View source for Oswald of Northumbria

{{Short description|King of Northumbria from 634 to 641/42; Christian saint}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=August 2021}}
{{Use British English|date=July 2012}}
{{Infobox royalty
| name         = Oswald
| image        = Saint Oswald Durham Cathedral.jpg
| image_size   = 200px
| caption      = A 12th-century painting of St Oswald in [[Durham Cathedral]]
| succession1  = [[Bretwalda]]
| reign1       = 633–642
| predecessor1 = [[Edwin of Northumbria]]
| successor1   = [[Oswiu]]
| succession2  = King of [[Deira]]
| reign2       = 633–642
| predecessor2 = [[Osric of Deira]]
| successor2   = Oswiu
| succession3  = King of [[Bernicia]]
| reign3       = 634–642
| predecessor3 = [[Eanfrith of Bernicia]]
| successor3   = Oswiu
| birth_date   = c. 604
| birth_place  = [[Deira]], [[Northumbria]]
| death_date   = 5 August 641/{{Death year and age|642|604}}
| death_place  = 
| burial_date  = 
| burial_place = 
| spouse       = Kyneburga of Wessex
| issue        = [[Œthelwald of Deira]]
| father       = [[Ethelfrith]]
| mother       = [[Acha of Deira]]
| religion     = [[Christianity]]
}}

'''Oswald''' ({{IPA|ang|ˈoːzwɑɫd}}; c 604 &ndash; 5 August 641/642<ref name="Poole">Bede gives the year of Oswald's death as 642. However there is some question of whether what Bede considered 642 is the same as what would now be considered 642. R. L. Poole (''Studies in Chronology and History'', 1934) put forward the theory that Bede's years began in September, and if this theory is followed (as it was, for instance, by [[Frank Stenton]] in his notable history ''Anglo-Saxon England'', first published in 1943), then the date of the Battle of Heavenfield (and the beginning of Oswald's reign) is pushed back from 634 to 633. Thus, if Oswald subsequently reigned for eight years, he would have actually been killed in 641. Poole's theory has been contested, however, and arguments have been made that Bede began his year on 25 December or 1 January, in which case Bede's years would be accurate as he gives them.</ref>) was [[List of monarchs of Northumbria|King of Northumbria]] from 634 until his death, and is venerated as a [[saint]],<ref>{{Cite web |title=Search results |url=https://www.churchofengland.org/search-results |access-date=2024-02-19 |website=The Church of England |language=en}}</ref> of whom there was a particular [[Cult (religious practice)|cult]] in the Middle Ages.<ref>Craig, "Oswald"</ref>

Oswald was the son of [[Æthelfrith of Northumbria|Æthelfrith of Bernicia]] and [[Acha of Deira]] and came to rule after spending a period in [[exile]]. After defeating the Welsh [[Kingdom of Gwynedd|Gwyneddian]] ruler, [[Cadwallon ap Cadfan]], at the [[Battle of Heavenfield]], Oswald brought the two [[Northumbria]]n kingdoms of [[Bernicia]] and [[Deira (kingdom)|Deira]] once again under a single ruler and promoted the spread of [[Christianity]] in Northumbria. He was given a strongly positive assessment by the historian [[Bede]], writing a little less than a century after Oswald's death, who regarded Oswald as a saintly king; it is also Bede who is the main source for present-day historical knowledge of Oswald. After eight years of rule, in which he was the most powerful ruler in [[Great Britain|Britain]], Oswald was killed in the [[Battle of Maserfield]] while fighting the forces of Penda of Mercia, who then himself was defeated by Oswald's brother [[Oswiu]].

