in the Mediterranean, but his recommendations were initially met with indifference, as were the recommendations of [[John Jay]], who proposed building five 40-gun warships.<ref name="Daughan242"/><ref>Fowler (1984), pp. 8–9.</ref> Shortly afterward, [[Portugal]] began blockading Algerian ships from entering the [[Atlantic Ocean]], thus providing temporary protection for American merchant ships.<ref name="Allen1905-15">Allen (1905), p. 15.</ref><ref>Fowler (1984), p. 9.</ref>

[[Piracy]] against American merchant shipping had not been a problem when under the protection of the [[Royal Navy]] prior to the Revolutionary War, but after the Revolutionary War the "[[Barbary States]]" of Algiers, [[Tripoli, Libya|Tripoli]], and [[Tunis]] felt they could harass American merchant ships without penalty.<ref>Smelser (1959), p. 8.</ref><ref>Allen (1905), p. 13.</ref> Additionally, after the [[French Revolutionary War]] began, Britain and France both began interdicting and seizing American merchantmen trading with the other nation. Lacking a proper navy, the American government could do little to prevent such seizures.<ref>Daughan (2008), pp. 276–277.</ref><ref>Smelser (1959), pp. 48–51.</ref>

The formation of a naval force had been a topic of debate in the new American republic for years. Opponents argued that building a navy would only lead to calls for a navy department, and the staff to operate it. This would further lead to more appropriations of funds, which would eventually spiral out of control, giving birth to a "self-feeding entity". Those opposed to a navy felt that payment of tribute to the Barbary States and economic sanctions against Britain and France were a better alternative.<ref>Smelser (1959), pp. 5–20.</ref><ref>Allen (1909), p. 42.</ref>

In 1793, Portugal reached a peace agreement with Algeria, ending its blockade of the Mediterranean, thus allowing Algerian ships back into the Atlantic Ocean. By late in the year, eleven American merchant ships had been captured.<ref name="Allen1905-15"/> This, combined with the continuing seized of American merchantmen by European powers, finally led President [[George Washington]] to request Congress to authorize a navy.<ref>Daughan (2008), pp. 278–279.</ref><ref>Fowler (1984), pp. 16–17.</ref>

On January 2, 1794, by a narrow margin of 46–44, the [[United States House of Representatives|House of Representatives]] voted to authorize building a navy and formed a committee to determine the size, cost, and type of ships to be built. Secretary of War [[Henry Knox]] submitted proposals to the committee outlining the design and cost of warships.<ref>Daughan (2008), p. 279.</ref><ref>Fowler (1984), p. 18.</ref> To appease the strong opposition to the upcoming bill, the [[Federalist Party]] inserted a clause into the bill that would bring an abrupt halt to the construction of the ships should the United States reach a peace agreement with Algiers.<ref name="Daughan279-281"/><ref name="Smelser57">Smelser (1959), p. 57.</ref>

The bill was presented to the House on March 10 and passed as the [[Naval Act of 1794]] by a margin of 50–39, and without division in the Senate on March 19.<ref name="Daughan279-281">Daughan (2008), pp. 279–281.</ref><ref name="Smelser57"/> President Washington signed the Act on March 27. It provided for acquisition, by purchase or otherwise, of four ships to carry forty-four guns each, and two ships to carry thirty-six guns each.<ref>Daughan (2008), p. 281.</ref> It also provided pay and sustenance for naval officers, sailors and marines, and outlined how each ship should be manned in order to operate them. The Act appropriated $688,888.82 (equivalent to ${{Format price|{{Inflation|US-GDP|688,888.82|1794|r=-5}}}} in {{Inflation/year|US-GDP}}{{Inflation/fn|US-GDP}}) to finance the work.<ref>''An Act to provide a Naval Armament''. {{USStat|1|350}} (1794). [[Library of Congress]]. Retrieved February 17, 2010.</ref><ref>Allen (1905), p. 49.</ref>

==Design and preparations==
[[File:Constitutiondiagonalriders.gif|thumb|left|upright=1.1|Diagonal riders for hull stiffness are depicted here from the 1992 restoration of ''Constitution''.]]

With the formation of a [[United States Department of the Navy|Department of the Navy]] still several years away, responsibility for design and construction fell to the [[United States Department of War|Department of War]], headed by Secretary Henry Knox. As early as 1790 Knox had consulted various authorities regarding ship design.<ref name="Fowler20"/> Discussions of the designs were carried out in person at meetings in Philadelphia. Little is known about these discussions due to a lack of written correspondence, making determination of the actual designers involved difficult to assemble.<ref>{{cite book|last=Toll|first=Ian W.|author-link=Ian W. Toll|title=Six Frigates|url=https://archive.org/details/sixfrigatesepich00toll|url-access=registration|year=2006|publisher=W. W. Norton and Company|location=New York|page=[https://archive.org/details/sixfrigatesepich00toll/page/45 45]|isbn=978-0-393-05847-5 }}</ref> Secretary Knox reached out to ship architects and builders in [[Philadelphia]], which was the largest seaport in North America at the time and possibly the largest freshwater port in the world. This meant that many discussions of ship design took place in Knox's office, resulting in few if any records of these discussions being available to historians. [[Joshua Humphreys]] is generally credited as the designer of the six frigates, but Revolutionary War ship captains [[John Foster Williams]] and [[John Barry (naval officer)|John Barry]] and shipbuilders [[Josiah Fox]] and [[James Hackett (shipbuilder)|James Hackett]] also were consulted.<!-- Need excerpt of Humphreys letter from 1793 --><ref name="Smelser7273"/><ref>Fowler (1984), p. 21.</ref>

