View source for Ottoman Cyprus

{{Short description|Ottoman province (1571–1878)}}
{{Infobox Former Subdivision
| native_name            = Eyalet-i Ḳıbrıṣ<br />1571–1670<br />1745–1748<br />Sancağı Ḳıbrıṣ<br /> 1670–1703<br />1784–1878
| common_name            = Cyprus
| subdivision            = [[Eyalet]]/[[Sanjak]]
| nation                 = the [[Ottoman Empire]]
| year_start             = 1571
| year_end               = 1878
| life_span              = 
| date_start             = 
| date_end               = 
| event_start            = 
| event_end              = 
| p1                     = Venetian Cyprus
| flag_p1                = Coat of arms of Venetian Cyprus.svg
| s1                     = British Cyprus
| flag_s1                = Flag of Cyprus (1881–1922).svg
| image_flag             = Flag of the Ottoman Empire.svg
| flag                   = 
| flag_type              = Flag (after 1844)
| image_coat             = Coat of arms of the Eyalet of Cyprus.svg
| symbol                 = Coat of arms of Cyprus#Previous coats of arms
| symbol_type            = 
| image_map              = Cyprus Eyalet, Ottoman Empire (1609).png
| image_map_caption      = Ottoman Cyprus in 1609 in red. The rest of the Ottoman Empire in light-yellow
| capital                = [[Nicosia]]
| today                  = {{Flag|Cyprus}}<br />''{{Flag|Northern Cyprus}}''<br />{{Flag|Akrotiri and Dhekelia}}
| stat_year1             = 
| stat_area1             = 
| stat_pop1              = 
| stat_year2             = 
| stat_area2             = 
| stat_pop2              = 
| footnotes              = 
| demonym                = 
}}
{{History of Cyprus}}
The '''Eyalet of Cyprus''' ({{langx|ota|ایالت قبرص}}, ''Eyālet-i Ḳıbrıṣ'')<ref name=someprov>{{cite web|title=Some Provinces of the Ottoman Empire|url=http://www.geonames.de/coutr-ota-provinces.html|publisher=Geonames.de|access-date=25 February 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303234605/http://www.geonames.de/coutr-ota-provinces.html|archive-date=3 March 2016|url-status=dead}}</ref> was an [[eyalet]]/province of the [[Ottoman Empire]] made up of the island of [[Cyprus]], which was annexed into the Empire in 1571.<ref>[http://lcweb2.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?frd/cstdy:@field(DOCID+cy0017) Library of the US Congress]</ref> The Ottomans changed the way they administered Cyprus multiple times. It was a [[sanjak]]/sub-province ({{lang|ota|سانجاغى قبرص}}, ''Sancağı Ḳıbrıṣ'') of the [[Eyalet of the Archipelago]] from 1670 to 1703, and again from 1784 to 1878; a fief of the [[Grand Vizier of the Ottoman Empire|Grand Vizier]] (1703–1745 and 1748–1784); and again an eyalet for the short period from 1745 to 1748.<ref name="hist-geo">{{Google books|8gs4AAAAIAAJ|page=137|An Historical Geography of the Ottoman Empire}}</ref>

==Ottoman raids and conquest==
{{Further|Ottoman–Venetian War (1570–1573)}}
During [[Republic of Venice|Venetian]] rule, the Ottomans at times raided Cyprus. In 1489, the first year of Venetian control, Ottomans attacked the [[Karpass Peninsula]], pillaging and taking captives to be [[slavery in the Ottoman Empire|sold into slavery]].<ref name="Library of Congress">[http://lcweb2.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?frd/cstdy:@field(DOCID+cy0017) Library of Congress]</ref> In 1539 the Ottoman fleet attacked and destroyed [[Limassol]].<ref name="Library of Congress"/> Fearing the ever-expanding [[Ottoman Empire]], the Venetians had fortified [[Famagusta]], [[Nicosia]], and [[Kyrenia]], but most other cities were easy prey.

