View source for Pamir Mountains

{{Short description|Mountain range in Central Asia}}
{{Expand French|topic=geo|Pamir|date=November 2024}}
{{Infobox mountain
| name = Pamir Mountains
| photo = Ледник Советских офицеров южн. - panoramio (3).jpg
| photo_caption = Pamir Mountains
| country = {{hlist|[[Tajikistan]]|[[Kyrgyzstan]]|[[Afghanistan]]|[[China]]|[[Pakistan]]}}
| subdivision2_type = States/Provinces
| subdivision2 = {{hlist|[[Gorno-Badakhshan]]|[[Osh Region]]|[[Badakhshan Province|Wakhan]]|[[Chitral District|Chitral]]|[[Gilgit Baltistan]]|[[Xinjiang]]{{efn-ua|Also claimed by the [[Taiwan|Republic of China on Taiwan]] as part of [[Xinjiang Province, Republic of China|Sinkiang Province]].}}}}
| highest = [[Kongur Tagh]]
| elevation_m = 7649
| range_coordinates = {{coord|38.5|73.5|type:mountain_region:CN-65_dim:500000|display=it}}
| coordinates = {{coord|38|35|39|N|75|18|48|E|type:mountain_region:CN-65_dim:500000|display=i}}
| geology = 
| orogeny = 
| map_image = High Asia Mountain Ranges.jpg
| map_caption = 
}}

The '''Pamir Mountains''' are a [[Mountain range|range of mountains]] between [[Central Asia]] and [[South Asia]]. They are located at a junction with other notable mountains, namely the [[Tian Shan]], [[Karakoram]], [[Kunlun Mountains|Kunlun]], [[Hindu Kush]] and the [[Himalayas|Himalaya]] mountain ranges. They are among the world's highest [[mountain]]s.

Much of the range lies in the [[Gorno-Badakhshan]] region of [[Tajikistan]].<ref>According to the [http://bse.sci-lib.com/article086489.html ''Big Soviet Encyclopedia''] "The question of the natural boundaries of Pamir is debatable. Normally Pamir is regarded as covering the territory from Trans-Alay Range to the north, Sarykol Range to the east, Lake Zorkul, Pamir River, and the upper reaches of Panj River to the south, and the meridional section of the Panj valley to the west; to the north-west Pamir includes the eastern parts of Peter the Great and Darvaz ranges."</ref> Spanning the border parts of four countries,<ref>{{cite encyclopedia  |title=Pamirs summary - Britannica |encyclopedia=[[Encyclopædia Britannica]] |url=https://www.britannica.com/summary/Pamirs |date= 2 May 2020  |access-date=27 October 2024}}</ref> to the south, they border the Hindu Kush mountains along [[Afghanistan]]'s [[Wakhan Corridor]] in [[Badakhshan Province]], [[Chitral District|Chitral]] and [[Gilgit-Baltistan]] regions of [[Pakistan]]. To the north, they join the Tian Shan mountains along the [[Alay Valley]] of [[Kyrgyzstan]]. To the east, they extend to the range that includes [[China]]'s [[Kongur Tagh]], in the "Eastern Pamirs",<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Arnaud |first1=N. O. |last2=Brunel |first2=M. |last3=Cantagrel |first3=J. M. |last4=Tapponnier |first4=P. |date=1993 |title=High cooling and denudation rates at Kongur Shan, Eastern Pamir (Xinjiang, China) |journal=Tectonics |volume=12 |issue=3 |pages=1335–1346 |doi=10.1029/93TC00767}}</ref> separated by the [[Yarkand River|Yarkand]] valley from the [[Kunlun Mountains]].

{{Location map+
|Pamir
|float      = right
|width      = 300
|caption    = Pamir as seen from the map, as well as the [[Amu Darya]] river which rises from the Pamir Mountains north of the [[Hindu Kush]] and the [[Helmand River]] which is the longest river in the entire country of Afghanistan. 
|nodiv      = 1
|mini       = 1
|relief=yes
|places     =
{{location map~ |Pamir|lat=39|N |long=71.645539|E |label=PAMIR |position=right |label_size=80|marksize=10}}
{{location map~ |Pamir|lat=37.35 |N |long=68.868056|E |label= [[Amu Darya|AMU DARYA]] |position=above |label_size=90|marksize=10}}
{{location map~ |Pamir|lat=34.825|N |long=67.833333|E |label=[[Helmand River|HELMAND]] |position=left |label_size=90|marksize=10}}
{{location map~ |Pamir|lat=34.019|N |long=67.533333|E |label=HINDU KUSH |position=left |label_size=90|marksize=10}}
}}

Since the [[Victorian era]], they have been known as the "[[Roof of the World]]", presumably a translation from [[Persian language|Persian]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Bliss |first=Frank |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IEyTC-_VtAQC |title=Social and Economic Change in the Pamirs (Gorno-Badakhshan, Tajikistan): Translated from German by Nicola Pacult and Sonia Guss with support of Tim Sharp |date=2002-06-01 |publisher=Taylor & Francis |isbn=978-0-203-40531-4 |pages=13–14 |quote=Pamir = a Persian compilation of pay-I-mehr, the "roof of the world".}}</ref>

== Names and etymology ==
=== In other languages ===
The Pamir region is home to several different cultures, peoples and languages. In some of these languages, the Pamir Mountains are referred by different names.