==Background, youth and exile==
Oswald's father, Æthelfrith, was a successful Bernician ruler who, after some years in power in Bernicia, also became king of Deira and thus was the first to rule both of the kingdoms that would come to be considered the constituent kingdoms of Northumbria. It would, however, be anachronistic to refer to a Northumbrian people or identity at this early stage, when the Bernicians and the Deirans were still clearly distinct peoples.<ref>Stancliffe, "Oswald", p. 36.</ref> Oswald's mother, [[Acha of Deira]], was a member of the Deiran royal line, whom Æthelfrith apparently married as part of his acquisition of Deira or consolidation of power there.<ref>Kirby, p. 60.</ref> Oswald was apparently born in or around the year 604, since Bede says that he was killed at the age of 38 in 642;<ref name="Bede nine">Bede, ''[[Historia ecclesiastica gentis Anglorum|Historia Ecclesiastica]]'', [[wikisource:Ecclesiastical History of the English People/Book 3#9|Book III, chapter 9]].</ref> Æthelfrith's acquisition of Deira is also believed to have occurred around 604.<ref>Kirby, p. 57.</ref>

Æthelfrith, who was for years a successful war-leader, especially against the native British, was eventually killed in the [[battle of the River Idle]] around 616 by [[Raedwald of East Anglia]]. This defeat meant that an exiled member of the Deiran royal line, [[Edwin of Northumbria|Edwin]] (Acha's brother), became king of Northumbria and Oswald and his brothers fled to the north. Oswald thus spent the remainder of his youth in the Scottish kingdom of [[Dál Riata]] in northern Britain, where he was [[religious conversion|converted]] to Christianity.<ref name="Heaven">[[wikisource:Ecclesiastical History of the English People/Book 3#1|Bede, Book III, chapter 1.]]</ref> He may also have fought in [[Ireland]] during this period of exile.<ref>Kirby, p. 73.</ref> It has been considered that Oswald is one of the three Saxon princes mentioned in the Irish poem [[Togail Bruidne Dá Derga]], being named as 'Osalt' in that work.<ref>Berresford Ellis, p.89</ref>

==Victory over Cadwallon==
[[File:Uther-Pendragon,-Aethelbert- Arthur-Oswald-Paris-Epitome-Chronicles.png|thumb|Portrait of Oswald (lower right), ''Epitome of Chronicles'', [[Matthew Paris]], early 13th century]]
After Cadwallon ap Cadfan, the king of [[Kingdom of Gwynedd|Gwynedd]], in alliance with the [[Anglo-Saxon paganism|pagan]] [[Penda of Mercia]], killed Edwin of Deira in battle at [[Battle of Hatfield Chase|Hatfield Chase]] in 633 (or 632, depending on when the years used by Bede are considered to have begun), Northumbria was split into its constituent kingdoms of Bernicia and Deira. Oswald's brother [[Eanfrith of Bernicia|Eanfrith]] became king of Bernicia but was killed by Cadwallon in 634 (or 633) after attempting to negotiate peace. Subsequently Oswald, at the head of a small army<ref name="Heaven"/> (possibly with the aid of allies from the north, the Scots and/or the [[Picts]]<ref name="Ziegler">Ziegler.</ref>), met Cadwallon in battle at [[Battle of Heavenfield|Heavenfield]], near [[Hexham]]. Before the battle, tradition says Oswald had a wooden [[Christian cross|cross]] erected; he knelt down, holding the cross in position until enough earth had been thrown in the hole to make it stand firm. He then [[prayer|prayed]] and asked his army to join in.<ref>[[wikisource:Ecclesiastical History of the English People/Book 3#2|Bede, Book III, chapter 2.]]</ref>

[[Adomnán of Iona|Adomnán]] in his ''Life of Saint [[Columba]]'' offers a longer account, which Abbot [[Ségéne of Iona|Ségéne]] had heard from Oswald himself. Oswald, he says, had a vision of Columba the night before the battle, in which he was told<blockquote>Be strong and act manfully. Behold, I will be with thee.<ref>Quoting the [[Book of Joshua]], 1:9.</ref> This coming night go out from your camp into battle, for the Lord has granted me that at this time your foes shall be put to flight and Cadwallon your enemy shall be delivered into your hands and you shall return victorious after battle and reign happily.<ref name="Adomnán">Adomnán, Book I, Chapter 1.</ref></blockquote> Oswald described his vision to his council and all agreed that they would be baptised and accept Christianity after the battle.<ref name="Adomnán"/> In the battle that followed, the Welsh (Brytons) were routed despite their superior numbers; Cadwallon himself was killed.<ref name="Heaven"/>