In the summer of 1570, the Ottomans struck again, but this time with a full-scale invasion rather than a raid. About 60,000 troops, including cavalry and artillery, under the command of [[Lala Mustafa Pasha]] landed unopposed near [[Limassol]] on July 2, 1570, and laid siege to [[Nicosia]]. The city fell on September 9, 1570; 20,000 Nicosians were massacred and every [[Church (building)|church]], public building, and palace was looted. Only women and boys who were captured to be sold as [[Slavery in the Ottoman Empire|slaves]] were spared.<ref>Turnbull, Stephen (2003). ''The Ottoman Empire 1326–1699 (Essential Histories Series #62)''. Osprey Publishing. p. 58</ref><ref>Hopkins, T. C. F. (2007). ''Confrontation at Lepanto: Christendom Vs. Islam''. Macmillan p.82</ref>

Word of the [[massacre]] spread, and a few days later Mustafa took Kyrenia without having to fire a shot. The citizens of Famagusta, on the other hand, led by Venetian commander [[Marco Antonio Bragadin]], put up a heroic resistance which led to the [[Siege of Famagusta|siege]] of the city for about a year, from September 1570 until August 1571. When the Ottomans eventually breached the fortifications, a massacre of most remaining Christians in the city followed, despite the Ottoman commander previously agreeing that in return for the city's surrender, Christians would be guaranteed safe passage to Crete. [[Marco Antonio Bragadin|Bragadin]] had his ears and nose cut off and, after being thrown in prison for two weeks, he was dragged round the walls with sacks of earth and stone on his back, then tied naked to a column in the main square and [[flaying|skinned alive]].<ref>Foglietta, U. (1903) The Sieges of Nicosia and Famagusta. London: Waterlow.</ref><ref>Alvise Zorzi (1988) La République du Lion, Histoire de Venise.</ref><ref>Monello, G. (2006) Accadde a Famagosta, l'assedio turco ad una fortezza veneziana ed il suo sconvolgente finale", Cagliari, Scepsi e Mattana.</ref><ref>Madden, Thomas F (2012) Venice : A New History (Hardback). New York: Viking. ISBN 978-0-670-02542-8</ref> 

The fall of Famagusta marked the end of the Venetian rule and the beginning of the Ottoman period in Cyprus, with Lala Mustafa Pasha becoming the island’s first Turkish Governor.

On 25 May 1571, [[Pope Pius V]] formed the [[Holy League (1571)|Holy League]], a coalition between the [[Papal States]], [[History of Malta under the Order of Saint John|Malta]], [[Habsburg Spain]], the [[Republic of Venice]], the [[Republic of Genoa]], and some other Italian states. Four months later, on 7 October, the naval forces of the League, composed mainly of Venetian, Spanish, and Papal ships under the command of [[Don John of Austria]], defeated the Turkish fleet at the [[Battle of Lepanto (1571)|Battle of Lepanto]] in one of the decisive battles in general — and naval battles in particular — of world history. The victory over the Ottomans, however, came too late to help Cyprus, and the island remained under Ottoman rule for the next three centuries.

In 1573 the Venetians left Cyprus, removing the influence of the [[Roman Catholic Church]].

== Administrative history ==
[[File:(1878) MAP OF CYPRUS.jpg|thumb|Administrative map of Cyprus drawn by the British in 1878, showing the Ottoman administrative division of the island at the time of the handover]]
[[File:Ammoxostos.jpg|thumb|[[Chalcography]] depicting Famagusta in 1703]]
As soon as Nicosia was conquered, Cyprus was declared an [[eyalet]] under the administration of a [[beylerbey]], and [[Lala Mustafa Pasha]], the former beylerbey of [[Sanjak of Avlona|Avlonya]], was appointed to the post. Cyprus was divided into three [[sanjak]]s: Famagusta, Kyrenia and Paphos. Additionally, the sanjaks of [[Alanya|Alâiye]], [[Tarsus, Mersin|Tarsus]], [[Mersin|İçel]], [[Kozan, Adana|Sis]], [[Kadirli|Zülkadriye]] and [[Tripoli, Lebanon|Tripoli]] (Trablusşam) on the mainland were placed under the administration of the Cyprus eyalet. Cyprus was also divided into several ''[[kaza]]''s: [[Larnaca|Tuzla]], [[Limassol]], [[Episkopi, Limassol|Episkopi]], [[Kythrea]], [[Paphos]], [[Kouklia|Kukla]], [[Lefka]], [[Morphou]], [[Polis Chrysochous|Hirsofu]], [[Famagusta]], [[Kyrenia]] and [[Mesaoria|Mesariye]].

