View source for Pannonia

{{Short description|Province of the Roman Empire (8/9 - 433 AD)}}
{{about|the Roman province}}
{{more citations needed|date=April 2016}}
{{Infobox Former Subdivision
| native_name            = 
| conventional_long_name = {{aut|Provincia Pannonia}}
| common_name            = Pannonia
| p1                     = 
| year_start             = 8/9&nbsp;
| event_end              = The [[Western Roman Empire]] officially cedes Pannonia to the [[Hunnic Empire]]
| year_end               = &nbsp;433 AD
| image_coat             = 
| image_map              = Pannonia01b.png
| image_map_caption      = Province of Pannonia in the first century AD
| capital                = [[Carnuntum]],<ref>{{cite book| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=FL-n5nfBm6cC&pg=PA21| title = Lonely Planet Vienna |page=21 | isbn = 9781741790023| last1 = Haywood| first1 = Anthony| last2 = Sieg| first2 = Caroline| year = 2010| publisher = Lonely Planet }}</ref> [[Sirmium]],<ref>{{cite web| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=2UtXAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA111| title = The third book of history: containing ancient history in connection with ancient geography  |page=111 | last1 = Goodrich| first1 = Samuel Griswold| year = 1835}}</ref> [[Szombathely|Savaria]],<ref>{{cite book| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=TvMjAQAAIAAJ&q=%22the+capital+of+pannonia+in%22| title = The Archaeology of Roman Pannonia  |page=247 | isbn = 9789630518864| last1 = Lengyel| first1 = Alfonz| last2 = Radan| first2 = George T.| last3 = Barkóczi| first3 = László| year = 1980| publisher = University Press of Kentucky }}</ref> [[Aquincum]],<ref>{{cite book| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=ft2d-zrlLWcC&pg=PA144| title = People and nature in historical perspective |publisher=Central European University Press |page=144 | isbn = 9789639241862| last1 = Laszlovszky| first1 = J¢Zsef| last2 = Szab¢| first2 = Péter| date = 2003}}</ref> [[Poetovio]]<ref>{{cite web| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=uBDGAAAAMAAJ&q=%22capital+of+pannonia%22| title = Historical outlook: a journal for readers, students and teachers of history, Том 9 |publisher=American Historical Association, National Board for Historical Service, National Council for the Social Studies, McKinley Publishing Company |page=194 | year = 1918}}</ref> or [[Vindobona]]<ref>{{cite web| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=2jNmDpPuSCkC&dq=%22capital+of+pannonia%22&pg=PA915| title = THE COTTAGE CYCLOPEDIA OF HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY |page=915 |editor1-last = Pierce|editor1-first = Edward M.| year = 1869}}</ref>
| stat_area1             = 
| stat_pop1              = 
| stat_year1             = 
| category               = 
| footnotes              = 
| demonym                =Pannonian
| era                    = [[Classical antiquity]]
| event_start            = Established via separation from [[Illyricum (Roman province)|Illyricum]]
}}

'''Pannonia''' ({{IPAc-en|p|ə|ˈ|n|oʊ|n|i|ə}}, {{IPA|la|panˈnɔnia|lang}}) was a [[Roman province|province]] of the [[Roman Empire]] bounded on the north and east by the [[Danube]], on the west by [[Noricum]] and upper [[Roman Italy|Italy]], and on the south by [[Dalmatia (Roman province)|Dalmatia]] and upper [[Moesia]]. It included the modern regions of western [[Hungary]], western [[Slovakia]], eastern [[Austria]], northern [[Croatia]], north-western [[Serbia]], northern [[Slovenia]], and northern [[Bosnia and Herzegovina]]. The northern and eastern boundary line of Pannonia was formed by the River [[Danube]].<ref>Pliny the Elder, Naturalis Historia, Book III, 146–147.</ref><ref>Strabo, Geographica, Book VII, fragments 1–4.</ref><ref>Ptolemy, Geographia, Book II, 14.</ref><ref>Tacitus, Annales II.46; Historiae III.5.</ref>

== Background ==
In the [[Early Iron Age]], [[Transdanubia]] was inhabited by the [[Pannonians]] or Pannonii,{{refn|group=note|Whose name the [[Toponymy|toponym]] "Pannonia" stems from.{{Sfn|Barkóczi|1980|p=89}}}} a collection of [[Illyrians|Illyrian]] tribes. The [[Celts]] invaded the region during the [[Late Iron Age]], and [[Gallo-Roman culture|Gallo-Roman]] historian [[Pompeius Trogus]] wrote that they faced heavy resistance from the locals, which eventually prevented them from overrunning the southern part of Transdanubia. Some tribes advanced as far as [[Delphi]], with the Scordisci settling in [[Syrmia]] (279 BC) upon being forced to withdraw.{{Sfn|Trogmayer|1980|p=81}} Additionally, the arrival of the Celts in Transdanubia disrupted the flow of amber from the [[Baltic Sea region]], through the [[Amber Road]], to the Illyrians.{{Sfn|Wilkes|1992|p=225}} They founded many villages. Those that held prominent economic significance developed into ''[[Oppidum|oppida]].''{{Sfn|Trogmayer|1980|p=81}} Independent tribes minted their own coins with the faces of their leaders. These were at first modelled on Macedonian and, later, [[Roman currency]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Trogmayer|1980|p=81}}; {{Harvnb|Mócsy|1974a|pp=29–31}}</ref>