==Overlordship==
[[File:Britain peoples circa 600.svg|thumb|250px|left|A map showing the general locations of the [[Anglo-Saxons|Anglo-Saxon peoples]] around the year 600]]

Following the victory at Heavenfield, Oswald reunited Northumbria and re-established the Bernician supremacy, which had been interrupted by Edwin. Bede says that Oswald held ''imperium'' for the eight years of his rule (both Bede and the ''[[Anglo-Saxon Chronicle]]'' say that Oswald's reign was actually considered to be nine years, the ninth year being accounted for by assigning to Oswald the year preceding his rule, "on account of the [[paganism|heathenism]] practised by those who had ruled that one year between him and Edwin"<ref>[[wikisource:Ecclesiastical History of the English People/Book 3#1|Bede, Book III, chapter 1]]; ''ASC'', manuscript E, year 634. The quote is from the ''ASC''.</ref>), and was the most powerful king in [[Great Britain|Britain]]. In the 9th-century ''Anglo-Saxon Chronicle'' he is referred to as a [[Bretwalda]]. Adomnán describes Oswald as "ordained by God as Emperor of all Britain".<ref>Adomnán, Book I, chapter I.</ref>

Oswald seems to have been widely recognized as overlord, although the extent of his authority is uncertain. Bede makes the claim that Oswald "brought under his dominion all the nations and provinces of Britain", which, as Bede notes, was divided by language among the English, Britons, Scots and Picts; however he seems to undermine his own claim when he mentions at another point in his history that it was Oswald's brother Oswiu who made tributary the Picts and Scots.<ref>For the mention of Oswald's power over Britain, see ''H. E.'', Book III, chapter 6; for the mention of Oswiu making the Scots and Picts tributary, see [[wikisource:Ecclesiastical History of the English People/Book 2#5|Book II, chapter 5]]. See Kirby, p. 70, for how this indicates Bede was defining Oswald's supremacy in excessive terms.</ref> An Irish source, the [[Annals of Tigernach]], records that the Anglo-Saxons banded together against Oswald early in his reign; this may indicate an attempt to put an end to Oswald's overlordship south of the [[Humber]], which presumably failed.<ref>Stancliffe, "Oswald", p. 60. According to Stancliffe, "Oswald would scarcely have been remembered as an effective overlord in so many Southhumbrian kingdoms if his power had been checked this early in his career." The report is given under the year 637 in the Annals of Tigernach.</ref>

The [[Mercia]]ns, who participated in Edwin's defeat in 633, seem to have presented an obstacle to Oswald's authority south of the Humber, although it has been generally thought that Oswald dominated Mercia to some degree after Heavenfield. It may have been to appease Oswald that Penda had Eadfrith, a captured son of Edwin (and thus a dynastic rival of Oswald), killed, although it is also possible that Penda had his own motives for the killing.<ref>Stancliffe, "Oswald", pp. 54 and 71&ndash;75. Stancliffe mentions Penda's possible reasons for independently having Eadfrith killed and expresses doubt that Bede would have regarded Oswald as such a saintly figure if he had known Oswald was responsible for Eadfrith's death.</ref>

Oswald apparently controlled the [[Kingdom of Lindsey]], given the evidence of a story told by Bede regarding the moving of Oswald's bones to a monastery there; Bede says that the monks rejected the bones initially because Oswald had ruled over them as a foreign king. To the north, it may have been Oswald who conquered the [[Gododdin]]. Irish annals record the siege of [[Edinburgh]], thought to have been the royal stronghold of the Gododdin, in 638, and this seems to mark the end of the kingdom; that this siege was undertaken by Oswald is suggested by the apparent control of the area by his brother Oswiu in the 650s.<ref>Stancliffe, "Oswald", p. 58.</ref>