The final design plans submitted to President Washington for approval called for building new frigates rather than purchasing merchant ships and converting them into warships, an option under the Naval Act.<ref name="Fowler20">Fowler (1984), p. 20.</ref> The designers realized that the fledgling United States could not match the European states in the number of ships afloat. Nevertheless, this gave the Americans the distinct advantage in that their ship design was not constrained by access to timber nor limited crew. This allowed the designers to plan for enormous ships given their role. They had the ability to overpower other frigates, but were capable of a speed to escape from a [[ship of the line]].<ref>Toll (2006), pp. 49–53.</ref><ref>Beach (1986), pp. 29–30, 33.</ref><ref>Allen (1909), pp. 42–45.</ref> The design was unusual for the time, being deep,<ref>{{Cite book |title=Frigates of the Napoleonic Wars |last=Gardiner |first=Robert |date=2000 |publisher=Chatham |isbn=186176135X |location=London |page=56 |oclc=43456786}}</ref> long on [[keel]] and narrow of [[beam (nautical)|beam]] (width); mounting very heavy guns; incorporating a diagonal [[scantling]] (rib) scheme aimed at limiting [[hogging and sagging|hogging]]; while giving the ships extremely heavy planking. This gave the [[Hull (watercraft)|hull]] greater strength than the hulls of other navies' frigates. Knox advised President Washington that the cost of new construction would likely exceed the appropriations of the Naval Act. Despite this, Washington accepted and approved the plans the same day they were submitted, April 15, 1794.<ref name="Smelser7273">Smelser (1959), pp. 72–73.</ref>

Joshua Humphreys was appointed Master Constructor of the ships. An experienced [[drafter|draftsman]], [[Josiah Fox]], was hired into the War Department to put plans to paper. However, Fox disagreed with the large dimensions of the design and, according to Humphreys, attempted to downsize the measurements while producing his drafts. This incensed Humphreys enough that Fox was soon assigned to the [[lofting|mold loft]] with [[William Doughty (naval architect)|William Doughty]].<ref>Humphreys (1916), p. 401.</ref>

After or simultaneously with the creation of the drawings, a builder's [[Half hull model ship|half model]] was assembled from which measurements were taken to create molds of the timbers. In a process known as "molding", the dimensions of the framing pieces were chalked onto the floor of a mold loft where a template was formed using strips of light wood.<ref>Wood (1981), pp. 88–90.</ref> Once the molds were transported to the timber crews, the templates were used to select the part of a tree that closely matched the template. From there the timber was felled and roughed out close to the required dimensions, then numbered for identification and loaded onto a ship for transport.{{Citation needed|date=April 2010}} An additional set of more detailed molds was required for each frigate for the construction crews to follow.

==Construction==
Secretary Knox suggested to President Washington that six different construction sites be used, one for each ship, rather than building at one particular shipyard. Separate locations enabled the allotted funds to stimulate each local economy, and Washington approved the sites on April 15, 1794. At each site, a civilian naval constructor was hired to direct the work. Navy captains were appointed as superintendents, one for each of the six frigates as follows:<ref name="Smelser7273"/><ref>Fowler (1984), p. 24.</ref>

{|class="wikitable nowraplinks"
!Ship
!Site
!Guns{{efn|''Chesapeake''{{'}}s altered construction led to her re-rating as a 36-gun ship. Because of their larger dimensions over ''Chesapeake'', ''Congress'' and ''Constellation'' were re-rated to 38s.<ref>Beach (1986), p. 32.</ref>}}
!Naval constructor
!Superintendent
!Reference
|-
|{{USS|Chesapeake|1799|2}}
|Gosport, Virginia
|38
|[[Josiah Fox]]
|[[Richard Dale]]
|<ref name="NHFQW">{{cite web
|title=Navy History: Federal/Quasi War
|publisher=Naval History & Heritage Command
|url=http://www.history.navy.mil/biblio/biblio4/biblio4a.htm
|access-date=September 22, 2019
|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/19970206095004/http://www.history.navy.mil/biblio/biblio4/biblio4a.htm
|archive-date=February 6, 1997
|url-status=dead
}}</ref>
|-
|{{USS|Constitution||2}}
|Boston, Massachusetts
|44
|[[George Claghorn]]
|[[Samuel Nicholson]]
|<ref name="NHFQW"/>
|-
|{{USS|President|1800|2}}
|New York, New York
|44
|Christian Bergh
|[[Silas Talbot]]
|<ref name="Canney">Canney, Donald (2001), ''Sailing Warships of the US Navy'', p. 38.</ref>
|-
|{{USS|United States|1797|2}}
|Philadelphia, Pennsylvania
|44
|[[Joshua Humphreys]]
|[[John Barry (naval officer)|John Barry]]
|<ref name="NHFQW"/>
|-
|{{USS|Congress|1799|2}}
|Kittery, Maine
|38
|[[James Hackett (shipbuilder)|James Hackett]]
|James Sever
|<ref name="NHFQW"/>
|-
|{{USS|Constellation|1797|2}}
|Baltimore, Maryland
|38
|David Stodder
|[[Thomas Truxtun]]
|<ref name="NHFQW"/>
|}

Humphreys wished to use the most durable materials available for construction, primarily [[Eastern White Pine#Uses and symbolism|white pine]], [[Longleaf Pine#Uses|longleaf pine]], [[White oak#Uses|white oak]], and, most importantly, [[Quercus virginiana|southern live oak]].<ref name="Hollis48">Hollis (1900), p. 48.</ref> Live oak was used for [[Frame (nautical)|framing]] as it was a strong, dense, and long-lasting wood weighing up to 75&nbsp;lb per cubic foot (1,200&nbsp;kg/m<sup>3</sup>) when freshly cut.<ref>Wood (1981), p. 4.</ref> The live oak tree grows primarily in coastal areas of the United States from Virginia to Texas, with the most suitable timber found in the coastal areas of Georgia near [[St. Simons, Georgia|St. Simons]].<ref name="Hollis48"/><ref>Wood (1981), p. 3.</ref> This desire for live oak was the primary cause of delays in the frigates' construction. Appropriated funds from the Naval Act were not available until June 1794.<ref>Smelser (1959), p. 74.</ref> Shipbuilder John T. Morgan was hired by the War Department to procure the live oak and supervise the cutting and crews. Morgan wrote to Humphreys in August reporting that it had hardly ceased raining since his arrival and "the whole country is almost under water". Captain John Barry was sent to check up on progress in early October; he found Morgan and several persons sick with [[malaria]]. Timber cutting finally began when the crews arrived on the 22nd.<ref>Wood (1981), pp. 25–28.</ref> The earliest delivery of timber occurred in Philadelphia on December 18, but another load of live oak destined for New York was lost when its cargo ship sank. Delays continued to plague the timber cutting and delivery operations throughout 1795. By December of that year all six keels had been laid down, though the frigates were still unframed and far from finished.<ref>Wood (1981), pp. 29–31.</ref><ref>Smelser (1959), pp. 76–77.</ref>