In [[Indo-European languages]], they are called:
*{{lang|sgh|Pomīr/Pomer/Pomīr Kūen/Pomer Kūen}} in [[Shughni language|Shughni]];
*{{lang|ru|Памир/Памирские горы/Горные вершины Памира}} {{Transliteration|ru|Pamir/Pamirskiye gory/Gornye vershiny Pamira}} in [[Russian language|Russian]];
*{{lang|ps|پامیر غرونه}} {{Transliteration|ps|Pāmīr Ghrūna}} in [[Pashto]];
*{{lang|fa|رشته کوه‌های  پامیر}}, {{lang|tg|Ришта Кӯҳҳои Помир}}, {{Transliteration|tg|Rishta Kūhhoi Pomir}} in [[Tajik language|Tajik]];
*{{lang|ur|{{nq|پامیر کوهستان}}}} {{Transliteration|ur|Pāmīr Kohistān}} in [[Urdu]];
*{{lang|sa|सुमेरु}} {{Transliteration|sa|Sumeru}} in [[Sanskrit]].

In [[Turkic language]]s, they are called:
*{{lang|ky-Arab|پامىر توولورۇ}}, {{lang|ky|Памир Тоолору}}, {{Transliteration|ky|Pamir Tooloru}} in [[Kyrgyz language|Kyrgyz]];
*{{lang|ug|پامىر ئېگىزلىكى}}, {{Transliteration|ug|Pamir Ëgizliki}}, {{lang|ug|Памир Егизлики}} in [[Uyghur language|Uyghur]].

In [[Chinese language|Chinese]], they are referred as "Onion Range" ({{lang-zh|s=葱岭|t=蔥嶺|p=Cōnglǐng|w=Ts'ung-ling}}), which is named after the [[Allium|wild onion]]s growing in the region;<ref>{{cite wikisource |title=水經注 |wslink=水經注/02 |trans-title=[[Commentary on the Water Classic]] |volume=2 |last=Li |first=Daoyuan |author-link=Li Daoyuan |wslanguage=zh |quote={{lang|zh-Hant|蔥嶺在敦煌西八千里，其山高大，上生蔥，故曰蔥嶺也。}}(quoting from the "{{lang|zh-Hant|[[:zh:西河舊事|西河舊事]]}}") The Onion Range is 8,000 [[Li (unit)|Li]] west of [[Dunhuang]]in Uzbek Language "Pamir Tog'i". Its mountains are high and onions grow on them, therefore it is called Onion Range.}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://depts.washington.edu/silkroad/texts/weilue/notes1_3.html |title=The origin of the Chinese name "Onion Range" for Pamir |publisher=Depts.washington.edu |date=2002-04-14 |access-date=2009-08-10}}</ref> In the [[Dungan language|Dungan]] dialect of [[Mandarin Chinese|Mandarin]], it is written {{lang|dng|Памир / Цунлин}} in the [[Cyrillic alphabet]], and in [[Xiao'erjing]] it is written {{lang|zh-Arab|پَامِعَر}} / {{lang|zh-Arab|ڞوْلٍْ}}. The name "Pamir" is used more commonly in Modern Chinese and loaned as {{lang|zh|帕米尔}} / {{lang|zh|帕米爾}} ''{{Transliteration|zh|Pàmǐ'ěr}}''.

=== Geological term ===
{{anchor|valley}}According to Middleton and Thomas, "pamir" is also a geological term.<ref name=middleton/> A pamir is a flat plateau or [[U-shaped valley]] surrounded by mountains. It forms when a glacier or ice field melts leaving a rocky plain. A pamir lasts until erosion forms soil and cuts down normal valleys. This type of terrain is found in the east and north of the [[Wakhan]],<ref name="akdn3">{{Cite web |title=Aga Khan Development Network (2010): Wakhan and the Afghan Pamir |url=http://www.akdn.org/publications/2010_akf_wakhan.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111225230336/http://www.akdn.org/publications/2010_akf_wakhan.pdf |archive-date=2011-12-25 |page=3}}</ref> and the east and south of Gorno-Badakhshan, as opposed to the valleys and gorges of the west. Pamirs are used for summer pasture.<ref name=middleton/><ref name=akdn3/>

The [[Great Pamir]] is around Lake [[Zorkul]]. The [[Little Pamir]] is east of this in the far east of Wakhan.<ref name=akdn3/> The [[Taghdumbash Pamir]] is between [[Tashkurgan Tajik Autonomous County|Tashkurgan]] and the [[Wakhan]] west of the [[Karakoram Highway]]. The Alichur Pamir is around Yashil Kul on the [[Gunt River]]. The Sarez Pamir is around the town of [[Murghab, Tajikistan]]. The Khargush Pamir is south of Lake [[Karakul (Tajikistan)|Karakul]]. There are several others.

The [[Pamir River]] is in the south-west of the Pamirs.