Oswald seems to have been on good terms with the [[Wessex|West Saxons]]: he stood as sponsor to the [[baptism]] of their king, [[Cynegils of Wessex|Cynegils]], and married Cynegils' daughter.<ref>[[wikisource:Ecclesiastical History of the English People/Book 3#7|Bede, Book III, chapter 7.]]</ref> Her name is reported by only one source, [[Reginald of Durham]]'s 12th century ''Vita S. Oswaldi'', which says that it was Kyneburga.<ref>Tudor, p. 187, note 57.</ref> Although Oswald had one known son, [[Aethelwald of Deira|Æthelwald]], it is uncertain whether this was a son from his marriage to Cynegils' daughter or from an earlier relationship—since Æthelwald began ruling in Deira in 651, it has been argued that a son from this marriage would have been too young at the time to be trusted with this position, and therefore may have been older, the product of a relationship Oswald had during his exile.<ref name="Ziegler"/>

==Christianity==
Although Edwin had previously converted to [[Catholic Church|Christianity]] in 627, it was Oswald who did the most to [[Christianisation of Northumbria|spread the religion in Northumbria]]. Shortly after becoming king he asked the Irish of Dál Riata to send a bishop to facilitate the conversion of his people. The Irish at first sent an "austere" [[bishop]], who was unsuccessful in his mission, and subsequently sent [[Aidan of Lindisfarne|Aidan]], who proposed a gentler approach. Oswald gave the island of [[Lindisfarne]] to Aidan as his [[Episcopal See|episcopal see]]. Aidan achieved great success in spreading the Christian faith. Bede mentions that Oswald acted as Aidan's interpreter when the latter was preaching, since Aidan did not know English well and Oswald had learned Irish during his exile.<ref>[[wikisource:Ecclesiastical History of the English People/Book 3|Bede, Book III, chapters 3 and 5.]]</ref>

Although Oswald could be interpreted as a martyr for his death in battle, Bede puts a clear emphasis on Oswald being saintly as a king. Bede does not focus on his martyrdom as being primary to his sainthood: indeed it has been noted that Bede never uses the word 'martyr' in reference to Oswald. Bede's portrayal of Oswald stands out as unusual as a king regarded as saintly for his life while ruling, in contrast to a king who gives up the kingship in favour of religious life or who is venerated because of the manner of his death.<ref>Stancliffe, "Oswald", pp. 41&ndash;42.</ref> Bede recounts Oswald's generosity to the poor and to strangers and tells a story highlighting this characteristic: on one occasion, at Easter, Oswald was sitting at dinner with Aidan and had "a silver dish full of dainties before him", when a servant, whom Oswald "had appointed to relieve the poor", came in and told Oswald that a crowd of the poor were in the streets begging [[alms]] from the king. According to Bede Oswald immediately had his food given to the poor and even had the dish broken up and distributed. Aidan was greatly impressed and seized Oswald's right hand, stating: "May this hand never perish." Accordingly, Bede reports that the hand and arm remained [[Incorruptibility|uncorrupted]] after Oswald's death.<ref>[[wikisource:Ecclesiastical History of the English People/Book 3#6|Bede, Book III, chapter 6.]]</ref>

==Downfall==
[[File:Stoswaldaskingnyplspencer1f89r.jpg|thumb|150px|left|Oswald crowned as a king from a 13th-century manuscript]]
It was a conflict with the pagan Mercians under Penda that proved to be Oswald's undoing. He was killed in 642,<ref name="Poole"/> by the Mercians at the [[Battle of Maserfield]], in [[Oswestry]] (although other candidates for the location of the battle have been suggested)<ref name="Where">Stancliffe, "Where Was Oswald Killed?"</ref> and his body was dismembered. Bede mentions the story that Oswald "ended his life in prayer": he prayed for the souls of his soldiers when he saw that he was about to die. Oswald's head and limbs were placed on stakes.<ref name="Death">For Bede's mention of Oswald's dying prayer (which he cautiously reports as hearsay) and Oswald's dismemberment, the placing of his body-parts on stakes, and Oswiu's later recovery of those boody-parts and burial of them at [[Bardney Abbey|Bardney]], [[Lindisfarne]] and [[Bamburgh]], see ''H. E.'', Book III, chapter 12.</ref>

