View source for Oxpecker

{{Short description|Genus of birds}}
{{hatnote|"Papolocioara" redirects here. This term is also applied to other birds, e.g. the [[yellow-headed caracara]] (''Milvago chimachima'') of [[Latin America]].}}
{{redirects|Buphagus|the Greek mythological character|Buphagus (mythology)}}
{{Automatic Taxobox
| name = Oxpeckers
| image = Yellow-billed oxpeckers (Buphagus africanus africanus) on zebra.jpg
| image_caption = [[Yellow-billed oxpecker]]s<br />''Buphagus africanus africanus''<br />on a zebra in Senegal
| parent_authority = [[René Primevère Lesson|Lesson]], 1828
| display_parents = 2
| taxon = Buphagus
| authority = [[Mathurin Jacques Brisson|Brisson]], 1760
| type_species = ''[[Yellow-billed oxpecker|Buphaga africana]]''<ref name=HM4>{{cite web |url= https://www.aviansystematics.org/4th-edition-checklist?viewfamilies=180 |title= Buphagidae |author=<!--Not stated--> |date= |website= aviansystematics.org |publisher= The Trust for Avian Systematics |access-date= 2023-07-15}}</ref>
| type_species_authority = Linnaeus, 1766
| subdivision_ranks = Species
| subdivision = 
''[[Buphagus africanus]]''<br />
''[[Buphagus erythrorhynchus]]''
}}

[[File:Red-billed oxpecker (Buphagus erythrorhynchus) on impala (Aepyceros melampus).jpg|thumb|''Buphagus erythrorhynchus'' on an [[impala]]]]
The '''oxpeckers''' are two [[species]] of bird which make up the [[genus]] '''''Buphagus''''', from [[Ancient Greek]] [[wikt:βοῦς|βοῦς]] (''boûs''), meaning "ox", and [[wikt:φάγος|φάγος]] (''phágos''), meaning "eater", and [[family (biology)|family]] '''Buphagidae'''. The oxpeckers were formerly usually treated as a [[subfamily]], Buphaginae, within the starling family, [[Sturnidae]], but [[molecular phylogenetic]] studies have consistently shown that they form a separate lineage that is [[basal (phylogenetics)|basal]] to the [[sister taxon|sister clades]] containing the Sturnidae and the [[Mimidae]] (mockingbirds, thrashers, and allies). Oxpeckers are endemic to the [[savanna]] of [[Sub-Saharan Africa]]. 

Both the [[English language|English]] and scientific names arise from their habit of perching on large [[mammal]]s (both wild and domesticated) such as [[cattle]], [[zebra]]s, [[impala]]s, [[hippopotamus]]es, [[rhinoceros]]es, and [[giraffe]]s, eating [[tick]]s, small insects, [[botfly]] larvae, and other parasites, as well as the animals' blood. The behaviour of oxpeckers towards large [[mammal]]s was thought to be exclusively [[Mutualism (biology)|mutual]], though recent research suggests the relationship can be [[parasitism|parasitic]] in nature as well.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.smithsonianmag.com/smart-news/those-little-birds-backs-rhinos-actually-drink-blood-180964912/|title=Those Little Birds On The Backs Of Rhinos Actually Drink Blood|last=Eschner|first=Kat|website=Smithsonian|date=22 September 2017|language=en|access-date=9 March 2019}}</ref>

The [[Swahili language|Swahili]] name for the red-billed oxpecker is [[Askari]] wa kifaru (the rhino's guard).<ref>{{cite web |last1=Shoot |first1=Britta |title=These Birds Protect Black Rhinos From Poachers (but Also Drink Their Blood) |date=10 June 2020 |url=https://www.audubon.org/news/these-birds-protect-black-rhinos-poachers-also-drink-their-blood |publisher=[[Audubon]]}}</ref>