== Geography ==
<gallery mode="packed" heights="150">
File:Karakorum-d04.jpg|[[Kongur Tagh]] (left) and [[Kongur Tiube]] (slightly to the right) as seen from the [[Karakoram Highway]]
File:Fly over Pamir Mountains and Karakoram Highway.jpg|Slopes of Pamir Mountains on the Chinese side and [[Muztagh Ata]]
File:Pamir World Wind.jpg|Pamir Mountains from a NASA satellite image, April 2012
</gallery>

=== Mountain ===
The three highest mountains in the Pamirs core are [[Ismoil Somoni Peak]] (known from 1932 to 1962 as Stalin Peak, and from 1962 to 1998 as Communism Peak), {{convert|7495|m|ft|0|abbr=on}}; [[Lenin Peak|Ibn Sina Peak]] (still unofficially known as Lenin Peak), {{convert|7134|m|ft|0|abbr=on}}; and [[Peak Ozodi|Peak Korzhenevskaya]] ({{langx|ru|Пик Корженевская}}, ''Pik Korzhenevskoi''), {{convert|7105|m|ft|0|abbr=on}}.<ref>''Tajikistan: 15 Years of Independence'', statistical yearbook, Dushanbe, 2006, p. 8, in Russian.</ref>  In the Eastern Pamirs, China's [[Kongur Tagh]] is the highest at {{convert|7649|m|ft|0|abbr=on}}.

Among the significant peaks of the Pamir Mountains are the following:<ref>{{Cite web |title=Dominance |url=https://www.8000ers.com/cms/en/download.html?func=select&id=3 |access-date=6 April 2010 |website=www.8000ers.com}}</ref>