The traditional identification of the battle site with Oswestry, probably in the territory of [[Kingdom of Powys|Powys]] at the time, suggests that Penda may have had British allies in this battle, and this is also suggested by surviving Welsh poetry which has been thought to indicate the participation of the men of Powys in the battle. It has also been considered that, if the traditional identification of the site as Oswestry is correct, Oswald was on the offensive, in the territory of his enemies. This could conflict with Bede's saintly portrayal of Oswald, since an aggressive war could hardly qualify as a [[just war]], perhaps explaining why Bede is silent on the cause of the war, he says only that Oswald died "fighting for his fatherland", as well as his failure to mention other offensive warfare Oswald is presumed to have engaged in between Heavenfield and Maserfield.<ref>Stancliffe, "Where Was Oswald Killed?", argues in favour of the traditional identification of the site with Oswestry. For Stancliffe's argument regarding Bede's portrayal of Oswald as fighting only just wars, Bede's attempt to portray Maserfield as being part of a just war (being fought ''pro patria''), and his omission of previous aggressive warfare Oswald is thought to have engaged in, see p. 93.</ref> Oswald may have had an ally in Penda's brother [[Eowa of Mercia|Eowa]], who was also killed in the battle, according to the ''Historia Britonnum'' and ''[[Annales Cambriae]]''; while the source only mentions that Eowa was killed, not the side on which he fought, it has been speculated that Eowa was subject to Oswald and fighting alongside him in the battle, in opposition to Penda.<ref>Brooks.</ref>

==Veneration and legacy==
{{Infobox saint
|name=Saint Oswald<br />of Northumbria
|titles=Martyr|birth_date=c. 604
|death_date=5 August 641/642
|feast_day=5 August
|venerated_in=[[Catholic Church|The Roman Catholic Church]], [[Anglican Communion|The Anglican Communion]], [[Eastern Orthodox Church|Eastern Orthodoxy]]
|birth_place=[[Deira]], [[Northumbria]]
|canonized_date= [[Pre-Congregation]]
| patronage =
|attributes= king in crown, carrying sceptre and orb, ciborium, sword, palm-branch, and/or with his raven
|major_shrine=[[Bardney Abbey]], [[Lincolnshire]], [[England]]; [[relic]]s later translated to [[St Oswald's Priory, Gloucester]], [[England]]
|suppressed_date=
|issues=
}}

[[File:Kopfreliquiar St. Oswald.jpg|thumb|upright|St Oswald relic receptacle, [[Hildesheim]], 12th century]]
Oswald soon came to be regarded as a saint. Bede says that the spot where he died came to be associated with [[miracle]]s, and people took dirt from the site, which led to a hole being dug as deep as a man's height.<ref name="Bede nine"/> Reginald of Durham recounts another miracle, saying that his right arm was taken by a bird (perhaps a [[common raven|raven]]) to an ash tree, which gave the tree ageless vigour; when the bird dropped the arm onto the ground, a spring emerged from the ground. Both the tree and the spring were, according to Reginald, subsequently associated with healing miracles.<ref>Tudor, p. 190.</ref><ref name="Rollason">Rollason, p. 170.</ref> Aspects of the legend have been considered to have pagan overtones or influences<ref name="Rollason"/>—this may represent a fusion of his status as a traditional Germanic warrior-king with Christianity. The name of the site, Oswestry, or "Oswald's Tree", is generally thought to be derived from Oswald's death there and the legends surrounding it.<ref name="Where"/> His [[Calendar of saints|feast day]] is 5 August. The cult surrounding him even gained prominence in parts of continental Europe; cf. [[Ožbalt]] in Slovenia.