These ''kaza''s each had their own ''[[kadı]]'' or ''[[naib]]''.<ref name=islamans>{{cite encyclopedia |url=http://www.islamansiklopedisi.info/| title=Kıbrıs (Osmanlı Dönemi) |encyclopedia=[[İslam Ansiklopedisi]] |publisher=Türk Diyanet Vakfı |pages=374–380 |year=2002 | volume=25}}</ref> The sanjak of Tripoli, however, was removed from the jurisdiction of Cyprus in 1573 due to its distance and given to the [[Damascus Eyalet]]. The sanjaks of İçel, Alâiye and Tarsus were also removed in 1610 and given to the newly created [[Adana Eyalet]].<ref>{{Citation |last=Gökdemir |first=Rahim |year=2012 |title=MALİYEDEN MÜDEVVER (MAD.d) 03618 NUMARALI KIBRIS CİZYE DEFTERİ (TRANSKRİPSİYON VE DEĞERLENDİRME)|url=http://adudspace.adu.edu.tr:8080/jspui/bitstream/11607/1072/3/Rah%C4%B1m_GOKDEMIR_tez.pdf.pdf|access-date=26 April 2016|publisher=[[Adnan Menderes University]]|language=tr}}</ref>

However, after the [[Cretan War (1645–1669)|Ottoman conquest of Crete]], the Cypriot Orthodox Church argued that Cyprus had lost importance, that trade volume had decreased and that people were emigrating. It thus requested a change in the administrative status as Cyprus could not afford remaining an eyalet. Thus, in 1670, Cyprus became a sanjak under the [[Eyalet of the Archipelago]], under the direct control of the [[Kapudan Pasha]], the head of the Ottoman Navy. This control was exercised through an appointed ''[[mütesellim]]''.<ref name=islamans/> However, under this system, local [[Agha (Ottoman Empire)|agha]]s were the tax collectors. This magnified their power and resulted in discontent, with the rivalry between them causing a two-year long revolt in the 1680s, led by [[Boyacıoğlu rebellion|Boyacıoğlu Mehmed Agha]].<ref>Gazioğlu, p. 97.</ref> This proved that the existing system caused a power vacuum and was ineffective, so in 1703 Cyprus was placed directly under the control of the [[Grand Vizier]], administered on his behalf by a ''[[muhassıl]]''. To reduce the powers of the aghas, the ''muhassıl'' was given the power to collect taxes, as well as increased political and military authority. Between 1745 and 1748, Cyprus briefly became an eyalet again. These three years, especially the reign of governor [[Ebubekir Pasha]] (1746–48), were a period of development and relative prosperity. After the end of Ebubekir Pasha's tenure, Cyprus reverted to its former status.<ref name=islamans/>

Greek Cypriots had two very important administrative positions: the Archbishop, who headed the Orthodox Church, was recognized as the sole representative of the Greek Cypriot population from the 1670s onwards, and the [[Dragoman]], chosen from the candidates determined by the Archbishop.<ref name=islamans/>

The ''muhassıl'' administration slowly became more and more dysfunctional. In 1764, ''muhassıl'' [[Çil Osman Agha]] was killed amidst a chaotic environment caused by his rule. Meanwhile, the ongoing war with Russia meant a deterioration in the people's welfare. Thus, on the request of the Archbishop and the Dragoman, Cyprus was placed directly under the administration of the [[Imperial Council (Ottoman Empire)|Imperial Council]] in 1785, with the ''muhassıl'' being directly appointed. These new ''muhassıl''s lacked some of their old powers, which greatly increased the influence of the Orthodox clergy as they became tax collectors.<ref name=islamans/><ref name=gaz98>Gazioğlu, p. 98.</ref> In 1839, with the reforms of [[Abdülmecid I]], the island once again became a sanjak of the Eyalet of the Archipelago but gained significant autonomy. The island was governed by a ''[[mutasarrıf]]'', the ''kaza''s were consolidated into six larger ''kaza''s with their own administrative and judicial councils. A sanjak administrative council, in which [[Turkish people|Turks]], [[Greeks]] and other minorities were proportionally represented, was established.<ref name=islamans/>