==Taxonomy==
The genus ''Buphagus'' was introduced in 1760 by the French zoologist [[Mathurin Jacques Brisson]] with the [[yellow-billed oxpecker]] as the [[type species]].<ref>{{ cite book | last=Brisson | first=Mathurin Jacques | author-link=Mathurin Jacques Brisson | year=1760 | title=Ornithologie, ou, Méthode contenant la division des oiseaux en ordres, sections, genres, especes & leurs variétés | language=fr, la | place=Paris | publisher=Jean-Baptiste Bauche | at=[https://biodiversitylibrary.org/page/36010430 Volume 1, p. 32]; [https://biodiversitylibrary.org/page/36011768 Volume 2, p. 436] }}</ref> The family name comes from [[Ancient Greek]] [[wikt:βοῦς|βοῦς]] (''boûs''), meaning "ox", and [[wikt:φάγος|φάγος]] (''phágos''), meaning "eater".<ref name=hbwkey>{{cite web | last=Jobling | first=J.A. | year=2018 | title= Key to Scientific Names in Ornithology | editor1-last=del Hoyo | editor1-first=J. | editor2-last=Elliott | editor2-first=A. | editor3-last=Sargatal | editor3-first=J. | editor4-last=Christie | editor4-first=D.A. | editor5-last=de Juana | editor5-first=E. | work=Handbook of the Birds of the World Alive | publisher=Lynx Edicions | url=https://www.hbw.com/dictionary/definition/buphagus | access-date=11 May 2018 }}</ref>

According to the more recent studies of [[Muscicapoidea]] [[phylogeny]], the oxpeckers are an ancient line related to [[Mimidae]] (mockingbirds and thrashers) and starlings but not particularly close to either.<ref name="Cibois">{{cite journal|last1=Cibois|first1=A.|last2=Cracraft |first2=J.|year=2004 | title=Assessing the passerine 'tapestry': phylogenetic relationships of the Muscicapoidea inferred from nuclear DNA sequences|journal=Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution|volume=32|issue=1|pages=264–273| doi=10.1016/j.ympev.2003.12.002|pmid=15186812 }}</ref><ref name="Zuccon">{{cite journal|last1=Zuccon|first1=Dario|last2=Cibois |first2=Anne |last3=Pasquet |first3=Eric |last4=Ericson |first4=Per G.P.|year=2006|title=Nuclear and mitochondrial sequence data reveal the major lineages of starlings, mynas and related taxa|journal=Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution|volume=41|issue=2|pages=333–344| doi = 10.1016/j.ympev.2006.05.007 |pmid=16806992|bibcode=2006MolPE..41..333Z }}</ref><ref name=lovette>{{ cite journal | last1=Lovette | first1= I.J. | last2=Rubenstein | first2=D.R. | year=2007 | title=A comprehensive molecular phylogeny of the starlings (Aves: Sturnidae) and mockingbirds (Aves: Mimidae): congruent mtDNA and nuclear trees for a cosmopolitan avian radiation | journal=Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution | volume=44 | issue= 3 | pages=1031–1056 | doi= 10.1016/j.ympev.2007.03.017 | pmid=17502157| bibcode= 2007MolPE..44.1031L }}</ref> Considering the known [[biogeography]] of these groups, the most plausible explanation seems that the oxpecker lineage originated in Eastern or Southeastern Asia like the other two.<ref name="Zuccon"/> This would make the two species of ''Buphagus'' something like [[living fossil]]s, and demonstrates that such remnants of past [[evolution]] can possess striking and unique [[autapomorph]]ic adaptations.

The genus contains two species:<ref name=ioc>{{cite web| editor1-last=Gill | editor1-first=Frank | editor1-link=Frank Gill (ornithologist) | editor2-last=Donsker | editor2-first=David | year=2018 | title=Nuthatches, Wallcreeper, treecreepers, mockingbirds, starlings, oxpeckers | work=World Bird List Version 8.1 | url=http://www.worldbirdnames.org/bow/nuthatch/| publisher=International Ornithologists' Union | access-date=11 May 2018 }}</ref>
{{Species table |genus=Buphagus  |authority-name=[[Mathurin Jacques Brisson|Brisson]]|authority-year= 1760 |species-count=two|no-note=y|narrow-percent=75}}