Upon the Scordisci's withdrawal and settlement, they and the [[Dardani]] (in [[Kingdom of Dardania|Dardania]]) both became strong powers that opposed each other. The Dardani consistently raided [[Macedonia (ancient kingdom)|Macedon]] and developed close ties to Rome.{{Sfn|Mócsy|1974a|p=12}} [[Philip V of Macedon|Philip V]], who was a vehement enemy of the Dardani, allied with the Scordisci and, in 179 BC, persuaded the [[Bastarnae]] (at the [[Danube Delta]]) to break into Italy and subdue them on the way. Despite Philip's [[Battle of Cynoscephalae|defeat]] at the hands of the Romans in 197 BC and the [[Dardanian–Bastarnic war|failure]] of the Bastarnae, at this time the Dardani's power crumbled under the pressure from the Macedonians and Scordisci. Finally, [[Perseus of Macedon|Perseus]] annihilated them, giving way to a hundred years of Scordisci hegemony in the [[Balkans]]. During this time, the tribe started raiding the new province of [[Macedonia (Roman province)|Macedonia]], and —[[Strabo]] says— expanded as far as [[Paeonia (kingdom)|Paeonia]], [[Illyria]], and [[Thrace]].{{Sfn|Mócsy|1974a|p=13-14, 15}}

[[Aquileia]]'s foundation in 181 BC was the first step towards the Roman takeover of Pannonia. The town served as the starting station of the Amber Road and the launching point for attacks in that direction.<ref>{{Harvnb|Barkóczi|1980|p=90}}; {{Harvnb|Mócsy|1974a|p=33}}</ref> The Scordisci, in alliance with the Dalmatae, were in armed conflict with the Romans as early as 156 BC and 119 BC. In both wars, the Romans failed to conquer Siscia (now [[Sisak]], Croatia), which laid in a key position.<ref>{{Harvnb|Barkóczi|1980|p=86}}; {{Harvnb|Mócsy|1974a|pp=15, 16}}</ref> After these setbacks, Rome turned its attention to Noricum, which had both iron and silver mines.{{Sfn|Barkóczi|1980|p=90}}

As part of a new Celtic migration wave at the end of the 2nd century BC, the [[Boii]] left [[Northern Italy]] and established themselves as a significant power on the [[Danube]].{{Sfn|Barkóczi|1980|p=86}} According to [[Posidonius]]'s record of the [[Cimbri]] migration (preserved by Strabo), they were first repulsed by the Boii, then by the Scordisci, and then by the [[Taurisci]] towards the [[Helvetii]]. This describes the balance of power in the region.{{Sfn|Mócsy|1974a|p=16}} In the early 1st century BC, the [[Dacians]] emerged as a new dominant power. While their hold on the area between the Danube and the [[Tisza|Tisza river]] was loose, they had considerable influence in the territories beyond.{{Sfn|Barkóczi|1980|p=87}} In 88 BC, [[Lucius Cornelius Scipio Asiaticus (consul 83 BC)|Scipio Asiaticus]] (consul 83 BC) defeated the Scordisci so badly that they retreated to the eastern part of Syrmia.<ref>{{Harvnb|Barkóczi|1980|p=88}}; {{Harvnb|Mócsy|1974a|p=18}}; {{Harvnb|Tóth|1983|p=19}}</ref> Taking advantage of this situation, the Dacian king [[Burebista]] vanquished them sometime between 65 and 50 BC, and subsequently the Boii{{Refn|group=note|Hence the name ''deserta Boiorum'' ('desert of the Boii') used even by [[Pliny the Elder]] in his ''[[Natural History (Pliny)|Natural History]]''.{{Sfn|Mócsy|1974a|p=21}}}} and the Taurisci too. Thanks to the ebb of these entities, several local tribes regained their independence and influence.<ref>{{Harvnb|Barkóczi|1980|p=87}}; {{Harvnb|Mócsy|1974a|pp=18, 19}}; {{Harvnb|Tóth|1983|p=20}}</ref> In the context of [[Mithridates VI Eupator]]'s unfulfilled plan to invade Italy from the north (64 BC), the territory he was to cross is noted to have belonged to the Pannonians.<ref>{{Harvnb|Barkóczi|1980|p=87}}; {{Harvnb|Mócsy|1974a|p=18}}</ref> Immediately after Burebista's death ({{Circa|44 BC}}), [[Dacia]]'s kingdom dissolved too,{{Sfn|Mócsy|1974a|p=21}} leaving no entity in the region that Rome would make allowances for.{{Sfn|Mócsy|1974a|p=22}}[[File:Dacia_occupation_of_Pannonia_and_modern_day_Czechia.png|thumb|alt=Dacia|Map showing Burebista's dominance over Pannonia and Bohemia.]]