{|class="wikitable sortable" style="text-align:right"
|-
!Native name(s) !! Translated name(s) !! Height<br /> in meters !! Coord. !! Sub-range !! Country
|-
|style="text-align:left" |<small>{{nativename|uz| Qoʻngʻir Tog}}<br />{{nativename|ug|قوڭۇر تاغ}}<br />{{nativename|mn|Хонгор Таг}}<br />{{nativename|bo|ཀོང་གེལ་རི་རྩེ།}}<br />{{nativename|zh|公格尔峰}}</small>||[[Kongur Tagh|Kongur]] (''Kungur Tagh'')|| 7,649  || ({{Coord|38.593428|75.312560|type:mountain_region:CN-65_elevation:7649|name=Kongur}}) || [[Kongur Shan]] || {{CHN}}
|-
|style="text-align:left" |<small>{{nativename|ug|مۇزتاغ ئاتا}}<br />{{nativename|uz|Muztog Ota}}<br />{{nativename|bo|མུཛ་ཏག་རི་རྩེ།}}<br />{{nativename|zh|慕士塔格峰}}</small>||[[Muztagh Ata]]|| 7,546  || ({{Coord|38.275855|75.1161|type:mountain_region:CN-65_elevation:7509|name=Muztagata}}) || Muztagh Ata Massif || {{CHN}}
|-
|style="text-align:left" |<small>{{nativename|ug|قوڭۇر تۆپە}}<br />{{nativename|zh|公格尔九别峰}}</small>||[[Kongur Jiubie]] (''Kungur Tjube Tagh'')|| 7,530  || ({{Coord|38.615833|75.195833|type:mountain_region:CN-65_elevation:7530|name=Kungur Tjube Tagh}}) || [[Kongur Shan]] || {{CHN}}
|-
|style="text-align:left" |<small>{{nativename|ru|Пик Исмои́ла Сомони́}}<br />{{nativename|tg|Қуллаи Исмоили Сомонӣ}}</small>||[[Ismoil Somoni Peak]]<br /> (formerly ''Communism Peak'', ''Stalin Peak'')|| 7,495  || ({{Coord|38.943422|72.015803|type:mountain_region:TJ_elevation:7495|name=Ismoil Somoni Peak}}) || [[Academy of Sciences Range]] || {{TJK}}
|-
|style="text-align:left" |<small>{{nativename|ru|Пик Ленина}}<br />{{nativename|ky|Ленин Чокусу}}<br />{{nativename|tg|Қуллаи Ленин (former name)<br />Қуллаи Абӯалӣ ибни Сино}}</small>||[[Lenin Peak]]<br /> (new name: ''Abu Ali Ibn Sino Peak'';<br /> formerly ''Kaufmann Peak'')|| 7,134 || ({{Coord|39.343724|72.877536|type:mountain_elevation:7134|name=Pik Lenin}}) || [[Trans-Alay Range]] || {{TJK}},<br /> {{KGZ}}
|-
|style="text-align:left" |<small>{{nativename|ru|Пик Корженевской/Озоди}}<br />{{nativename|tg|Қуллаи Корженевская/Озоди}}</small>||[[Peak Ozodi]]|| 7,105 || ({{Coord|39.057317|72.00983|type:mountain_region:TJ_elevation:7105|name=Peak Korzhenevskaya}}) || [[Academy of Sciences Range]] || {{TJK}}
|-
|style="text-align:left" |<small>{{nativename|ru|Пик Независимости}}<br />{{nativename|tg|Қуллаи Истиқлол}}</small>||[[Independence Peak]]<br /> (also ''Qullai Istiqlol'',<br /> formerly ''Revolution Peak'', ''Dreispitz'')|| 6,940 || ({{Coord|38.51|72.354167|type:mountain_region:TJ-GB_elevation:6940|name=Independence Peak}}) || [[Yazgulem Range]] || {{TJK}}
|-
|style="text-align:left" |<small>{{nativename|ru|Пик Россия}}<br />{{nativename|tg|Қуллаи Россия}}</small>||Russia Peak|| 6,875 || ({{Coord|38.896|72.029|type:mountain_region:TJ_elevation:6875|name=Russia Peak}}) || [[Academy of Sciences Range]] || {{TJK}}
|-
|style="text-align:left" |<small>{{nativename|ru|Пик Москва}}<br />{{nativename|tg|Қуллаи Москва}}</small>||[[Moscow Peak]]|| 6,785 || ({{Coord|38.948563|71.8344|type:mountain_region:TJ_elevation:6785|name=Moscow Peak}}) || [[Peter I Range]] || {{TJK}}
|-
|style="text-align:left" |<small>{{nativename|ru|Пик Карла Маркса}}<br />{{nativename|tg|Қуллаи Карл Маркс}}</small>||[[Karl Marx Peak]]|| 6,723 || ({{Coord|37.1625|72.481667|type:mountain_region:TJ-GB_elevation:6726|name=Karl Marx Peak}}) || [[Shakhdara Range]] || {{TJK}}
|-
|style="text-align:left" |<small>{{nativename|ru|Курумды}}<br />{{nativename|tg|Курумды}}</small>||[[Kurumdy Mountain]]|| 6,614 || ({{Coord|39.455812|73.566978|type:mountain_elevation:6614|name=Gora Kurumdy}}) || [[Trans-Alay Range]] || {{TJK}},<br /> {{KGZ}}
|-
|style="text-align:left" |<small>{{nativename|ru|Пик Гармо}}<br />{{nativename|tg|Қуллаи Гармо}}</small>||[[Mount Garmo]]|| 6,595 || ({{Coord|38.810955|72.072344|type:mountain_region:TJ_elevation:6595|name=Mount Garmo}}) || [[Academy of Sciences Range]] || {{TJK}}
|-
|style="text-align:left" |<small>{{nativename|ru|Пик Энгельса}}<br />{{nativename|tg|Қуллаи Энгельс}}</small>||[[Engels Peak]]|| 6,510 || ({{Coord|37.171671|72.522898|type:mountain_region:TJ-GB_elevation:6510|name=Engels Peak}}) || [[Shakhdara Range]] || {{TJK}}
|-
|style="text-align:left" |<small>Коҳи Памир</small>||Kohi Pamir|| 6,320 || ({{Coord|37.15|73.21|type:mountain_region:AF-BDS_elevation:6320|name=Koh-e Pamir}}) || [[Wakhan Range]] || {{flag|Afghanistan}}
|-
|style="text-align:left" |<small>Пик советских офицеров</small>||Peak of the Soviet Officers|| 6,233 || ({{Coord|38.424|73.302|type:mountain_region:TJ-GB_elevation:6233|name=Peak of the Soviet Officers}}) || Muzkol Range || {{TJK}}
|-
|style="text-align:left" |<small>{{nativename|ru|Пик Маяковского}}<br />{{nativename|tg|Қуллаи Маяковский}}</small>||[[Mayakovsky Peak]]|| 6,096 || ({{Coord|37.021092|71.715138|type:mountain_region:TJ-GB_elevation:6095|name=Mayakovskiy Peak}}) || [[Shakhdara Range]] || {{TJK}}
|-
|style="text-align:left" |<small>{{nativename|ru|Пик Патхур}}<br />{{nativename|tg|Қуллаи Паххор}}</small>||[[Patkhor Peak]]|| 6,083 || ({{Coord|37.889167|72.189167|type:mountain_region:TJ-GB_elevation:6083|name=Patkhor Peak}}) || [[Rushan Range]] || {{TJK}}
|-
|style="text-align:left" |<small>Пик Лейпциг</small>||Leipzig Peak|| 5,725 || ({{Coord|39.348|72.477|type:mountain_elevation:5725|name=Leipzig Peak}}) || [[Trans-Alay Range]] || {{TJK}},<br /> {{KGZ}}
|-
|style="text-align:left" |<small>Пик Скалистый</small>||Skalisty Peak (Schugnan Range)||| 5,707 || ({{Coord|37.6005|72.227|type:mountain_region:TJ-GB_elevation:5707|name=Skalisty Peak}}) || Schugnan Range || {{TJK}}
|-
|style="text-align:left" |<small>Кызылдангы</small>||Kysyldangi Peak|| 5,704 || ({{Coord|37.4006|72.8435|type:mountain_region:TJ-GB_elevation:5704|name=Kysyldangi Peak}}) || Southern Alitschur Range || {{TJK}}

|}

''Remark'': The summits of the Kongur and Muztagata Group are in some sources counted as part of the [[Kunlun Mountains|Kunlun]], which would make Pik Ismoil Somoni the highest summit of the Pamir.
[[File:Pamir Mountains, Tajikistan, 06-04-2008.jpg|thumb|Pamir Mountains from an airplane]]