Construction of the frigates slowly continued until the 1796 announcement of the [[Treaty of Tripoli]], which was witnessed by Algiers. In accordance with the clause in the Naval Act, construction of the frigates was to be discontinued. However, President Washington instead requested instructions from Congress on how to proceed. Several proposals circulated before a final decision was reached allowing Washington to complete two of the 44-gun and one of the 36-gun frigates.<ref>Smelser (1959), pp. 77–78.</ref> The three frigates nearest to completion, ''United States'', ''Constellation'' and ''Constitution'', were chosen.<ref>Daughan (2008), p. 294.</ref> Construction of ''Chesapeake'', ''Congress'', and ''President'' was halted, and some of their construction materials were sold or placed in storage.<ref>Smelser (1959), p. 77.</ref>

[[File:Launching USS Constitution.png|thumb|upright|The launching of USS ''Constitution'']]

The earlier predictions of Henry Knox regarding costs of the frigates came to a head in early 1797. Of the original appropriation of $688,888.82, only about $24,000 remained. Secretary of War [[James McHenry]] requested of Congress an additional $200,000, but only $172,000 was appropriated. The additional funds were enough to finish the three frigates' construction, but did not allow them to be manned and put to sea.<ref>Smelser (1959), pp. 90–91, 99.</ref> ''United States'' launched on May 10,<ref name="United States">{{cite DANFS|title=United States|url=https://www.history.navy.mil/research/histories/ship-histories/danfs/u/united-states-frigate.html|link=off}}</ref> ''Constellation'' on September 7,<ref name="Constellation-I"/> and ''Constitution'' on October 21.<ref name="Constitution"/> Meanwhile, interference with American shipping by France because of their disagreement over the [[Jay Treaty]] prompted Congress to debate authorizing completion and manning of the three frigates. Secretary McHenry reported that an additional $200,000 would be required for this stage of construction, touching off grumbling in Congress over the escalating costs. Nevertheless, on July 1, Congress approved the completion and appropriated the requested funds.<ref>Smelser (1959), pp. 102, 110, 116–118.</ref>

When the next session of Congress convened in November, Secretary McHenry again requested funds to complete the three frigates. Though upset over the escalating costs, Congress approved an additional $115,833, but simultaneously launched an investigation into possible waste or fraud in the frigate program. On March 22, 1798, McHenry turned over a report outlining several main reasons for cost escalations: problems procuring the live oak; the logistics of supplying six separate shipyards; and fires, yellow fever, and bad weather.<ref>Smelser (1959), pp. 127, 131–132.</ref> Additional inquiries prior to McHenry's report revealed that the War Department used substandard bookkeeping practices, and that the authorized funds had to be released by the Treasury Department, resulting in delays, causing waste. These problems led to the formation of the Department of the Navy on April 30.<ref>Smelser (1959), pp. 150–156.</ref>

Simultaneously, relations with France soured even further when President [[John Adams]] informed Congress of the [[XYZ Affair]]. In response, on May 28, Congress authorized vessels of the United States to capture any armed French vessels lying off the coast of the United States. As ''Constellation'', ''Constitution'' and ''United States'' were still fitting out, the first U.S. Navy vessel to put to sea for this undeclared [[Quasi-War]] was the sloop {{USS|Ganges|1794|2}} with [[Richard Dale]] in command.<ref>Smelser (1959), pp. 160–166.</ref><ref>{{cite DANFS|title=Ganges|url=https://www.history.navy.mil/research/histories/ship-histories/danfs/g/ganges.html|link=off}}</ref> Finally, on July 16, Congress appropriated $600,000 for completion of the remaining three frigates; ''Congress'' launched on August 15, 1799,<ref name="Congress"/> ''Chesapeake'' on December 2,<ref name="Chesapeake"/> and ''President'' on April 10, 1800.<ref name="President">{{cite DANFS|title=President|url=https://www.history.navy.mil/research/histories/ship-histories/danfs/p/president-i.html|link=off}}</ref><ref>Daughan (2008), p. 315.</ref><ref>Smelser (1959), p. 193.</ref>

==Armament==
[[File:2006Boston088.jpg|upright|thumb|Carronade on the spar deck of ''Constitution'']]

{{See also|Naval artillery in the Age of Sail}}

The 44-gun ships sometimes carried over 50 guns, and ''Constitution'' was known to carry 24-pounder guns in her [[main battery]] instead of the normal 18-pounders most frigates carried.<ref name="USNFF"/>

The Naval Act of 1794 had specified 36-gun frigates in addition to the 44s, but at some point the 36s were re-rated as 38s.<ref>Chapelle (1949), p. 128.</ref> Their "ratings" by number of guns were meant only as an approximation.<ref>Roosevelt (1882), chapter V.</ref>

Ships of this era usually had no permanent battery of guns, as modern navy ships carry. The guns and cannons were designed to be completely portable, and often were exchanged between ships or shore as situations warranted. Each commanding officer generally outfitted armaments to his liking, taking into consideration factors such as the overall tonnage of cargo, complement of personnel on board, and planned routes to be sailed. Consequently, the armaments on ships would change many times during their careers, and records of the changes were not generally kept.<ref>Jennings (1966), pp. 17–19.</ref>