== Roman conquest ==
[[File:Pannonia popolazioni png.png|thumb|People of Transdanubia and its surroundings before the Roman conquest]]
The Pannonians were driven into conflict due to their support of the Dalmatae in their strife against Rome,{{Sfn|Barkóczi|1980|p=89}} but they weren't long-term and known enemies.{{Sfn|Mócsy|1974a|p=24}} The tribes north of the [[Drava|Drava River]] didn't participate in this, nor in the subsequent fights.{{Sfn|Barkóczi|1980|p=90}} In 35 BC, [[Octavian]] led a campaign against the [[Iapydes]] and the Pannonians,{{Sfn|Tóth|1983|p=20}} in which he captured Siscia in a month-long siege{{Sfn|Barkóczi|1980|p=88}} and occupied a large part of the [[Sava|Sava River]] valley. This was in accordance with Caesar's plan of creating a base for an invasion of Dacia, not realized due to his [[Assassination of Julius Caesar|assassination]]. However, Octavian only used the [[hoax]] of the "Dacian threat" as a pretense to gain control over a large amount of land in the [[Second Triumvirate]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Barkóczi|1980|p=87}}; {{Harvnb|Mócsy|1974a|pp=22–25}}</ref>

In 15 BC, the future emperor [[Tiberius]] defeated the Scordisci, forcing them to become allies. This was in response to Pannonian and Scordisci incursions the previous year.<ref>{{Harvnb|Barkóczi|1980|p=88}}; {{Harvnb|Mócsy|1974a|p=25}}; {{Harvnb|Tóth|1983|p=20}}</ref> The following events were part of the [[Roman Empire]]'s efforts to reach the Danube{{Sfn|Mócsy|1974a|p=26}} and are sometimes known thematically as ''[[Bellum Pannonicum]]''.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Džino |first=Danijel |title=Actes du Symposium International: Le livre, la Roumanie, l'Europe |publisher=Editura Biblioteca Bucureştilor |year=2012 |editor-last=Hauser |editor-first=Martin |edition=4th |volume=3 |location=[[Bucharest]] |page=461 |chapter=Bellum Pannonicum: The Roman armies and indigenous communities in southern Pannonia 16-9 BC |editor-last2=Feodorov |editor-first2=Ioana |editor-last3=Sekunda |editor-first3=Nicholas V. |editor-last4=Dumitru |editor-first4=Adrian George |chapter-url=https://www.academia.edu/1986169}}</ref>

In 14 BC, the Pannonians rose up. [[Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa|Vipsanius Agrippa]] was sent to the region after another rebellion in 13 BC. After his death the following year, the campaign was taken over by Tiberius,<ref>{{Harvnb|Barkóczi|1980|p=88}}; {{Harvnb|Mócsy|1974a|p=37}}; {{Harvnb|Tóth|1983|p=20}}</ref> who celebrated his [[Roman triumph|triumph]] in 11 BC. The province of [[Illyricum (Roman province)|Illyricum]] was established between the Sava and the [[Adriatic Sea]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Mócsy|1974a|p=38}}; {{Harvnb|Tóth|1983|p=20}}</ref> In 10 BC, Tiberius returned to quell a new uprising of the Pannonians and Dalmatae.{{Sfn|Tóth|1983|p=21}} After winning in 9 BC, he sold the youth of the Breuci and [[Amantini]] as slaves in Italy<ref>{{Harvardnb|Mócsy|1974a|p=37-38}}; {{Harvardnb|Tóth|1983|p=21}}; {{Harvardnb|Wilkes|1992|p=207}}</ref> and held an [[ovation]].{{Sfn|Tóth|1983|p=21}} His operations between 12 and 9 BC included constant expeditions into territories north of the Drava and almost certainly brought the whole Transdanubia under Roman control, even though there's no direct evidence for that.<ref>{{Harvnb|Barkóczi|1980|p=91}}; {{Harvnb|Mócsy|1974a|pp=35, 38}}</ref>