=== Glaciers ===
There are many [[glacier]]s in the Pamir Mountains, including the {{convert|77|km|mi|0|abbr=on}} long [[Vanch-Yakh Glacier]], the longest in the former [[Soviet Union|USSR]] and the longest glacier outside the [[polar regions]].<ref>In the Karakoram Mountains, [[Siachen Glacier]] is 76 km long, [[Biafo Glacier]] is 67 km long, and [[Baltoro Glacier|Baltoro]] is 63 km long.  The [[Bruggen Glacier|Bruggen or Pio XI Glacier]] in southern Chile is 66 km long.  Kyrgyzstan's [[South Inylchek Glacier|South Inylchek (Enylchek) Glacier]] is 60.5&nbsp;km in length.  Measurements are from recent imagery, generally with Russian 1:200,000 scale topographic mapping for reference as well as the 1990 ''Orographic Sketch Map: Karakoram:  Sheets 1 and 2'', Swiss Foundation for Alpine Research, Zurich.</ref> Approximately 12,500&nbsp;km<sup>2</sup> (ca. 10%)<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |last1=Knoche |first1=Malte |last2=Merz |first2=Ralf|last3=Lindner |first3=Martin |last4=Weise |first4=Stephan M. |date=2017-06-13 |title=Bridging Glaciological and Hydrological Trends in the Pamir Mountains, Central Asia |journal=Water |language=en |volume=9 |issue=6 |page=422 |doi=10.3390/w9060422|doi-access=free |bibcode=2017Water...9..422K }}</ref> of the Pamirs are glaciated. Glaciers in the Southern Pamirs are retreating rapidly. Ten percent of annual runoff is supposed to originate from retreating glaciers in the Southern Pamirs.<ref name=":0" /> In the North-Western Pamirs, glaciers have almost stable [[mass balance]]s.<ref name=":0" />

=== Climate ===
[[File:Tajik pamir springtime.jpg|thumb|right|Part of the Pamir Mountain range in springtime.]]

Covered in [[snow]] during most of the year, the Pamirs have long and bitterly cold [[winter]]s, and short, cool [[summer]]s, which equals an [[tundra climate|ET (tundra climate)]] according to [[Köppen climate classification]] ([[ice cap climate|EF]] above the snow line). Annual [[precipitation]] is about {{convert|130|mm|in|0|abbr=on}}, which supports [[grassland]]s but few [[tree]]s.

==== Paleoclimatology during the Ice Age ====
The East-Pamir, in the centre of which the [[massif]]s of Mustagh Ata (7620 m) and Kongur Tagh (Qungur Shan, 7578, 7628 or 7830 m) are situated, shows from the western margin of the Tarim Basin an east–west extension of c. 200&nbsp;km. Its north–south extension from King Ata Tagh up to the northwest Kunlun foothills amounts to c.170&nbsp;km. Whilst the up to 21&nbsp;km long current valley glaciers are restricted to mountain massifs exceeding 5600 m in height, during the last glacial period the glacier ice covered the high plateau with its set-up highland relief, continuing west of Mustagh Ata and Kongur. From this glacier area an outlet glacier has flowed down to the north-east through the Gez valley up to c.1850&nbsp;m&nbsp;asl (meters above sea level) and thus as far as to the margin of the Tarim basin. This outlet glacier received inflow from the Kaiayayilak glacier from the Kongur north flank. From the north-adjacent Kara Bak Tor (Chakragil, c. 6800 or 6694 m) massif, the Oytag valley glacier in the same exposition flowed also down up to c. 1850&nbsp;m&nbsp;asl. At glacial times the glacier snowline
(ELA{{efn-ua| The snow line that separates the snow above from the firn (1 yr old snow) or bare glacier ice below is the equilibrium line altitude (ELA).<ref>{{cite web |title=Mendenhall Glacier Facts |url=http://www.uas.alaska.edu/arts_sciences/naturalsciences/envs/faculty_staff/pubs/mendenhall_glacier_facts_2010.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151208142907/http://www.uas.alaska.edu/arts_sciences/naturalsciences/envs/faculty_staff/pubs/mendenhall_glacier_facts_2010.pdf |archive-date=December 8, 2015 |website=University of Alaska Southeast |publisher=[[University of Alaska Southeast]] |access-date=24 February 2019 |location=Juneau, Alaska, US |page=2 |date=29 April 2011 }}</ref>}}) as altitude limit between glacier nourishing area and ablation zone, was about 820 to 1250 metres lower than it is today.<ref>Kuhle, M. (1997):''New findings concerning the Ice Age (LGM) glacier cover of the East Pamir, of the Nanga Parbat up to the Central Himalaya and of Tibet, as well as the Age of the Tibetan Inland Ice.'' Tibet and High Asia (IV). Results of Investigations into High Mountain Geomorphology. Paleo-Glaciology and Climatology of the Pleistocene. GeoJournal, 42, (2–3), pp. 87–257.</ref><ref>Kuhle, M. (2004):''The High Glacial (Last Ice Age and LGM) glacier cover in High- and Central Asia. Accompanying text to the mapwork in hand with detailed references to the literature of the underlying empirical investigations.'' Ehlers, J., Gibbard, P. L. (Eds.). Extent and Chronology of Glaciations, Vol. 3 (Latin America, Asia, Africa, Australia, Antarctica). Amsterdam, Elsevier B.V., pp. 175–199.</ref> Under the condition of comparable proportions of precipitation there results from this a glacial depression of temperature of at least 5 to 7.5&nbsp;°C.