Bede mentions that Oswald's brother [[Oswiu of Northumbria|Oswiu]], who succeeded Oswald in Bernicia, retrieved Oswald's remains in the year after his death.<ref name="Death"/> In writing of one miracle associated with Oswald, Bede gives some indication of how Oswald was regarded in conquered lands: years later, when his niece [[Osthryth]] moved his bones to [[Bardney Abbey]] in [[Kingdom of Lindsey|Lindsey]], its inmates initially refused to accept them, "though they knew him to be a holy man", because "he was originally of another province, and had reigned over them as a foreign king", and thus "they retained their ancient aversion to him, even after death". It was only after Oswald's bones were the focus of was said to be a miracle, in which, during the night, a pillar of light appeared over the wagon in which the bones were being carried and shone up into the sky, that they were accepted into the monastery: "in the morning, the brethren who had refused it the day before, began themselves earnestly to pray that those holy relics, so beloved by God, might be deposited among them".<ref>[[wikisource:Ecclesiastical History of the English People/Book 3#11|Bede, Book III, chapter 11.]]</ref>

In the early 10th century, Bardney was in Viking territory, and in 909, following a combined West Saxon and Mercian raid led by [[Æthelflæd]],<ref>{{cite episode |first=Michael |last=Wood |author-link=Michael Wood (historian) |title=Lady of the Mercians |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/b038dbd5 |date=13 August 2013 |series=King Alfred and the Anglo Saxons |series-link=King Alfred and the Anglo Saxons |network=BBC |language=English}}</ref> daughter of [[Alfred the Great]], St Oswald's relics were translated to a new minster in [[Gloucester]], which was renamed [[St Oswald's Priory, Gloucester|St Oswald's Priory]] in his honour.<ref>Heighway, p. 108.</ref> Æthelflæd, and her husband [[Æthelred, ealdorman of Mercia]], were buried in the priory, and their nephew, King [[Æthelstan]], was a major patron of Oswald's cult.<ref>Karkov, pp. 77–79</ref>

[[File:Kleinkirchheim Pfarrkirche Sankt Oswald.jpg|thumb|Saint Oswald's church, [[Bad Kleinkirchheim]], [[Carinthia (state)|Carinthia]], one of many churches and place names which commemorate Oswald]]
Oswald's head was interred in [[Durham Cathedral]] together with the remains of [[Cuthbert of Lindisfarne]] (a saint with whom Oswald became posthumously associated, although the two were not associated in life; Cuthbert became bishop of Lindisfarne more than forty years after Oswald's death) and other valuables in a quickly made coffin, where it is generally believed to remain, although there are at least four other claimed heads of Oswald in continental Europe.<ref>Bailey.</ref> One of his arms is said to have ended up in [[Peterborough Cathedral|Peterborough Abbey]] later in the Middle Ages. The story is that a small group of monks from Peterborough made their way to Bamburgh where Oswald's uncorrupted arm was kept and stole it under the cover of darkness. They returned with it to Peterborough and in due time a chapel was created for the arm, Oswald's Chapel. Minus the arm, this can be seen to this day in the south transept of the cathedral. When creating this chapel the monks of Peterborough had thought of how they had acquired it and built into the chapel a narrow tower—just big enough for a monk to climb to the top by an internal stair and stand guard over Oswald's arm 24 hours a day, every day of the year. The monk had to stand because the tower is not large enough for him to sit, sitting could lull him to sleep, and they knew what could happen when no-one was watching.{{citation needed|date=January 2021}}

Several churches bear the name of St Oswald, including [[St Oswald's Church (Heavenfield)|The Church of Saint Oswald]] on the location of the wooden cross left by Oswald at Heavenfield, the night before the battle. This was rebuilt in 1717. The site is visible from the [[B6318 Military Road]]. [[St Oswald's Church, Grasmere|St Oswald's Grasmere]] is purportedly on one of the sites he preached on, on a bank of the [[River Rothay]]. William Wordsworth's grave is located in the cemetery here. St Oswald's Church, Compton Abdale in Gloucestershire was dedicated to St Oswald following Æthelflæd's foundation of St Oswald's Priory in 909. St Oswald's Catholic Church lies to the north of Peterborough City Centre.