{{Blockquote|text=Through Tiberius Nero, then my stepson and legate, I brought under Roman authority the Pannonian peoples, which no Roman army had approached before I became princeps and advanced the boundaries of Illyricum to the bank of the Danube.|author=[[Augustus]]|title=''[[Res Gestae Divi Augusti]]''|source=chapter 30{{Sfn|Wilkes|1992|p=206}}}}Pannonia was invaded by the Dacians in 10 BC. The Romans launched campaigns through the Danube in order to secure it as the imperial border and defend the threatened new land. [[Lucius Domitius Ahenobarbus (consul 16 BC)|Lucius Domitius Ahenobarbus]]'s (consul 16 BC) operation in 1 AD extended as far as the Elbe. In 10 AD, [[Gnaeus Cornelius Lentulus Augur|Cornelius Lentulus Augur]] was able to debar not just the Dacians, but also the Sarmatians "from access to the Danube", says [[Florus]]. Locally more important was the offensive of [[Marcus Vinicius (consul 19 BC)|Marcus Vinicius]] against the tribes east of the [[Danube Bend]], showing an intent of "monopolizing" the Northern Transdanubian region politically. The last decade of the century saw the [[Marcomanni]] under their king [[Maroboduus]], settling north of Pannonia.<ref>{{Harvnb|Barkóczi|1980|p=88}}; {{Harvnb|Mócsy|1974a|pp=39–40, 45}}</ref> Augustus planned a two-sided attack on them, with one army approaching their territory from the [[Rhine]] and another one under Tiberius crossing the Danube at [[Carnuntum]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Barkóczi|1980|p=88}}; {{Harvnb|Mócsy|1974a|p=42}}</ref>

Before witnessing any result, Tiberius had to rush back in 6 AD and face a new uprising.<ref>{{Harvnb|Barkóczi|1980|p=89}}; {{Harvnb|Mócsy|1974a|p=42}}; {{Harvnb|Tóth|1983|p=21}}</ref>{{refn|group=note|Which was motivated by an order of conscription (from governor [[Marcus Valerius Messalla Messallinus|Valerius Messala Messallinus]]) among the tribesmen, according to [[Cassius Dio]].{{Sfn|Mócsy|1974a|p=42}}}} The unfolding ''[[Bellum Batonianum]]'' lasted for three years. The Breuci (under [[Bato the Breucian]]) and [[Daesitiates]] (under [[Bato the Daesitiate]] and [[Pinnes (Pannonian chieftain)|Pinnes]]) took the leading role, while the tribes north of the Drava stayed out again. The insurgents attempted to invade Italy and [[Macedonia (Roman province)|Macedonia]], but due to their lack of success, they united to besiege [[Sirmium]] (now [[Sremska Mitrovica]], Serbia). There, [[Caecina Severus]] defeated the insurgents, who retreated into the [[Fruška gora Mountains]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Barkóczi|1980|p=89}}; {{Harvnb|Mócsy|1974a|pp=42–43}}</ref> He annihilated them the following year when they tried to intercept him on his way to join Tiberius at Siscia.<ref>{{Harvnb|Barkóczi|1980|p=89}}; {{Harvnb|Mócsy|1974a|p=43}}</ref> Tiberius competently initiated a [[scorched-earth policy]]<ref>{{Harvnb|Barkóczi|1980|p=89}}; {{Harvnb|Mócsy|1974a|p=43}}; {{Harvnb|Tóth|1983|p=21}}</ref> which was unsatisfactory for Augustus, who sent more generals, including [[Germanicus]] and [[Plautius Silvanus]] (consul 2 BC) to the [[war theatre]].{{Sfn|Mócsy|1974a|p=43}} A capitulation was forced out in 8 AD, and Bato the Breucian delivered Pinnes to the Romans, becoming a vassal king of his tribe. However, the revolt flared up once again as the Daesitiates captured and executed Bato the Breucian and persuaded his people to continue the resistance.<ref>{{Harvnb|Barkóczi|1980|p=89}}; {{Harvnb|Mócsy|1974a|p=44}}; {{Harvnb|Tóth|1983|p=21}}</ref> Silvanus reconquered them and ousted Bato the Daesitiate into the [[Dinaric Alps]], where he laid down arms in 9 AD.<ref>{{Harvnb|Barkóczi|1980|p=89}}; {{Harvnb|Mócsy|1974a|p=44}}</ref>

== History ==
=== Consolidation and establishment of administration ===
{{Further information|Julio-Claudian dynasty}}
Illyricum was divided into [[Dalmatia (Roman province)|Dalmatia]] (initially called Illyricum Superius) and Pannonia (initially Illyricum Inferius) in 8 or 9 AD.{{refn|group=note|It was not until the second part of the century that the term "Pannonia" came into common usage.}}<ref>{{Harvnb|Barkóczi|1980|p=89}}; {{Harvnb|Mócsy|1974a|p=44}}; {{Harvnb|Tóth|1983|p=21}}</ref>