== Economy ==
[[Coal]] is mined in the west, though [[sheep]] herding in upper [[Montane grasslands and shrublands|meadowlands]] is the primary source of income for the region.

== Exploration ==
[[File:82 expedition to TÜ 350 (32).jpg|thumb|left|Expedition in 1982 to [[Tartu Ülikool 350]] Peak, which was considered to be the highest unreached peak in the territory of former Soviet Union at the time.]]

The [[lapis lazuli]] found in Egyptian tombs is thought to come from the Pamir area in Badakhshan province of Afghanistan.<ref name=middleton>This section is based on the book by R. Middleton and H. Thomas: Robert Middleton and Huw Thomas, 'Tajikistan and the High Pamirs', Odyssey Books, 2008</ref> About 138 BCE [[Zhang Qian]] reached the [[Fergana Valley]] northwest of the Pamirs. [[Ptolemy]] vaguely describes a trade route through the area. From about 600 CE, Buddhist pilgrims travelled on both sides of the Pamirs to reach India from China. In 747 a Tang army was on the Wakhan River. There are various Arab and Chinese reports. [[Marco Polo]] may have travelled along the [[Panj River]]. In 1602 [[Bento de Goes]] travelled from [[Kabul]] to [[Yarkant County|Yarkand]] and left a meager report on the Pamirs. In 1838 Lieutenant [[John Wood (explorer)|John Wood]] reached the headwaters of the [[Pamir River]]. From about 1868 to 1880, a number of Indians in the British service secretly explored the Panj area. In 1873 the British and Russians agreed to an Afghan frontier along the Panj River. From 1871 to around 1893 several Russian military-scientific expeditions mapped out most of the Pamirs ([[Alexei Pavlovich Fedchenko]], [[Nikolai Severtzov]], Captain [[Dmitry Putyata]] and others. Later came [[Nikolai Korzhenevskiy]]). Several local groups asked for Russian protection from Afghan raiders. The Russians were followed by a number of non-Russians including [[Ney Elias]], [[St. George Littledale|George Littledale]], [[Charles Murray, 7th Earl of Dunmore|the Earl of Dunmore]], [[Wilhelm Filchner]] and [[George Curzon, 1st Marquess Curzon of Kedleston|Lord Curzon]] who was probably the first to reach the Wakhan source of the [[Oxus River]]. In 1891 the Russians informed [[Francis Younghusband]] that he was on their territory and later escorted a Lieutenant Davidson out of the area ('Pamir Incident'). In 1892 a battalion of Russians under Mikhail Ionov entered the area and camped near the present [[Murghab District|Murghab]]. In 1893 they built a proper fort there (''Pamirskiy Post'').  In 1895 their base was moved to [[Khorugh|Khorog]] facing the Afghans.

In 1928 the last blank areas around the [[Fedchenko Glacier]] were mapped by the [[German-Soviet Alay-Pamir Expedition]] under {{Interlanguage link|Willi Rickmer Rickmers|de|3=Willi Rickmer Rickmers}}.

== Discoveries ==
In the early 1980s, a deposit of [[gemstone]]-quality [[clinohumite]] was discovered in the Pamir Mountains. It was the only such deposit known until the discovery of gem-quality material in the [[Taymyr Peninsula|Taymyr]] region of [[Siberia]], in 2000.

The earliest known evidence of human [[cannabis]] use was found in tombs at the [[Jirzankal Cemetery]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Ren |first1=Meng |last2=Tang |first2=Zihua |last3=Wu |first3=Xinhua |last4=Spengler |first4=Robert |last5=Jiang |first5=Hongen |last6=Yang |first6=Yimin |last7=Boivin |first7=Nicole |date=2019-06-07 |title=The origins of cannabis smoking: Chemical residue evidence from the first millennium BCE in the Pamirs |journal=Science Advances |volume=5 |issue=6 |article-number=eaaw1391 |doi=10.1126/sciadv.aaw1391 |issn=2375-2548 |pmc=6561734 |pmid=31206023|bibcode=2019SciA....5.1391R }}</ref>

== Transport ==
[[File:Pamir Highway Truck and Panj.jpg|thumb|[[Pamir Highway]]]]

The [[Pamir Highway]], the world's second highest international road, runs from [[Dushanbe]] in [[Tajikistan]] to [[Osh]] in [[Kyrgyzstan]] through the [[Gorno-Badakhshan Autonomous Province]], and is the isolated region's main supply route. The Great [[Silk Road]] crossed a number of Pamir Mountain ranges.<ref>{{cite web
 |url         = http://www.travel-pamir.com/gp3.html
 |title       = Official Website of Pamir Travel
 |publisher   = Pamir Travel
 |access-date  = 2007-08-03
 |archive-url  = https://web.archive.org/web/20070928082214/http://www.travel-pamir.com/gp3.html
 |archive-date = 2007-09-28
}}
</ref>

== Tourism ==
In December 2009, the ''[[New York Times]]'' featured articles on the possibilities for tourism in the Pamir area of Tajikistan.<ref name=nytimes_pamir/><ref name=nytimes_crossroads/> 2013 proved to be the most successful year ever for tourism in the region and tourism development continues to be the fastest growing economic sector.