In 1861, Cyprus became an independent [[mutasarrifate]] under the direct control of the [[Sublime Porte]]. However, this changed again in 1868, when Cyprus became a sanjak under the [[Vilayet of the Archipelago]] under the newly established [[vilayet]] system. This would not last long, as the vilayet was administered from [[Çanakkale]], and the long distance made the administration impractical. With the efforts of Archbishop [[Sophronios III]] of Cyprus, as well as given the drought and ravages of locusts, Cyprus was made an independent mutasarrifate once again in 1870. This arrangement lasted until 1878, when the British took over the island.<ref name=islamans/><ref name="Hill2010p378">{{cite book|author=George Hill|title=A History of Cyprus|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=h9e2PEGP3yUC&pg=PA378|access-date=2013-05-28|date=2010-09-23|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-1-108-02065-7|page=378}}</ref><ref>Gazioğlu, p. 99.</ref>

==Social history==
[[File:Cyprus 19th cent costumes.png|thumb|Traditional clothing of (from right to left) a Christian resident of Ammochostos (Famagusta, Cyprus), a Christian woman of Magossa, and a Greek monk of the Monastery of Tchiko ([[Kykkos]]), near Lefka, 1873]]

The Ottoman occupation brought about two radical changes to the history of the island: A new ethnic element appeared on the island, the [[Turkish Cypriots|Turks]], while Cypriots now had a new ruler, the Ottomans.

The [[Ottoman Empire]] gave ''timars''—land grants—to soldiers under the condition that they and their families would stay there permanently. An action of far-reaching importance because the predefined soldiers became the nucleus of the island's Turkish community.  During the 17th century the Turkish population grew rapidly, partly by Greek conversion (including [[Linobambaki|converts who retained some pre-Islamic practices]]) joined to them. Most of the Turks who had settled on the island during the three centuries of Ottoman rule remained when control of Cyprus—although not sovereignty{{clarify|date=March 2019}}—was ceded to Britain in 1878. The distinction between the two groups was by both [[religion]] and [[language]].

The Ottomans applied the [[millet system]] to Cyprus, which allowed religious authorities to govern their own non-Muslim minorities. This system reinforced the position of the [[Orthodox Church of Cyprus|Orthodox Church]] as the [[Rum Millet|ethno-religious institution]] of the ethnic Greek population. Gradually, the [[List of Archbishops of Cyprus|Archbishop of Cyprus]] became not only religious but ethnic leader as well, something the Ottoman Turks promoted, wanting to have somebody responsible for the loyalty of the Greek flock. In this way, the Church undertook the task of the guardian of the Greek cultural legacy until the island was ceded to Britain.

[[File:Larnaca 01-2017 img30 Salt Lake.jpg|thumb|left|The [[Hala Sultan Tekke]], built in 1817, was one of many landmarks constructed by the Ottoman Turks in Cyprus.]]
[[File:Cyprus - Limassol castle 10.JPG|thumb|The Limassol Medieval Castle was rebuilt in 1590 by the Ottomans.]]

==Greek independence movement==
{{National Awakening in the Balkans}}

===1821–1829===
Many Greek Cypriots supported the [[Greek War of Independence|Greek independence]] effort that began in 1821, leading to severe reprisals by the [[Ottoman Empire]]. On 15 October 1821, a massive [[Turkish people|Turkish]] mob seized and hanged an archbishop, five bishops, thirty six ecclesiastics, and hanged most of the Greek Cypriots in [[Larnaca]] and the other towns. In April 1822, Egyptian soldiers were sent to Cyprus to replace Ottomans and by September 1822, sixty-two Cypriot villages and hamlets had entirely disappeared.<ref>Claude Delaval Cobham, ''[http://www.cyprusexplorer.globalfolio.net/eng/history/cobham-exerpta-cypria/ Exerpta Cypria] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150518081848/http://www.cyprusexplorer.globalfolio.net/eng/history/cobham-exerpta-cypria/ |date=2015-05-18 }}'', Cambridge University Press (1908) p. 454-455</ref><ref>Sir Harry Luke [https://archive.org/stream/cyprusunderturk00unkngoog Cyprus under the Turks, 1571–1878 ] C. Hurst & Co Publishers Ltd (September 30, 1989) {{ISBN|1-85065-072-1}}</ref>

===1869–1878===
In 1869 the [[Suez Canal]] opened, and the [[United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland|United Kingdom]] showed increasing interest in the island, which is situated in what had suddenly become a very convenient location. When the Ottomans were defeated by the Russians in 1877 and the [[Berlin Congress]] took place the next year in order to revise the [[Treaty of San Stefano]] which was signed by [[Russian Empire|Russia]] and the Ottoman Empire according to terms dictated by the former, it was officially announced on 9 July 1878 that on the 4th of preceding June, the British and the Sultan had secretly countersigned the Convention of Constantinople by virtue of which the possession and administration of Cyprus was vested in Great Britain. As exchange for control of Cyprus, the UK agreed to support the [[Ottoman Empire]] in the [[Russo-Turkish War (1877–1878)|Russian-Turkish War]]. This agreement was formalised as the [[Cyprus Convention]].