According to [[Suetonius]], with the ''Bellum Batonianum'', Tiberius finally defeated all peoples between the Danube and the Adriatic Sea.{{Sfn|Barkóczi|1980|p=89}} No Illyrian resistance is known after this, not due to the natives' compliance with the new ''status quo'', but due to their extreme exhaustion.{{Sfn|Wilkes|1992|p=207-208}} The eligible Pannonian youth were conscripted and commanded to other provinces.{{Sfn|Mócsy|1974a|p=44}} The communities taking part in the uprising were afterward relocated and organized into ''[[civitates]]'' under military supervision.{{refn|group=note|The [[Azali (tribe)|Azali]] were moved northwards at this time.}}{{Sfn|Tóth|1983|p=21}}

The military occupation of Pannonia may have been carried out in gradual steps.{{Sfn|Barkóczi|1980|p=90}} The Romans felt it necessary to resettle certain tribes to the territory of the peoples north of the Drava, which, for them, had no economic, but strategic significance. Augustus formed a kind of alliance where the Romans would act as supervisors, and it was not until his death (14 AD) that [[Roman legion|legions]] would be moved over from South Pannonia.{{Sfn|Barkóczi|1980|p=91}}

The second emperor Tiberius ({{Reign|17|37 AD}}) founded multiple ''[[coloniae]]'' in the province and developed its road network.<ref>{{Harvnb|Barkóczi|1980|pp=91–92}}; {{Harvnb|Mócsy|1974a|pp=45–46, 50}}</ref> However, due to these land's unsuitability for cultivation, it was a hard task to persuade veterans to comply with settling there, and he had to silence a mutiny right when assuming power.{{Sfn|Mócsy|1974a|p=45-46}} He sent his son [[Drusus Julius Caesar]] to create tranquility and depose Maroboduus, who needed Roman support for his war against [[Arminius]]. This ultimately caused the rise of [[Vannius]] (20 AD), who ruled over an extended realm.<ref>{{Harvnb|Barkóczi|1980|p=96}}; {{Harvnb|Mócsy|1974a|pp=46–47}}</ref>

It was [[Claudius]] ({{Reign|41|54 AD}}) who finished Pannonia's occupation and began to construct of the local ''[[Limes (Roman Empire)|limes]]''. Systematic integration into the Empire accompanied by the establishment of settled Roman life progressed subsequently.{{Sfn|Barkóczi|1980|p=92}} In 50 AD, Vannius was overthrown by [[Vangio and Sido]], who enjoyed the emperor's support.<ref>{{Harvnb|Barkóczi|1980|p=90}}; {{Harvnb|Mócsy|1974a|p=47}}</ref> By this date, the nomadic [[Sarmatians|Sarmatian]] population of the [[Iazyges]] had taken possession of the [[Danube–Tisza Interfluve]], helping the Romans by being a [[buffer state]] against the dangerous Dacians.<ref>{{Harvnb|Barkóczi|1980|p=96}}; {{Harvnb|Mócsy|1974a|p=41}}; {{Harvnb|Tóth|1983|p=22}}</ref>

At first, the primary goal of the Roman administration was the conclusion of the barbarian conflicts outside the province. In [[Nero]]'s time ({{Reign|54|68 AD}}) as many as 100,000 barbarians were moved from Pannonia to Moesia by [[Tiberius Plautius Silvanus Aelianus|Plautius Silvanus Aelianus]], and 50,000 may have been settled in Pannonia by [[Lucius Tampius Flavianus|Tampius Flavianus]]. During his important governorship, money began to circulate in the Barbaricum and the line of the ''limes'' was stabilized.{{Sfn|Barkóczi|1980|p=92}}

=== Under the Flavians ===
{{Further information|Flavian dynasty}}
The [[Year of the Four Emperors]] (69 AD) passed with peace in Pannonia. Flavianus declared for [[Vespasian]] and led his legions to Italy against [[Vitellius]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Mócsy|1974a|pp=47, 48}}; {{Harvnb|Tóth|1983|p=22}}</ref> Vespasian ({{Reign|69|79 AD}}) invested greatly in the construction of the ''limes''.{{Sfn|Barkóczi|1980|p=92}} Discarding the Augustan strategy where the legions' role was with maintaining order in their provinces, the [[Flavian emperors]] continually moved them to the border. This way they were prevented from interfering in [[domestic policy]], while the conquests were already pacified.{{Sfn|Mócsy|1974a|p=49, 85}} Systematic circulation of money  in the region situated north of the Drava shows that by this time Roman civilization had firmly taken root there.{{Sfn|Barkóczi|1980|p=92}}