Commonly, twelve men and a [[powder-boy]] were required to operate each gun.<ref name="Gundeck">{{cite web|last=Reilly Jr.|first=John C.|title=The Constitution Gun Deck|publisher=Naval History & Heritage Command|date=February 4, 2008|url=http://www.history.navy.mil/library/online/consitutiongundeck.htm|access-date=April 9, 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090421061055/http://www.history.navy.mil/library/online/consitutiongundeck.htm|archive-date=April 21, 2009|url-status=dead}}</ref> If needed, some men were designated to take stations as [[Boarding (attack)|boarders]], to man the bilge pumps, or to fight fires. Guns were normally manned on the engaged side only; if a ship engaged two opponents, gun crews had to be divided. All of the guns were capable of using several different kinds of projectiles: [[round shot]], [[Chain-shot|chain or bar shot]], [[grapeshot|grape shot]], and [[heated shot]].<ref>Jennings (1966), p. 224.</ref> Each gun was mounted on a wooden gun carriage controlled by an arrangement of rope and [[Block and tackle|tackle]]. The captain ordered the gun crews to either open fire together in a single [[Broadside (naval)|broadside]], or allowed each crew to fire at will as the target came close alongside. The gun captain pulled the [[lanyard]] to trip the [[flintlock]] which sent a spark into the pan. The ignited powder in the pan sent a flame through the priming tube to set off the powder charge in the gun and hurl its projectile at the enemy.

The marine detachment on board provided the [[Marine (military)|naval infantry]] that manned the [[Top (sailing ship)|fighting tops]], armed with muskets to fire down onto the decks of the enemy ship.<ref name="Gundeck"/>

==Frigates==
[[File:Thomas Birch - Engagement between the "United States" and the "Macedonian".jpg|thumb|Painting of the October 30, 1812 ''[[Engagement between the United States and the Macedonian]]'' –[[Oil on canvas]] by [[Thomas Birch (artist)|Thomas Birch]], 1813]]

The frigates were originally designated by the letters A through F<!-- toll and beach --> until March 1795, when Secretary of War, [[Timothy Pickering]], prepared a list of ten suggested names for the ships (in addition to those later used, the list also included ''Defender'', ''Fortitude'', ''Perseverance'', ''Protector'', and ''Liberty''). President Washington was responsible for selecting five of the names: ''Constitution'', ''United States'', ''President'', and ''Congress'', each of which represented a principle of the United States Constitution, together with ''Constellation'' which derived from the blazon of the [[Great Seal of the United States|Arms of the United States]], ''"13 stars, forming a constellation."'' The sixth frigate, ''Chesapeake'', remained nameless until 1799, when Secretary of the Navy, [[Benjamin Stoddert]], designated her a namesake of the [[Chesapeake Bay]], ignoring the previous Constitutional naming protocol.<ref name="Chesapeake"/><ref name="Beach31"/><ref>Toll (2006), p. 61.</ref>

===''United States''===
{{Main|USS United States (1797)}}

{{USS|United States|1797|2}} was built in [[Philadelphia]], launched on May 10, 1797, and commissioned on July 11, 1797<!--Changed to match USS United States page-->. On October 25, 1812, ''United States'' fought and captured the frigate {{HMS|Macedonian}}. ''United States'' was decommissioned on February 24, 1849, and [[reserve fleet|put in reserve]] at Norfolk, Virginia. In 1861, while still in reserve at Norfolk, the ship was seized and commissioned into the [[Confederate States Navy]], which later [[Scuttling|scuttled]] the ship. In 1862, Union forces raised the scuttled ship and retained control until she was broken up in 1865.
{{Clear}}

===''Constellation''===
{{Main|USS Constellation (1797)}}
[[File:USS Constellation.jpg|thumb|upright|Detail of USS ''Constellation'' (from ''Capture of the French Frigate, L'Insurgente'' –Watercolor by Admiral John W. Schmidt, 1981)]]

{{USS|Constellation|1797|2}} was built in [[Baltimore]] and launched on September 7, 1797. On February 9, 1799, she fought and captured the French frigate [[USS Insurgent (1799)|''Insurgente'']]. This was the first major victory by an American-designed and -built warship. In February 1800, ''Constellation'' fought the {{ship|French frigate|Vengeance|1795|6|up=yes}}. Although ''Vengeance'' was not captured or sunk, she was so badly damaged that her captain intentionally grounded the ship to prevent her from sinking. ''Constellation'' was struck in 1853 and broken up. During construction of a new {{USS|Constellation|1854|2}} in 1854, it was claimed that it was a "repair" of the original ship (a common dodge of the time for political reasons) leading to uncertainty over which ship was preserved in Baltimore until it was proven in 1999 to be the second ''Constellation''.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.navsea.navy.mil/Portals/103/Documents/NSWC_Carderock/fouled_anchors-1.pdf |title=Fouled Anchors: The ''Constellation'' Question Answered |last=Wegner |first=Dana M. |date=September 1991 |publisher=[[David Taylor Research Center]] |access-date=2017-07-12 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161011005244/http://www.navsea.navy.mil/Portals/103/Documents/NSWC_Carderock/fouled_anchors-1.pdf |archive-date=2016-10-11 |url-status=live }}</ref>

===''Constitution''===
{{Main|USS Constitution}}

{{USS|Constitution||2}}, rated at 44 guns, launched from [[Edmund Hartt]]'s shipyard in [[Boston]] on October 21, 1797, by naval constructor [[George Claghorn]] and Captain [[Samuel Nicholson]].<ref name="Hollis48"/> During the Quasi-War she captured the French merchant ship ''Niger'',<ref>Jennings (1966), p. 44.</ref> and was later involved in battling the [[Barbary pirates]] in the [[First Barbary War]].

[[File:USS Constitution 1997.jpg|thumb|left|upright=.8|USS ''Constitution'' under sail for the first time in 116 years on July 21, 1997]]

She is most well known for her actions during the War of 1812 against Britain, when she captured numerous British merchant ships and five [[warship]]s: {{HMS|Guerriere|1806|6}}, {{HMS|Java|1811|2}}, {{HMS|Pictou|1813|2}}, {{HMS|Cyane|1806|2}}, and {{HMS|Levant|1813|2}}. The battle with the ''Guerriere'' earned her the nickname of "'''Old Ironsides'''" and public adoration that has repeatedly saved her from [[scrap]]ping. She continued to actively serve the nation as [[flagship]] in the [[Mediterranean Squadron (United States)|Mediterranean]] and [[Africa Squadron|African]] [[Squadron (naval)|squadrons]] and made a [[circumnavigation]] of the world in the 1840s. During the [[American Civil War]] she served as a [[training ship]] for the [[United States Naval Academy]] and carried artwork and industrial displays to the [[Exposition Universelle (1878)|Paris Exposition of 1878]]. Retired from active service in 1881, she served as a [[receiving ship]] until designated a [[museum ship]] in 1907. In 1931 she made a three-year, 90-port tour of the nation, and in 1997 after a comprehensive restoration to her 1812 configuration she finally sailed again under her own power for her 200th birthday.