== Strategic position ==
[[File:ПикКоммунизма.jpg|upright|thumb|Climbers near "Peak Communism" in 1978.]]
Historically, the Pamir Mountains were considered a strategic trade route between [[Kashgar]] and [[Kokand]] on the [[Northern Silk Road]], a prehistoric trackway, and have been subject to numerous territorial conquests. The Northern Silk Road (about {{convert|2600|km|mi|0|abbr=on}} in length) connected the ancient Chinese capital [[Chang'an]] with Kashgar over the Pamir Mountains towards the west, and from there continued to ancient [[Parthia]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.megalithic.co.uk/article.php?sid=18006 |title=''Silk Road, North China'', C.Michael Hogan, the Megalithic Portal, ed. A. Burnham |publisher=Megalithic.co.uk |access-date=2009-08-10}}</ref> In the 20th century, these mountains have been the setting for the [[Tajikistani Civil War|Tajikistan Civil War]], border disputes between [[1991 Sino-Russian Border Agreement|China and the Soviet Union]], establishment of military bases by the US, Russia, and India,<ref name=hindu2003 /> and renewed interest in trade development and resource exploration.<ref>{{cite web
|url=http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,1218611-1,00.html
|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090211183420/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,1218611-1,00.html
|archive-date=February 11, 2009
|title= The West Is Red
|publisher=Time
|access-date=2007-08-26
}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.china.org.cn/english/2005/Jun/132201.h |title=Huge Market Potential at China-Pakistan Border |publisher=China Daily |access-date=2007-08-26 }}{{dead link|date=May 2016|bot=medic}}{{cbignore|bot=medic}}
</ref> The Chinese government says it has resolved most of the disputes it had with Central Asian countries.<ref name="china_mfa">{{cite web
|url=http://www.fmprc.gov.cn/mfa_eng/wjb_663304/zzjg_663340/tyfls_665260/tyfl_665264/2626_665266/t22820.shtml
|title=China's Territorial and Boundary Affairs
|date=2003-06-30
|publisher=[[Ministry of Foreign Affairs, the People's Republic of China]]
|access-date=2017-02-05
}}</ref>

== Religious symbolism ==

Some researchers identify the Pamirs with the [[Mount Meru]] or Sumeru.<ref>{{cite book |title=The Geopolitics of South Asia: From Early Empires to the Nuclear Age |first=Graham P. |last=Chapman |date=2003 |page=16|publisher=Ashgate Publishing |isbn=978-1-4094-8807-1 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DgbHSGqO2-4C}}</ref><ref>George Nathaniel Curzon; The Hindu World: An Encyclopedic Survey of Hinduism, 1968, p 184</ref><ref>Benjamin Walker - Hinduism; Ancient Indian Tradition & Mythology: {{IAST|Purāṇas}} in Translation, 1969, p 56</ref><ref>Jagdish Lal Shastri, Arnold Kunst, G. P. Bhatt, Ganesh Vasudeo Tagare - Oriental literature; Journal of the K.R. Cama Oriental Institute, 1928, p 38</ref><ref>Bernice Glatzer Rosenthal - History; Geographical Concepts in Ancient India, 1967, p 50</ref><ref>Bechan Dube - India; Geographical Data in the Early {{IAST|Purāṇas}}: A Critical Study, 1972, p 2</ref><ref>Dr M. R. Singh - India; Studies in the Proto-history of India, 1971, p 17</ref> The Mount Meru is the [[Sacred mountains|sacred five-peaked mountain]] of  [[Hinduism]], [[Buddhist cosmology|Buddhist]] and [[Jain cosmology|Jain]], and is considered to be the center of all the [[Physical universe|physical]], [[Metaphysics|metaphysical]] and spiritual universes.<ref>{{cite book|title=India through the ages|url=https://archive.org/details/indiathroughages00mada|last=Gopal|first=Madan|year= 1990| page= [https://archive.org/details/indiathroughages00mada/page/78 78]|editor=K.S. Gautam|publisher=Publication Division, Ministry of Information and Broadcasting, Government of India}}</ref>

== See also ==
{{Portal|Mountains|Geography}}
* [[Tajik National Park]]
* [[Pamir languages]]
* [[Pamiris]]
* [[List of mountain ranges]]
* [[List of highest mountains]]
* [[Soviet Central Asia]]
* [[Central Asia]]
* [[Mount Imeon]]
* [[Ak-Baital Pass]]
* [[China–Tajikistan border]]
* [[Karachukar Valley]]
* [[Pamir_(ship)|Barque Pamir]]

== Notes ==
{{notelist-ua}}

== References ==
{{Reflist|refs=
<ref name=nytimes_crossroads>
  {{cite news | url = http://travel.nytimes.com/2009/12/20/travel/20Pamir.html
   | title = Pamir Mountains, the Crossroads of History
   | author = Isaacson, Andy | date = 17 December 2009 | newspaper = The New York Times
   | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20140811052521/http://www.nytimes.com/2009/12/20/travel/20Pamir.html
   | archive-date= 2014-08-11}}</ref>
<ref name=nytimes_pamir>
  {{cite news | url = https://www.nytimes.com/slideshow/2009/12/20/travel/20091220-pamir-slideshow_index.html
   | title = The Pamir Mountains of Tajikistan | work = The New York Times | date = 29 April 2011 | access-date = 2015-01-08}}</ref>
<ref name=hindu2003>{{cite web
 |url          = http://www.hinduonnet.com/thehindu/2003/11/11/stories/2003111101861200.htm
 |title        = India's 'Pamir Knot'
 |date         = 11 November 2003
 |work    = The Hindu
 |access-date   = 2007-08-03
 |archive-url  = https://web.archive.org/web/20071210192920/http://www.hinduonnet.com/thehindu/2003/11/11/stories/2003111101861200.htm
 |archive-date = 2007-12-10
 |url-status     = usurped
}}</ref>
}}