Some English place names record his reign, for example it has been claimed that [[Oswaldtwistle]] in [[Lancashire]], meaning the [[wiktionary:twistle|twistle]] of Oswald, is linked to the saint, although it's more likely to be the name of the owner of the land. [[Kirkoswald, Cumbria|Kirkoswald]] in Cumbria is so named because it is believed that his body was taken there after his death. The local church is ascribed to him. Another [[Kirkoswald, South Ayrshire|Kirkoswald]] in Scotland also commemorates him.<ref>{{cite web|title=Kirkoswald|publisher=Gazetteer for Scotland|url=http://www.scottish-places.info/towns/townhistory481.html}}</ref>

Oswald is [[Calendar of saints (Church of England)|remembered]] in the [[Church of England]] with a [[Lesser Festival (Anglicanism)|Lesser Festival]] on 5 August.<ref>{{Cite web|title=The Calendar|url=https://www.churchofengland.org/prayer-and-worship/worship-texts-and-resources/common-worship/churchs-year/calendar|access-date=27 March 2021|website=The Church of England|language=en}}</ref>

Oswald is believed to have earned the nickname ''Lamnguin'' (White Blade),<ref>{{Cite web|title=Oswald of Northumbria - History UK|url=https://www.historic-uk.com/HistoryUK/HistoryofEngland/Oswald-Of-Northumberland}}</ref> latinised as ''Lamnguinus'', which has led scholars to posit that he is the legendary king Languines appearing in the [[chivalric romance]] ''[[Amadís de Gaula]]'', where he is mentioned as Languines of [[Scotland in the Middle Ages|Scotland]] (conflated with Northumbria in the Iberian [[Romance (prose fiction)|romance]]), where he appears as a heroic king and a father-like figure for the young protagonist.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Suárez Pallasá |first=Aquilino |date=1998 |title=Sobre un lugar del vallum antonini en el Amadís de Gaula. El MS. CCC 139 de la historia britonum como fuente del Amadís de Gaula primitivo |url=https://repositorio.uca.edu.ar/bitstream/123456789/11932/1/sobre-lugar-vallum.pdf |journal=Stylos |issue=7 |pages=9–62 |issn=0327-8859 |eissn=2683-7900 |via=Dialnet}}</ref>

==Notes==
{{Reflist}}

==References==
* Adomnán, ''Life of Saint Columba'' translated and edited Richard Sharpe. {{ISBN|0-14-044462-9}}
* {{cite book|author=Bede|author-link=Bede|title=[[Historia ecclesiastica gentis Anglorum]] |year=731}}  <small>(as {{cite book|author=[[Leo Sherley-Price]] (trans.)|title=The Ecclesiastical History of the English People|publisher=Penguin|series=Penguin Classics|year=2008|isbn=978-0-14-044565-7|editor1-first=D. H.|editor1-last=Farmer|editor2-first=Ronald E.|editor2-last= Latham}})</small>
* Bailey, Richard N., "St Oswald's Heads", in C. Stancliffe and E. Cambridge (eds), ''Oswald: Northumbrian King to European Saint'' (1995, 1996). {{ISBN|1-871615-51-8}}
* Berresford Ellis, Peter ''Celt and Saxon'' BCA London 1993
* [[Nicholas Brooks (historian)|Brooks, Nicholas]], "The formation of the Mercian kingdom", in S. Bassett (ed.), ''The Origins of Anglo-Saxon Kingdoms'' (1989).
*{{cite ODNB |first=D. J.|last =Craig | title=Oswald [St Oswald] | year = 2004|doi=10.1093/ref:odnb/20916  }}
*{{cite book|first=Carolyn|last=Heighway |author-link=Carolyn M. Heighway |chapter=Gloucester and the new minster of St Oswald|editor1-first=N. J.|editor1-last= Higham |editor2-first=D. H.|editor2-last= Hill|title=Edward the Elder 899–924|publisher=Routledge|year=2001}}
*{{cite book| last =Karkov|first =Catherine E.|title=The Ruler Portraits of Anglo-Saxon England|publisher=The Boydell Press|year =2004|isbn=1-84383-059-0}}
* [[David Peter Kirby|Kirby, D.P.]], ''The Earliest English Kings'' (1991, 2000). {{ISBN|0-04-445692-1}}
*Rollason, David, "St Oswald in Post-Conquest England", in C. Stancliffe and E. Cambridge (eds), ''Oswald: Northumbrian King to European Saint'' (1995, 1996).
* Stancliffe, Clare, "Oswald, 'Most Holy and Most Victorious King of the Northumbrians'", in C. Stancliffe and E. Cambridge (eds), ''Oswald: Northumbrian King to European Saint'' (1995, 1996).
* Stancliffe, Clare, "Where Was Oswald Killed?", in C. Stancliffe and E. Cambridge (eds), ''Oswald: Northumbrian King to European Saint'' (1995). {{ISBN|1-871615-51-8}}
* Tudor, Victoria, "Reginald's ''Life of St Oswald''", in C. Stancliffe and E. Cambridge (eds), ''Oswald: Northumbrian King to European Saint'' (1995, 1996). {{ISBN|1-871615-51-8}}
* Ziegler, Michelle, "[https://web.archive.org/web/20110110054848/http://www.mun.ca/mst/heroicage/issues/2/ha2pen.htm The Politics of Exile in Early Northumbria]", ''The Heroic Age'', Issue 2, Autumn/Winter 1999.