{{Species table/row
|name=Yellow-billed oxpecker|binomial=[[Buphagus africanus]]
|image=File:Yellow-billed oxpeckers (Buphagus africanus africanus) on zebra.jpg|image-size=180px |image-alt=
|authority-name=Linnaeus|authority-year= 1766|authority-not-original=
|range= most of sub-Saharan Africa
|range-image=File:Buphagus africanus map.svg
|range-image-size=180px
|size=
|habitat=
|hunting=
|iucn-status= LC
|population=
|direction=
|subspecies={{Collapsible list |expand=yes |title=Two subspecies |bullets=on
| ''B. a.'' subsp. ''africanus'' <small>Linnaeus, 1766</small> 
| ''B. a.'' subsp. ''langi'' <small>[[James Chapin|Chapin]], 1921</small> 
}}
}}

{{Species table/row
|name=Red-billed oxpecker|binomial=[[Buphagus erythrorynchus]]
|image=File:Red-billed oxpeckers (Buphagus erythrorynchus) adult (L) sub-adult (R) on impala.jpg|image-size=180px |image-alt=
|authority-name=Stanley|authority-year= 1814|authority-not-original=yes
|range= mainly east Africa
|range-image=File:Buphagus erythrorhynchus map.svg
|range-image-size=180px
|size=
|habitat=
|hunting=
|iucn-status= LC
|population=
|direction=
|subspecies=
}}
{{Species table/end}}

==Distribution and habitat==
The oxpeckers are [[endemic]] to sub-Saharan Africa, where they occur in most open [[habitat]]s. They are absent from the driest [[desert]]s and the [[rainforest]]s. Their distribution is restricted by the presence of their preferred [[prey]], specific species of [[tick]]s, and the animal hosts of those ticks. The two species of oxpecker are [[sympatric]] over much of East Africa and may even occur on the same host animal. The nature of the interactions between the two species is unknown.

==Behaviour==
[[File:Oxpeckers on Kudu.jpg|thumb|[[Red-billed oxpecker]]s on female [[greater kudu]]]]
[[File:Yellow-billed Oxpecker (Buphagus africanus), Masi Mara.jpg|thumb|[[Yellow-billed oxpecker]] on a [[wildebeest]]]] 

===Diet and feeding===
Oxpeckers graze exclusively on the bodies of large mammals. Certain species are seemingly preferred, whereas others, like the [[Lichtenstein's hartebeest]] or [[topi]] are generally avoided. Smaller antelope such as [[lechwe]], [[duiker]]s and [[reedbuck]] are also avoided; the smallest regularly used species is the [[impala]], probably because of the heavy tick load and social nature of that species. In many parts of their range they now feed on cattle, but avoid camels. They feed on [[ectoparasites]], particularly ticks, as well as insects infesting wounds and the flesh and blood of some wounds as well. They are sometimes classified as parasites, because they open wounds on the animals' backs.<ref name = "HBW"/>