The oldest commissioned warship afloat in the world,<ref name="Brown">{{cite web|last=Brown|first=Eric|title=Hundreds Join Old Ironsides' Return to Sea for 212th Birthday|publisher=Navy News Service|date=October 21, 2009|url=http://www.navy.mil/search/display.asp?story_id=49131|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121007005925/http://www.navy.mil/submit/display.asp?story_id=49131|archive-date=October 7, 2012|url-status=dead}}</ref>{{efn|{{HMS|Victory}} is the oldest commissioned vessel by three decades; however, ''Victory'' has been in permanent [[dry dock]] since 1922.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.hms-victory.com/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=153&Itemid=572 |title=HMS Victory Service Life |publisher=HMS Victory website |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130924031708/http://hms-victory.com/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=153&Itemid=572 |archive-date=September 24, 2013 |access-date=March 27, 2016 }}</ref>}} ''Constitution'' is berthed at the [[Charlestown Navy Yard]] in Massachusetts and is used to promote understanding of the Navy's role in war and peace through educational outreach, historic demonstration, and active participation in public events. ''Constitution'' is open to visitors year-round, providing tours, with the [[USS Constitution Museum|USS ''Constitution'' Museum]] nearby.

===''Chesapeake''===
{{Main|USS Chesapeake (1799)}}
[[File:Chesapeake.jpg|thumb|upright|USS ''Chesapeake'']]
[[File:Chesapeake Mill - geograph.org.uk - 178198.jpg|thumb|Chesapeake Mill]]

{{USS|Chesapeake|1799|2}} was built at the [[Gosport Navy Yard]], [[Virginia]], and was launched on December 2, 1799. The ''Chesapeake'' was the only one of the six frigates to be disowned by Humphreys due to liberties taken by her Master Constructor [[Josiah Fox]] during construction relating to overall dimensions.<ref>{{Cite book |last=W. |first=Toll, Ian |title=Six frigates : the epic history of the founding of the U.S. Navy |date=March 17, 2008 |isbn=978-0-393-06664-7 |pages=416 |publisher=W. W. Norton & Company |oclc=916039503}}</ref> The frigate that became {{USS|Chesapeake|1799|2}} was originally planned as a 44-gun ship, but when her construction began in 1798 [[Josiah Fox]] altered the original design plan, resulting in the ship's re-rating to 36 guns.<ref>Allen (1909), p. 56.</ref> Fox's reason for making the alteration is not clear, but may be attributed to construction materials that were diverted to complete {{USS|Constellation|1797|2}}. Additionally, Fox and Humphreys had earlier disagreed over the design of the six frigates, and Fox may have taken opportunities during construction to make alterations to his own liking. Regardless, the plan for the redesigned frigate was approved by Secretary of the Navy [[Benjamin Stoddert]].<ref name="Beach31">Beach (1986), p. 31.</ref>

When construction finished on ''Chesapeake'', she had the smallest dimensions of all six frigates.<ref>Toll (2006), p. 289.</ref> A length of {{convert|152.8|ft|m|abbr=on}} [[length between perpendiculars|between perpendiculars]] and {{convert|41.3|ft|m|abbr=on}} of beam contrasted with the other two 36-gun frigates, {{USS|Congress|1799|2}} and ''Constellation'', which were built to {{convert|164|ft|m|abbr=on}} in length and {{convert|41|ft|m|abbr=on}} of beam.<ref name="Constellation-I"/><ref name="Congress">{{cite DANFS|title=Congress|url=https://www.history.navy.mil/research/histories/ship-histories/danfs/c/congress-iii.html|link=off}}</ref><ref>Fowler (1984), pp. 21–22.</ref>

On June 22, 1807, what has become known as the [[Chesapeake–Leopard affair|''Chesapeake''–''Leopard'' affair]] occurred when the ''Chesapeake'' was fired upon by {{HMS|Leopard|1790|6}} for refusing to comply with a demand to permit a search for deserters from the [[Royal Navy]]. After several quick broadsides from ''Leopard'', to which the ''Chesapeake'' replied with only one gun, the ''Chesapeake'' [[struck her colors]]. HMS ''Leopard'' refused the surrender, searched the ''Chesapeake'', captured four alleged deserters, and sailed to [[Halifax, Nova Scotia]]. ''Chesapeake'' was captured on June 1, 1813, by {{HMS|Shannon|1806|6}} shortly after sailing from Boston, Massachusetts. Taken into Royal Navy service, she was later sold, and broken up at [[Portsmouth]], England, in 1820 (with a good deal of her timbers being made into [[Chesapeake Mill|a watermill]]).

===''Congress''===
{{Main|USS Congress (1799)}}
[[File:USSCongress.png|thumb|upright|alt=A black and white drawing of a ship's sails. The ship has 3 masts in which all sails are set and full of wind. The bow of the ship is pointed to right of the frame.|Sail plan of ''Congress'']]

{{USS|Congress|1799|2}}—rated at 38 guns—was launched on August 15, 1799, from Portsmouth Naval Shipyard, under the command of Captain James Sever. Beginning her maiden voyage on January 6, 1800, she headed for the [[Dutch East Indies|East Indies]],<ref>Toll (2006), p. 136.</ref> but soon after her masts were destroyed in a gale, forcing her return to port; repairs took six months. She sailed again on July 26 for the [[West Indies]] and made uneventful patrols through April 1801.<ref>Morris (1880), pp. 120–122.</ref><ref>Allen (1909), p. 221.</ref>