== Further reading ==
<!-- SORTED BY DATE -->
{{refbegin|26em|indent=yes}}
* Leitner, G. W. (1890). ''Dardistan in 1866, 1886 and 1893: Being an Account of the History, Religions, Customs, Legends, Fables and Songs of Gilgit, Chilas, Kandia (Gabrial) Yasin, Chitral, Hunza, Nagyr and other parts of the Hindukush''. With a supplement to the second edition of The Hunza and Nagyr Handbook. And an Epitome of Part III of the author's "The Languages and Races of Dardistan". First Reprint 1978. Manjusri Publishing House, New Delhi.
* [[Charles Murray, 7th Earl of Dunmore|Murray, Charles]] (1894). ''The Pamirs; being a narrative of a year's expedition on horseback and on foot through Kashmir, western Tibet, Chinese Tartary, and Russian Central Asia''. J. Murray. ([https://archive.org/details/pamirsbeinganar01dunmgoog/page/n7/mode/2up Vol. I] and [https://archive.org/details/pamirsbeinganar00dunmgoog/page/n7/mode/2up II])
* [[George Curzon, 1st Marquess Curzon of Kedleston|Curzon, George Nathaniel]]. (1896). ''The Pamirs and the Source of the Oxus''. Royal Geographical Society, London. Reprint: Elibron Classics Series, Adamant Media Corporation. 2005. {{ISBN|1-4021-5983-8}} (pbk; {{ISBN|1-4021-3090-2}} (hbk).
* Wood, John, (1872). ''A Journey to the Source of the River Oxus''. With an essay on the Geography of the Valley of the Oxus by Colonel Henry Yule. London: John Murray.
* Gordon, T. E. (1876). ''The Roof of the World: Being the Narrative of a Journey over the high plateau of Tibet to the Russian Frontier and the Oxus sources on Pamir''. Edinburgh. Edmonston and Douglas. Reprint by Ch'eng Wen Publishing Company. Taipei. 1971.
* Cobbold, Ralph Patteson (1900). ''Innermost Asia: travel & sport in the Pamirs''. W. Heinemann.
* Strong, Anna Louise. (1930). ''The Road to the Grey Pamir''. Robert M. McBride & Co., New York.
* Toynbee, Arnold J. (1961). ''Between Oxus and Jumna''. London. Oxford University Press.
* Slesser, Malcolm (1964). ''Red Peak: A Personal Account of the British-Soviet Expedition''. Coward McCann.
* Wang, Miao (1983). ''From the Pamirs to Beijing : tracing Marco Polo's northern route''. HK China Tourism Press.
* Tilman, H. W. (1983). "Two Mountains and a River" part of ''The Severn Mountain Travel Books''. Diadem, London. 
* Waugh, Daniel C. (1999). "The 'Mysterious and Terrible Karatash Gorges': Notes and Documents on the Explorations by Stein and Skrine." ''The Geographical Journal'', Vol. 165, No. 3. (Nov., 1999), pp. 306–320.
* Horsman, S. (2002). ''Peaks, Politics and Purges: the First Ascent of Pik Stalin'' in Douglas, E. (ed.) Alpine Journal 2002 (Volume 107), The Alpine Club & Ernest Press, London, pp 199–206.
* Gecko-Maps (2004). ''The Pamirs. 1:500.000 – A tourist map of Gorno-Badkshan-Tajikistan and background information on the region.'' Verlag "Gecko-Maps", Switzerland ({{ISBN|3-906593-35-5}})
* Dagiev, Dagikhudo, and Carole Faucher, eds. (2018). ''Identity, History and Trans-nationality in Central Asia: The Mountain Communities of Pamir''. Routledge.
{{refend}}

== External links ==
{{Commons}}
{{Wikivoyage|Pamirs}}
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20181123170512/https://www.nationalgeographic.com/magazine/2013/02/wakhan-corridor/ Life in Afghanistan's Pamir mountains]
* [http://www.pamirs.org/ Information and photos]
* [http://avgustin.net/gallery.php?id=64 Afghan's Little Pamir – photos of the life of ethnic Kyrgyz] ([https://web.archive.org/web/20090212150218/http://avgustin.net/gallery.php?id=64 Archive])

{{Mountain ranges of China}}
{{Xinjiang topics}}

{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Pamir Mountains| ]]
[[Category:Landforms of Central Asia]]
[[Category:Mountain ranges of Asia]]
[[Category:Mountain ranges of China]]
[[Category:Mountain ranges of Afghanistan]]
[[Category:Mountain ranges of Pakistan]]
[[Category:Mountain ranges of Tajikistan]]
[[Category:Mountain ranges of Kyrgyzstan]]
[[Category:Physiographic provinces]]
[[Category:Landforms of Badakhshan Province]]