[[Domitian]]'s ({{Reign|81|96}}) emperorship saw expensive wars with the barbarians, as a result of which the military emphasis shifted to the Danube frontier.<ref>{{Harvnb|Barkóczi|1980|p=93}}; {{Harvnb|Mócsy|1974a|p=98}}</ref> At the end of 85 or the beginning of 86, the reemerging Dacians under [[Decebalus]] raided [[Moesia]], killing its governor and eradicating a legion. After a brief stay, Domitian left [[Cornelius Fuscus]] to deal with the situation. After clearing the province of raiders, Fuscus undertook a disastrous campaign and lost his life (86). Finally, in 88, [[Tettius Julianus]] defeated Decebalus and the sides agreed to make peace.{{Sfn|Mócsy|1974a|p=87}} Vangio and Sido were most likely dead by now, the Marcomanni and [[Quadi]] denied vassal duties.{{Sfn|Mócsy|1974a|p=88}} When the emperor's punitive expedition (partially sent through Dacian territory) was repelled in 89, he—despite the damages suffered—settled for mild terms with Decebalus, instead committing his forces elsewhere. In the same year, he held his triumphs over the Dacians and [[Chatti]], but not over the disloyal Danubian Germans. When the Romans started supporting the [[Lugii]] against them, they made a pact with the Iazyges. This produced another war, almost completely unknown except for another catastrophe and destruction of a legion at the hands of the nomads.{{Sfn|Mócsy|1974a|p=89}} In 92 or 93, he finished the war, but held only an [[ovation]], indicating he probably had further plans in Pannonia.<ref>{{Harvnb|Mócsy|1974a|pp=89–90}}; {{Harvnb|Tóth|1983|p=23}}</ref>

=== Under the Antonines ===
{{Further information|Nerva–Antonine dynasty}}

We hear of war with the Danubian Germans again under [[Nerva]] ({{Reign|96|98}}).<ref>{{Harvnb|Barkóczi|1980|p=93}}; {{Harvnb|Mócsy|1974a|p=90}}; {{Harvnb|Tóth|1983|p=23}}</ref>
[[File:Pannonia02.png|thumb|172x172px|The divided Pannonia in the second century AD]]
Between 103 and 107, [[Trajan]] ({{Reign|98|117}}) executed the division of the province into [[Pannonia Inferior]] and [[Pannonia Superior]]. This allowed the Empire to better combat the radically different Germanic and Sarmatian tribes.<ref>{{Harvnb|Barkóczi|1980|p=93}}; {{Harvnb|Mócsy|1974a|p=98}}</ref> While Superior had most urbanized areas and a shorter frontier with three legions, Inferior contained one ''[[municipium]]'' and one legion, virtually being a border zone.{{Sfn|Mócsy|1974a|p=99}} Under his reign, the placement of garrison and the main lines of commerce became permanent.<ref>{{Harvnb|Barkóczi|1980|p=94}}; {{Harvnb|Mócsy|1974a|p=102}}</ref>

The creation of [[Roman Dacia]] had a great effect on Pannonia. In [[Trajan's Dacian Wars]], the Iazyges allied with the Romans, seeking to retain [[Oltenia]] where they were expelled by Decebalus. A brief confrontation in 107 was resolved [[Hadrian]], then-governor of Pannonia Inferior and it may have been agreed that the nomads would instead take possession of the region between the Tisza and the [[Apuseni Mountains]], not incorporated into the new province.{{Sfn|Mócsy|1974a|p=103}} However, taking advantage of Trajan's death and the preoccupation of the Empire with the [[Trajan's Parthian campaign|Parthian war]], they joined forces with the relative [[Roxolani]] and attacked again in 117, to which Dacia's governor, [[Gaius Julius Quadratus Bassus|Julius Quadratus Bassus]] fell victim. Hadrian ({{Reign|117|138}}) traveled to the spot and invested [[Marcius Turbo]] as governor of both Dacia and Pannonia Inferior to defeat the barbarians. The Roxolani were pacified first. Turbo's authorization was over in 119 as Iazyx peace envoys appeared in Rome.<ref>{{Harvnb|Barkóczi|1980|p=94}}; {{Harvnb|Mócsy|1974a|p=104}}; {{Harvnb|Tóth|1983|pp=24–25}}</ref> The postal connection between the two provinces through the Danube–Tisza Interfluve—which aggravated relations with the Sarmatians—was completed.<ref>{{Harvnb|Barkóczi|1980|p=94}}; {{Harvnb|Mócsy|1974a|p=104}}</ref>