Under the command of [[John Rodgers (naval officer, War of 1812)|John Rodgers]], ''Congress'' sailed for the Mediterranean in June 1804 and performed services during the [[First Barbary War]]. She assumed blockade duties off Tripoli and participated in the capture of a [[xebec]] in October. In July 1805, she helped to blockade Tunisia, and in September of that year carried the Tunisian ambassador back to Washington, D.C. Afterward, she served as a classroom for midshipman training through 1807.<ref>Toll (2006), pp. 224–227, 252, 282.</ref><ref>Allen (1905), pp. 199, 219–220, 268–269.</ref><ref>Cooper (1856), pp. 221–222.</ref>

Under the command of Captain John Smith during the [[War of 1812]], she made three extended cruises in company with ''President'' and briefly with ''United States''. She was part of a pursuit of a fleet of British merchant ships and assisted ''President'' in the attempted capture of {{HMS|Belvidera|1809|6}}. On the return voyage, ''Congress'' and ''President'' captured seven merchant ships. ''Congress''' second cruise began in October 1812, and she pursued {{HMS|Galatea|1810|6}} and captured the merchant ship ''Argo''. Arriving back in Boston on December 31, she assisted in capturing eight additional merchant ships. After repairs, she sailed in company with ''President'' on April 30, 1813, and pursued {{HMS|Curlew|1812|6}}, which escaped. Setting off on her own, she made a lengthy voyage off the [[Cape Verde Islands]] and the coast of Brazil. During this long cruise she captured only four small merchant ships, returning home in late 1813. Because of a lack of materials to repair her, she was placed in reserve for the remainder of the war.<ref>Roosevelt (1883), pp. 72–74, 76–78, 106–107, 174–175.</ref><ref>Maclay and Smith (1898), Volume 1, pp. 322, 325, 521.</ref><ref>Toll (2006), pp. 419–420.</ref>

In 1815 she returned to active service for the [[Second Barbary War]] under Captain [[Charles Morris (naval officer)|Charles Morris]], and in August ''Congress'' joined a squadron and began patrol duties, subsequently making appearances off Tripoli and Tunis. Returning to Boston, she decommissioned in December.<ref>Allen (1905), pp. 292–294.</ref> She patrolled against piracy in the Gulf of Mexico from December 1816 to July 1817 and made a voyage to South America in 1818. Early in 1819 she made a voyage to China, becoming the first U.S. warship to visit that country.<ref>{{cite book|oclc=3720201|title=Biographical Sketches of the Distinguished Men of Columbia County|url=https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_DYpBAAAAYAAJ|page=[https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_DYpBAAAAYAAJ/page/n58 47]|last=Raymond|first=William|publisher=Weed, Parsons|location=Albany|year=1851|access-date=2015-11-17}}</ref> In 1822 she served as the flagship of [[James Biddle (commodore)|James Biddle]], combating piracy in the West Indies. Under Biddle she made a voyage to Spain and Argentina. She began serving as a receiving ship in 1824 and remained on that duty until ordered broken up in 1834.<ref>Morris (1880), pp. 181–184, 190–191.</ref><ref>Maclay and Smith (1898), Volume 2, pp. 20, 28.</ref><ref>Toll (2006), p. 474.</ref>

===''President''===
{{Long-section|date=April 2025}}{{Main|USS President (1800)}}
[[File:Usspresidentatanchor.jpg|upright|thumb|alt=A painting depicting a ship at anchor during rough seas. One side of the ship is prominent in the foreground with the bow and anchor chain to the right of the frame. There are no sails set and only the masts and rigging are shown. Two other ships are shown to the right and left in the far background.|''U.S.S. President at Anchor in Heavy Swell'' –Watercolor by John Russell, 1904]]

Minor alterations were made to ''President'' based on experience gained in constructing the 44-gun ships ''Constitution'' and ''United States''. Humphreys instructed ''President'''s naval contractor to raise the [[gun deck]] by {{convert|2|in|cm|abbr=on}} and move the [[main-mast|mainmast]] {{convert|2|ft|cm|abbr=on}} farther aft.<ref>Toll (2006), p. 107.</ref> In the case of ''President'', construction was begun at New York in the shipyard of Foreman Cheesman and work on her was discontinued in 1796. Construction resumed in 1798, under Christian Bergh and naval constructor William Doughty.<ref name="Canney"/>

Rated at 44 guns, {{USS|President|1800|2}} was the last frigate to be completed, launching from New York City on April 10, 1800, with Captain [[Thomas Truxtun]] in command. She departed for patrols during the Quasi-War on August 5 and recaptured several American merchant ships. After the peace treaty, she returned to the United States in March 1801.<ref>Allen (1909), pp. 217, 221.</ref>

In May 1801 she sailed under the command of [[Richard Dale]] for service in the First Barbary War. She made appearances off Algiers, Tunis, and Tripoli, capturing a Greek vessel with Tripolitan soldiers aboard and participating in a prisoner exchange. She returned to the United States on April 14, 1802,<ref>Allen (1905), pp. 92, 94–95, 98–100.</ref><ref>Maclay and Smith (1898), Volume 1, pp. 228, 231–233.</ref><ref>Cooper (1856), p. 153.</ref> then left for a second patrol on the Barbary coast in 1804 under the command of [[Samuel Barron (1765–1810)|Samuel Barron]]. In company with ''Congress'', ''Constellation'', and ''Constitution'', ''President'' experienced a mostly uneventful tour, assisting in the capture of three vessels, performing blockade duties, and undergoing two changes of commanding officers. She sailed for home on July 13, 1805, carrying with her many sailors released from captivity in Tripoli.<ref>Allen (1905), pp. 198–199, 218–223, 270.</ref><ref>Toll (2006), pp. 224–227, 250–251.</ref>