== Architecture and public works ==

=== Architecture ===
[[File:Nicosia Buyuk Han 02.jpg|thumb|right|Büyük Han]]
During the Ottoman era, numerous mosques, [[masjid]]s, churches, public baths, bazaars, [[caravanserai]]s, [[medrese]]s, schools and libraries were built in Cyprus.<ref>Bağışkan, p. 6.</ref> Ottoman architecture in Cyprus is closely linked to mainstream [[Ottoman architecture]], however, there are some features that make it distinctly Cypriot. This stems from the fact that, whilst leaving Greek Orthodox churches intact, many buildings used by the Catholics, built in [[Gothic architecture]], were converted into mosques or palaces, such as the [[Lala Mustafa Pasha Mosque]] in Famagusta and [[Selimiye Mosque, Nicosia|Selimiye Mosque]] in Nicosia. These buildings were later modified for use and thus synthesised with distinctly Ottoman elements. Gothic architecture also influenced Ottoman architecture in the island as Gothic elements were used by the Ottomans, such as in the minaret of [[Cami Kebir]] in Larnaca.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Petersen|first1=Andrew|title=Dictionary of Islamic Architecture|date=2002|publisher=Routledge|page=58|isbn=9781134613656|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9A-EAgAAQBAJ&pg=58}}</ref>

The two surviving caravanserais are the monumental [[Büyük Han]] and [[Kumarcilar Han]] in Nicosia, considered to be some of the finest examples of Ottoman architecture in the island. The best known of the many libraries is the [[Library of Mahmud II]].<ref>Bağışkan, p. 12.</ref> Bazaars were very important parts of Ottoman commercial lives and in 1872, 23 bazaars were present in Nicosia alone, each with its own specialty.<ref name=b13>Bağışkan, p. 13.</ref> In 1883, [[waqf]] reports published by the British authorities in Cyprus listed 81 mosques that belonged to the [[Evkaf Administration]] in Cyprus. This figure is believed to be a major underestimation by archaeologist Tuncer Bağışkan.<ref>Bağışkan, p. 7.</ref> Two of the most prominent Muslim religious sites built in the Ottoman period are [[Hala Sultan Tekke]] in Larnaca and [[Arab Ahmet Mosque]] in Nicosia.

=== Infrastructure ===
[[File:Larnaca 01-2017 img24 Kamares Aqueduct.jpg|thumb|right|Bekir Pasha Aqueduct]]
The Ottoman administration brought a significant improvement to Cyprus in terms of water supply. The most notable example of this is the [[Bekir Pasha Aqueduct]], built under the auspices of [[Ebubekir Pasha]] between 1746 and 1748. This aqueduct supplied fresh water to [[Larnaca]] and prior to its construction, local residents had to carry water on their backs for two hours.<ref>Gazioğlu, p. 138-9</ref> [[Nicosia aqueduct|Silihtar aqueduct]], built between 1801 and 1803, and the [[Arab Ahmet, Nicosia|Arab Ahmet]] aqueduct supplied water to Nicosia.<ref>Keshishian, Kevork K. (1978). ''Nicosia: Capital of Cyprus Then and Now''. The Mouflon Book and Art Centre. p. 94-98</ref>

The authorities also encouraged the construction and improvement of artificial channels for water supply and irrigation, which greatly increased crop yield and allowed large-scale fruit production. Among villages described as prosperous due to artificial irrigation upon the British takeover of the island are [[Morphou]], [[Lapithos]], [[Polis, Cyprus|Polis]], [[Lefka]], [[Avdimou]] and [[Kolossi]]. [[Samuel Baker]], who visited Cyprus in 1879, noted "mills turned by water" and "narrow lanes streaming with water" in Lefka. He also wrote that "every garden and farm was irrigated by water conducted from the mountains in artificial channels" in the northern slopes of the [[Kyrenia Mountains]] extending to the [[Karpas Peninsula]]. In [[Karavas]], streams were diverted into artificial channels to supply water to the village.<ref>Gazioğlu, p. 143-7</ref>