War with the Quadi broke out again in the last years of Hadrian's reign, which his adopted son and joint governor of the Pannonian provinces, [[Aelius Caesar]] successfully handled until he died in 138. Command of Pannonia Superior was taken over by [[Titus Haterius Nepos (consul)|Haterius Nepos]], who ended the war with a Roman victory, becoming the last person to be awarded with ''[[ornamenta triumphalia]]''.<ref>{{Harvnb|Barkóczi|1980|p=95}}; {{Harvnb|Mócsy|1974a|p=106}}; {{Harvnb|Tóth|1983|p=25}}</ref>
[[File:REX QUADIS DATUS.jpg|thumb|136x136px|The coin of Pius (reverse), with the circumscription REX QUADIS DATUS]]
Under [[Antoninus Pius]]'s ({{Reign|138|161}}) quiet reign, some coins were issued propagating not the ending of a new campaign but the reestablishment of ''[[Foederati|foederatus]]'' relationship by the investiture of a new Quadi king. Discharges and detachments of troops happened.<ref>{{Harvnb|Barkóczi|1980|p=95}}; {{Harvnb|Mócsy|1974a|pp=106–107}}; {{Harvnb|Tóth|1983|p=25}}</ref>

Findings of hoards of coins likely buried during the rule of [[Marcus Aurelius]] ({{Reign|161|180}}) evidence turmoil due to barbarian attacks.<ref>{{Harvnb|Barkóczi|1980|p=95}}; {{Harvnb|Mócsy|1974a|pp=107–108}}</ref> Large-scale population movements in [[Northern Europe|Northern]] and [[Eastern Europe]] related to the [[Goths]] highly endangered Rome's clients, who wanted the Empire to give its lands to settlement and extend its protection over the tribes. Rome was unwilling to grant these requests.{{Sfn|Mócsy|1974b|pp=9-10}} The Romans may not have been aware of the dangerous situation at the start of the [[Parthian war of Lucius Verus]] because they sent a whole legion and many ''[[vexillatio]]nes'' away from Pannonia. It is thanks to the diplomatic efforts made by regional governors that tensions were eased until the dispatched forces could get back. When the threat became fully clear, Marcus even raised new legions.<ref>{{Harvnb|Barkóczi|1980|p=96}}; {{Harvnb|Mócsy|1974b|p=7}}</ref> The first attack came in the winter of 166-167, from the [[Lombards]] and [[Ubii]], between [[Brigetio]] and [[Arrabona]]. It was quickly repulsed by two auxiliary units. [[Cassius Dio]] tells of a legation of 11 tribes led by the Marcomanni subsequently petitioning the governor of Pannonia Superior, [[Marcus Iallius Bassus|Iallius Bassus]] to concede. This may have been the last attempt at making peace, as next, a barbarian coalition formed to fight Rome.<ref>{{Harvnb|Barkóczi|1980|p=97}}; {{Harvnb|Mócsy|1974b|pp=10–12}}; {{Harvnb|Tóth|1983|p=30}}</ref>

In 168, Marcus and [[Lucius Verus|Verus]] returned to Aquileia and set up their base there. The Marcomanni and Quadi broke through the border and the Alps' crosses, besieging the city and burning the small town of [[Opitergium]]. The peak of the [[Antonine Plague]] in the peninsula was at this time, causing Verus's death. The next years' heavy fighting resulted in the death of governor of Moesia Superior and Dacia [[Marcus Claudius Fronto|Claudius Fronto]] and [[praetorian prefect]] [[Marcus Macrinius Vindex|Macrinius Vindex]]. [[Claudius Pompeianus]] and future-emperor [[Pertinax]] returned part of the spoils taken by the enemy and led the offensive starting from 172. Against severe losses, the Romans forced first the Quadi, then the Marcomanni to surrender (172–173), while the military emphasis shifted to the Iazyges. Despite the winter incursion of the Iazyges was crushed (173-174), the Quadi overthrew their Roman-installed king and started to support the nomads. While the two nations tried to negotiate, Marcus eventually defeated both of them in separate campaigns.<ref>{{Harvnb|Barkóczi|1980|pp=97–98}}; {{Harvnb|Mócsy|1974b|pp=11–16}}</ref>

The second phase of the war started in 177. The attacking barbarians were kept in check, with Marcus and his son, the newly acclaimed [[Commodus]] ({{Reign|177|192}}) coming to Pannonia. A decisive campaign by [[Publius Tarrutenius Paternus|Tarrutenius Paternus]] in 179 convinced the Iazyges to make peace. In the same year, the land of the Danubian Germans was occupied by a force Cassius Dio claims to be 40,000 men—the number of soldiers stationed in Pannonia Inferior and Pannonia Superior combined. Control over tribes was taken over by prefects. [[Marcus Valerius Maximianus|Valerius Maximianus]], born in Pannonia, was an important general here.<ref>{{Harvnb|Barkóczi|1980|p=98}}; {{Harvnb|Mócsy|1974b|p=17}}</ref> Any possible plans with the creation of two new provinces—Marcomannia and Sarmatia—were aborted after the death of Marcus in 180. Commodus returned to the old border and client system, to which new residents were seemingly willing to join. As the barbarians pillaged during the war, taking cattle and captives away en masse, the destruction and loss of life in Pannonia was huge.<ref>{{Harvnb|Barkóczi|1980|p=99}}; {{Harvnb|Mócsy|1974b|pp=18–22}}</ref>