On May 16, 1811, in what became known as the [[Little Belt affair]], ''President'', under the command of Captain John Rodgers, mistakenly identified {{HMS|Little Belt|1807|6}} as the frigate {{HMS|Guerriere|1806|6}} while searching for [[impressment|impressed]] American sailors taken by the Royal Navy. Though the sequence of events is disputed on both sides, both ships discharged cannon for several minutes before Rodgers determined that ''Little Belt'' was a much smaller ship than ''Guerriere''. ''Little Belt'' suffered serious damage and thirty-one killed or wounded in the exchange. Rodgers offered assistance to ''Little Belt''{{'}}s Captain [[Arthur Bingham]], but he declined and sailed off for Halifax, Nova Scotia. The U.S. and Royal Navy investigations each determined the other ship to be responsible for the attack, increasing tensions leading up to the War of 1812.<ref>Cooper (1856), pp. 235–238.</ref><ref>Toll (2006), pp. 321–323.</ref><ref>Beach (1986), pp. 69–70.</ref>

Still under the command of John Rodgers, ''President'' made three extended cruises during the War of 1812 in company with ''Congress'' and briefly with ''United States''. ''President'' encountered {{HMS|Belvidera|1809|6}} and engaged in a fight from which ''Belvidera'' eventually escaped.<ref>Roosevelt (1883), pp. 73–76.</ref><ref>Cooper (1856), pp. 244–247.</ref> Pursuing a fleet of merchant ships, ''President'' sailed to within a [[day's journey]] of the English Channel before returning to Boston, capturing seven merchant ships en route.<ref>Roosevelt (1883), p. 77.</ref><ref>Maclay and Smith (1898), Volume 1, pp. 325–326.</ref> Her second cruise began with a pursuit of {{HMS|Nymphe|1812|6}} and {{HMS|Galatea|1810|6}}, but she failed to overtake either of them. Later prizes were the packet ship ''Swallow'', carrying a large amount of currency, and eight other merchant ships. ''President'' returned on December 31.<ref>Roosevelt (1883), pp. 106–107.</ref><ref>Maclay and Smith (1898), Volume 1, pp. 426–427.</ref> Her third cruise of the war began April 30, 1813, with her pursuit of {{HMS|Curlew|1812|6}}, but she once again lost a race to overtake an enemy ship. ''President'' spent five months at sea, capturing several merchant ships, but the only highlight was the capture of {{HMS|Highflyer|1813|6}} in late September.<ref>Roosevelt (1883), pp. 174–177.</ref><ref>Maclay and Smith (1898), Volume 1, pp. 521–522.</ref>

After the ship spent a year blockaded in port, [[Stephen Decatur]] assumed command of ''President''. On the evening of January 14, 1815, ''President'' headed out of New York harbor but ran aground, suffering some damage to the copper. Unable to return to port, she was forced to head out to sea. Later the next afternoon she fought a battle with {{HMS|Endymion|1797|6}}. Decatur attempted to capture ''Endymion'' to replace ''President'', but this plan failed because ''Endymion'' was smaller and more maneuverable. Decatur surrendered his ship to ''Endymion'' only to sail away under the cover of night. Subsequently, [[French frigate Astrée (1809)|HMS ''Pomone'']] and {{HMS|Tenedos|1812|6}} overtook ''President'', and Decatur surrendered the ship once again to ''Endymion''.<ref>The Naval Chronicle: Volume 33, January–July 1815: "When ''Pomone's'' boats boarded ''President'', Decatur insisted on having his sword sent to the captain of the black ship (Endymion) which he had engaged, as he had struck to her alone––and when he ceased firing, he hoisted his light higher to indicate that he had struck. Notwithstanding this, in his official dispatch, he makes assertions of a contrary nature."</ref><ref>Andrew Lambert, The Challenge: Britain Against America in the Naval War of 1812, Faber and Faber (2012).</ref> ''President'' was taken into the Royal Navy as [[USS President (1800)#As HMS President|HMS ''President'']], but served only a few years before being broken up in 1818.<ref>Winfield (2008), p. 124.</ref>

== Legacy ==
Under the [[Presidency of Thomas Jefferson|Jefferson Administration]] in the early 1800s, Congress had little interest in enlarging the Navy, and left the frigates and any captured war prizes as the ocean-going force of the fleet. By 1813 and the War of 1812, Congress changed its tone and ordered six heavy frigates of the [[Java-class frigate (1813)|''Java''-class]], which were slight modifications of the 44-gun variant. The design was then slightly modified with the seven heavy frigates of the [[Potomac-class frigate|''Potomac''-class]] in the 1820s, which served as the backbone of the Navy between the 1840s and 1850s.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book |last=Silverstone |first=Paul H. |url=https://www.worldcat.org/title/ocm63178925 |title=The sailing navy, 1775-1854 |date=2006 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-0-415-97872-9 |series=The U.S. Navy warship series |location=New York |pages=35 |chapter=The United States Navy, 1794–1854 |oclc=ocm63178925}}</ref><ref name=":1">{{Cite book |last=Canney |first=Donald L. |url=https://archive.org/details/sailingwarshipso0000cann/mode/2up |title=Sailing warships of the US Navy |date=2001 |publisher=London : Chatham |others=Internet Archive |isbn=978-1-86176-110-1 |pages=61–63 |language=}}</ref>