Oxpecker/mammal interactions are the subject of some debate and ongoing research.<ref name=mikula>{{ cite journal | last1=Mikula | first1= P. | last2=Hadrava | first2=J. | last3=Albrecht | first3=T. | last4=Tryjanowski | first4=P. | year=2018 | title=Large-scale assessment of commensalistic–mutualistic associations between African birds and herbivorous mammals using internet photos | journal=PeerJ | volume= 6:e4520 | doi=10.7717/peerj.4520 | doi-access=free | pmid=29576981 | pmc=5863707 | article-number=e4520}}</ref> They were originally thought to be an example of [[Mutualism (biology)|mutualism]], but recent evidence suggests that oxpeckers may be parasites instead.<ref name=weeks>{{ cite journal | last1=Weeks | first1=P. | year=2000 | title=Red-billed oxpeckers: vampires or tickbirds? | journal=Behavioral Ecology | volume=11 | issue=2 | pages=154–160 | doi=10.1093/beheco/11.2.154 | doi-access=free}}</ref> Oxpeckers do eat ticks, but often the ticks have already fed on the ungulate host, and no statistically significant link has been shown between oxpecker presence and reduced ectoparasite load.<ref name=weeks/> Oxpeckers have been observed to open new wounds and enhance existing ones in order to drink the blood of their perches.<ref name="zoo"/> Oxpeckers also feed on the earwax and dandruff of mammals; less is known about the possible benefits of this to the mammal, but it is suspected that this is also a parasitic behaviour.<ref name=weeks/> Some oxpeckers' hosts are intolerant of their presence.<ref name="zoo">{{cite journal|doi=10.1002/zoo.20013|last1=McElligott|first1=A.G.|last2=Maggini |first2=I. |last3=Hunziker |first3=L. |last4=Konig |first4=B.|year=2004|title=Interactions between red-billed oxpeckers and black rhinos in captivity | journal=Zoo Biology|volume=23|issue=4|pages=347–354}}</ref> Elephants and some antelope will actively dislodge the oxpeckers when they land. However there have been noted instances of elephants allowing oxpeckers to eat parasites off of them.<ref>{{Cite AV media |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?app=desktop&v=hCRNnf9hbBE&pp=ygUTT3hwZWNrZXJzIEVsZXBoYW50cw%3D%3D |title=Odzala: Islands In The Forest |date=2014-04-28 |last=National Geographic Creative |access-date=2024-09-13 |via=YouTube}}</ref> Other species tolerate oxpeckers while they search for ticks on their faces, which one author says "appears ... to be an uncomfortable and invasive process."<ref name = "HBW">{{Cite book | first = Adrian | last = Craig | editor-first = Josep | editor-last = del Hoyo | editor2-first = Andrew | editor2-last = Elliott | editor3-first = David | editor3-last = Christie | contribution = Family Buphagidae (Oxpeckers) | title = [[Handbook of the Birds of the World]]. Volume 14, Bush-shrikes to Old World Sparrows | year = 2009 | place = Barcelona | publisher = Lynx Edicions | isbn = 978-84-96553-50-7 |pages = 642–653| contribution-url = http://www.lynxeds.com/hbw/family-text/hbw-14-family-text-buphagidae-oxpeckers}}</ref>

===Breeding===
[[File:Red-billed Oxpecker Eggs JM.jpg|thumb|220px|Clutch of red-billed oxpeckers in a nest lined with [[impala]] hair, Kenya]]
The [[breeding season]] of the oxpeckers, in at least one location, is linked to the rainy season, which affects the activity of their mammalian hosts and the tick loads of those hosts. Both courtship and [[copulation (zoology)|copulation]] occur on their hosts as well. They nest in holes, usually in trees but sometimes in other types of cavity, including holes in walls. The nests are lined with grasses and often with hair plucked from their hosts and even livestock such as sheep which are not usually used. The typical [[clutch (eggs)|clutch]] is between two and three [[egg (biology)|eggs]], but the [[red-billed oxpecker]] may lay up to five eggs.

== Roosting ==
Red-billed oxpeckers have been known to roost in reeds and trees. Studies of large savanna herbivores using cameras at night have shown that both species of oxpecker (but more often in yellow-billed oxpecker) may also roost on the bodies of herbivores, hanging under the insides of the thighs of giraffe and on top of impala and buffalo.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Palmer|first1=Meredith S.|last2=Packer|first2=Craig|date=2018|title=Giraffe bed and breakfast: Camera traps reveal Tanzanian yellow-billed oxpeckers roosting on their large mammalian hosts|journal=African Journal of Ecology|language=en|volume=56|issue=4|pages=882–884|doi=10.1111/aje.12505|issn=0141-6707|doi-access=free|bibcode=2018AfJEc..56..882P }}</ref>

==References==
{{Reflist}}

{{Passerida|M.|state=collapsed}}
{{Taxonbar|from1=Q644442|from2=Q13971067}}

[[Category:Buphagus| ]]
[[Category:Hematophages]]
[[Category:Birds of Sub-Saharan Africa]]
[[Category:Parasitic vertebrates]]