In the 19th century, a major effort was undertaken by a series of Ottoman governors to straighten and regulate the course of the [[Pedieos]]. Edhem Pasha, who served as governor in the 1840s, completed the construction of the Larnaca-Nicosia road and several bridges. Governor Mehmet Halet in the 1850s further improved the road network and harbour of Larnaca and established a grain store and market in Nicosia to encourage cattle breeding.<ref>Gazioğlu, p. 142</ref>

==See also==
{{Portal|Cyprus}}
* [[Hadjigeorgakis Kornesios Mansion]]
* [[Siege of Famagusta]]

==References==
'''Notes'''
{{Reflist|22em}}

'''Bibliography'''
* [http://www.cyprus.gov.cy/cyphome/govhome.nsf/LookupIDs/7164EC79564ABEF4C2256B6B003B1395?OpenDocument&languageNo=1 Cyprus under Ottoman Empire by Official Republic of Cyprus Web site].
*{{citation|last1=Bağışkan|first1=Tuncer|title=Kıbrıs'ta Osmanlı Türk Eserleri|date=2005|publisher=Turkish Cypriot Association of Museum Lovers}}
* Foglietta, U. The sieges of Nicosia and Famagusta. London:Waterlow, 1903.
* Gazioglu, Ahmet C. The Turks in Cyprus: A province of the Ottoman Empire (1571–1878). London: Rustem & Bro., 1990.
* {{cite book |last1=Hill |first1=George |title=A History of Cyprus, Volume 4: The Ottoman Province. The British Colony, 1571–1948 |date=1952 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=9780511751738}}
* Jennings, Ronald C. Christians and Muslims in Ottoman Cyprus and the Mediterranean world, 1571–1640. New York: New York University Press, 1993.
* Katsiaounis, Rolandos. Labour, society and politics in Cyprus during the second half of the 19th century. Nicosia: Cyprus Research Centre, 1996.
* Koumoulides, John. Cyprus and the war of Greek Independence, 1821–1829. London: Zeno, 1974.
* Kyrris, Costas, P. The Kanakaria documents, 1666–1850. Nicosia: Cyprus Research Center, 1978.
* Luke, Harry. Cyprus under the Turks, 1571–1878. London: Hurst, 1969.(Reprint of 1921 edition.)
* Mariti, Giovanni. Travels in the island of Cyprus. (C. D. Cobham translator). London: Zeno, 1971. (Reprint of 1909 edition.)
* Michael, Michalis N.; Kappler, Matthias; Gavriel, Eftihios (eds.). Ottoman Cyprus. A Collection of Studies on History and Culture. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz Verlag, 2009.
* {{cite book |last1=Özkul |first1=Ali Efdal |title=Kıbrıs'ın Sosyo-Ekonomik Tarihi: 1726-1750 |date=2005 |publisher=İletişim Yayınları |location=Istanbul |language=tr}}
* Papadopoullos, T. Social and historical data on population:1570–1881. Nicosia: Zavallis Press, 1965.
* Proxenika egrafa tou 19o aionos. (Consular documents of the 19th century.) Nicosia: Cyprus Research Centre, 1980.
* Ross, L. A journey to Cyprus. (February and March 1845). (C. D.Cobham translator). Nicosia: Government Printing House, 1910.
* Salvator, Louis. Levkosia: The capital of Cyprus. London Trigraph,1983. (Reprint of 1881 edition.)
* Sant Cassia, Paul. "Religion, politics and ethnicity in Cyprus during the Turkocratia(1571–1878)." Archives Europeennes de Sociologie, Tome XXVII, No. 1, 1986

{{Subdivisions of the Ottoman Empire}}
{{Modern states under the Ottoman Empire}}
{{Cyprus topics}}
{{Authority control}}

{{Coord missing|Cyprus}}

[[Category:Ottoman Cyprus| ]]
[[Category:1571 establishments in Europe]]
[[Category:1571 establishments in Asia]]
[[Category:1748 disestablishments in Europe]]