==Notes==
{{Notelist}}
* {{DANFS}}

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==Bibliography==
* {{cite book | last = Allen | first = Gardner Weld| title =Our Navy and the Barbary Corsairs| publisher = Houghton Mifflin| location = Boston, New York and Chicago|year=1905| url =https://archive.org/details/ournavyandbarba01allegoog| oclc = 2618279}}
* {{cite book |author-mask=2|last=Allen | first = Gardner Weld | title = Our Naval War With France | publisher = Houghton Mifflin| location = Boston and New York | year = 1909 | url = https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_n2kSAAAAYAAJ | oclc = 1202325}}
* {{cite book | last = Beach | first = Edward L. | author-link = Edward L. Beach Jr. | title = The United States Navy 200 Years | publisher = H. Holt | location = New York | year = 1986 | isbn = 978-0-03-044711-2 | oclc = 12104038 | url = https://archive.org/details/unitedstatesnavy00beac }}
* {{cite book | author=Canney, Donald L. | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JEkV5RyAIKMC | title=Sailing warships of the US Navy| publisher = Naval Institute Press| year = 2001| page=46 | isbn=978-1-55750-990-1}}
* {{cite book|oclc=1471717|title=The History of the American Sailing Navy; the Ships and Their Development|url=https://archive.org/details/historyofamerica0000chap|url-access=registration|last=Chapelle|first=Howard I.|author-link=Howard I. Chapelle|publisher=Norton|location=New York|year=1949}}
* {{cite book|oclc=197401914|title=History of the Navy of the United States of America|last=Cooper|first=James Fenimore|author-link=James Fenimore Cooper|publisher=Stringer & Townsend|location=New York|year=1856}}
* {{cite book|isbn=978-0-465-01607-5|oclc=190876973|title=If By Sea: The Forging of the American Navy – From the American Revolution to the War of 1812|last=Daughan|first=George C.|publisher=Basic Books|location=New York|year=2008|url-access=registration|url=https://archive.org/details/ifbyseaforgingof0000daug}}
* {{cite book|isbn=0-395-35314-9|oclc=10277756|title=Jack Tars and Commodores: The American Navy, 1783–1815|last=Fowler|first=William M.|author-link=William M. Fowler|publisher=Houghton Mifflin|location=Boston|year=1984|url=https://archive.org/details/jacktarscommodor00fowl}}
* {{cite book|oclc=2350400|title=The Frigate Constitution; The Central Figure of the Navy Under Sail|url=https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_5cSZnYakpxwC|last=Hollis|first=Ira N.|publisher=Houghton Mifflin|location=Boston, New York|year=1900}}
* {{cite magazine|last=Humphreys|first=Henry H.|year=1916|title=Who Built the First United States Navy?|magazine=The Pennsylvania Magazine of History and Biography|volume=XL|issue=4|pages=385–411|publisher=[[Historical Society of Pennsylvania]]|location=Philadelphia|issn=0031-4587|oclc=1762062|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=h4svFsYjflMC}}
* {{cite book|title=Tattered Ensign The Story of America's Most Famous Fighting Frigate, U.S.S. Constitution|last=Jennings|first=John|publisher=Thomas Y. Crowell|location=New York|year=1966|oclc=1291484}}
* {{cite book | last1 = Maclay | edition =New| orig-year = 1893| first1 = Edgar Stanton | last2 = Smith | first2 = Roy Campbell | title = A History of the United States Navy, from 1775 to 1898 | url =https://books.google.com/books?id=3tVCAAAAIAAJ|volume=1| publisher = D. Appleton| location = New York | year = 1898 | oclc =609036}}
* {{cite book|author-mask=2|last1 = Maclay | edition =New| orig-year = 1893| first1 = Edgar Stanton| title = A History of the United States Navy, from 1775 to 1898 | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=BthCAAAAIAAJ | volume =2| publisher = D. Appleton|location = New York | year = 1898 | oclc = 609036}}
* {{cite book|isbn=1-59114-513-9|oclc=51022876|title=A Most Fortunate Ship: A Narrative History of "Old Ironsides"|author-link=Tyrone G. Martin|last=Martin|first=Tyrone G.|publisher=[[Naval Institute Press]]|year=2003|orig-year=1997|edition=Revised}}
* {{cite journal|last=Morris|first=Charles|author-link=Charles Morris (naval officer)|editor1-first=J. R.|editor1-last=Soley|year=1880|title=The Autobiography of Commodore Charles Morris U.S.N.|journal=Proceedings of the United States Naval Institute|volume=VI|issue=12|pages=111–219|publisher=[[United States Naval Institute]]|location=Annapolis|issn=0041-798X|oclc=2496995|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0LErckxQpPIC}}
* {{cite book | last = Roosevelt | first = Theodore |author-link = Theodore Roosevelt | title = The Naval War of 1812| year = 1883 | edition = 3rd | orig-year = 1882 | location = New York | publisher = G.P. Putnam's sons | url = https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_Fb1CAAAAYAAJ | oclc = 133902576}}
* {{cite book|oclc=422274|title=The Congress Founds the Navy, 1787–1798|last=Smelser|first=Marshall|publisher=University of Notre Dame Press|location=Notre Dame|year=1959}}
* {{cite book|isbn=978-0-393-05847-5|oclc=70291925|location=New York|title=[[Six Frigates: The Epic History of the Founding of the US Navy]]|last=Toll|first=Ian W|author-link=Ian W. Toll|publisher=W. W. Norton|year=2006}}
* {{cite book|isbn=978-0930350208|oclc=7795440|title=Live Oaking: Southern Timber for Tall Ships|last=Wood|first=Virginia Steele|publisher=Northeastern University Press|location=Boston|year=1981}}

==Further reading==
* {{cite book|isbn=0-7838-9151-2|title=Old Ironsides|last=Hoyt|first=Edwin Palmer|author-link=Edwin Palmer Hoyt|location=Thorndike|publisher=G.K. Hall|type=Large Print|year=2000|oclc=44468774}}
* {{cite book|isbn=1-877853-60-7|title=The USS Constitution's Finest Fight: The Journal of Acting Chaplain Assheton Humphreys, US Navy|last=Humphreys|first=Assheton Y.|publisher=Nautical & Aviation Publishing|year=2000|location=Mount Pleasant|editor=Tyrone G. Martin|oclc=44632941}}
* {{cite book|oclc=1384754|title=Guns Off Cape Ann; The Story of the Shannon and the Chesapeake|last=Poolman|first=Kenneth|publisher=Rand McNally|location=Chicago|year=1962}}
* {{cite book|isbn=0-516-24207-5|oclc=50035427|type=Elementary and Junior High School|title=Old Ironsides|location=New York|last=Wachtel|first=Roger|publisher=[[Children's Press]]|year=2003|url=https://archive.org/details/oldironsides0000wach}}

==External links==
* [http://www.ussconstitutionmuseum.org USS ''Constitution'' Museum]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20090415054855/http://www.history.navy.mil/ussconstitution/index.html USS ''Constitution'' official homepage]

{{USN Original Six}}
{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Original Six Frigates Of The United States Navy}}
[[Category:Sailing frigates of the United States Navy]]
[[Category:United States Navy in the 18th century]]
[[Category:Heavy frigates of the United States Navy]]