==Further reading==
* Adams, Max (2013), ''The King in the North: The Life and Times of Oswald of Northumbria''. {{ISBN|1781854181}}
*{{cite book|chapter = [[s:Ælfric's Lives of Saints/Of Saint Oswold|Of Saint Oswold]]|title = Ælfric's Lives of Saints|year = 1881| publisher = London, Pub. for the Early English text society, by N. Trübner & co.|author=[[Ælfric of Eynsham]]}}
*{{Cite Catholic Encyclopedia |wstitle=St. Oswald (2) |volume=11 |first=Stanislaus Anselm  |last=Parker}}
* Pelteret, David A.E. "Oswald: d. 642," ''Reader's Guide to British History'' (London: Routledge, 2003) online in Credo Reference. Historiography
* [https://www.illuminationsfantastic.com/heavensfield-an-epic-in-anglo-saxon-verse-by-samuel-j-stephens-poem-old-english-poetry-oswald-english-king-of-northumbria-saint-warrior-heavenfield-maserfield-penda-of-mercia-cadwallon-of-gwynedd-2021-illuminations-of-the-fantastic-magazine Stephens, Samuel J. "Heavensfield." Illuminations of the Fantastic Online Magazine. Poetry.]

==External links==
{{Commons category|Oswald of Northumbria}}
* {{PASE|10275|Oswald 1}}
*{{cite web | url = http://www.bartleby.com/210/8/052.html  | title = St. Oswald, King and Martyr | work = Butler's Lives of the Saints| date = 12 January 2023 }}

{{s-start}}
{{s-hou|||c. 604||642|}}
{{s-reg|}}
{{s-bef | before=[[Eanfrith of Bernicia|Eanfrith]]}}
{{s-ttl | title=[[List of monarchs of Northumbria#Kings of Bernicia|King of Bernicia]]|years=634–642}}
{{s-aft | rows=3 | after=[[Oswiu of Northumbria|Oswiu]]}}
{{s-break}}
{{s-bef | before=[[Osric of Deira|Osric]]}}
{{s-ttl | title=[[List of monarchs of Northumbria#Kings of Deira|King of Deira]]|years=633–642}}
{{s-end}}

{{Anglo-Saxon saints}}
{{Bretwalda}}
{{Kings of Northumbria}}
{{Deira Monarchs}}
{{Bernicia Monarchs}}
{{Portal bar|Saints}}

{{good article}}

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Oswald Of Northumbria}}
[[Category:604 births]]
[[Category:640s deaths]]
[[Category:7th-century Christian martyrs]]
[[Category:7th-century English monarchs]]
[[Category:Anglo-Saxons killed in battle]]
[[Category:Converts to Christianity from Anglo-Saxon paganism]]
[[Category:English Christian royal saints]]
[[Category:Monarchs killed in action]]
[[Category:Northumbrian folklore]]
[[Category:Anglo-Saxon warriors]]
[[Category:Northumbrian monarchs]]
[[Category:Northumbrian saints]]
[[Category:Burials at St Oswald's Priory, Gloucester]]
[[Category:Royal House of Northumbria]]
[[Category:Idings]]