Commodus vigorously started to strengthen the ''limes'' with new fortifications. Minor raids on the province continued to occur, prompting a third campaign over the Danube at about. This campaign was smaller, and its leader, [[Tigidius Perennis]], achieved a victory. Another victorious expedition was conducted in 188.<ref>{{Harvnb|Barkóczi|1980|p=99}}; {{Harvnb|Mócsy|1974b|p=25}}; {{Harvnb|Tóth|1983|p=27}}</ref>

=== Under the Severans ===
{{Further information|Severan dynasty}}
During the [[Year of the Five Emperors]] (193), no attack was made on Pannonia. According to [[Herodian]], [[Septimius Severus]] ({{Reign|193|211}}) calmed the barbarian tribes via negotiations before marching off his troops to Italy and gaining the throne. In the coming years, the arrival of foreign groups led to new conflicts, but these were centered on Dacia and Pannonia only experienced collateral effects.<ref>{{Harvnb|Barkóczi|1980|pp=100–101}}; {{Harvnb|Mócsy|1974b|p=25}}</ref> The Severans' rule was supported by the Pannonian military and other provinces of the collective "Illyricum" region, which became politically important.{{Sfn|Mócsy|1974b|p=29}} In 202, a thorough visit to Pannonia by the imperial house was organized. Partly during this tour and throughout Severus' reign, the province benefited from many constructions. The road network was fully repaired, civilian and military buildings were inaugurated, military camps were improved and cities were protected with walls thus increasing their rank.<ref>{{Harvnb|Barkóczi|1980|p=102}}; {{Harvnb|Tóth|1983|p=28}}</ref>

=== Administration ===
Pannonia Superior was under the consular legate, who had formerly administered the single province, and had three legions under his control. Pannonia Inferior was at first under a praetorian legate with a single legion as the garrison; after [[Marcus Aurelius]], it was under a consular legate, but still with only one legion. The frontier on the Danube was protected by the establishment of the two colonies [[Aelia Mursia]] and [[Aelia Aquincum]] by [[Hadrian]].

Under [[Diocletian]] and his successors, a fourfold division of the country was made:{{Sfn|Borhy|2014|pp=124–127}}
* [[Pannonia Prima]] in the northwest, with its capital in Savaria, it included [[Pannonia Superior]] and the major part of Central Pannonia between the Raba and Drava,
* [[Pannonia Valeria]] in the northeast, with its capital in [[Sopianae]], it comprised the remainder of Central Pannonia between the Raba, Drava and Danube,
* [[Pannonia Savia]] in the southwest, with its capital in [[Siscia]],
* [[Pannonia Secunda]] in the southeast, with its capital in [[Sirmium]]

Diocletian also moved parts of today's [[Slovenia]] out of Pannonia and incorporated them in [[Noricum]].{{Sfn|Borhy|2014|pp=126–127}} In 324 AD, [[Constantine I]] enlarged the borders of Roman Pannonia to the east, annexing the plains of what is now eastern Hungary, northern Serbia and western Romania up to the [[Limes (Roman Empire)|limes]] that he created: the [[Devil's Dykes]].{{citation needed|date=October 2017}}

In the 4th–5th century, one of the dioceses of the Roman Empire was known as the [[Diocese of Pannonia]]. It had its capital in [[Sirmium]] and included all four provinces that were formed from historical Pannonia, as well as the provinces of [[Dalmatia (Roman province)|Dalmatia]], [[Noricum]] Mediterraneum and Noricum Ripense.{{Sfn|Fitz|1993–1995|pp=1175–1177}}

<gallery>
File:Pannonia01.png|Pannonia in the 1st century
File:Pannonia02.png|Pannonia in the 2nd century
File:Pannonia03 en.png|Pannonia in the 4th century
File:Limes4-en.png|Pannonia with Constantine I "limes" in 330 AD
</gallery>

=== Loss ===
In the 4th century, the Romans (especially under [[Valentinian I]]) fortified the villas and relocated barbarians to the border regions. In 358 they won a great victory over the [[Sarmatians]], but raids didn't stop. In 401 the [[Visigoths]] fled to the province from the [[Huns]], and the border guarding peoples fled to [[Roman Italy|Italia]] from them, but were beaten by [[Uldin]] in exchange for the transferring of Eastern Pannonia. In 433 Rome completely handed over the territory to [[Attila]] for the subjugation of the [[Burgundians]] attacking [[Roman Gaul|Gaul]].{{Sfn|Elekes|Lederer|Székely|1961|p=18}}

== After Roman rule ==
[[File:Gerulata.jpg|thumb|250px|right|[[Gerulata]]- a [[Roman Empire|Roman]] [[military camp]] located near today's [[Rusovce]], Slovakia.]]

During the [[Migration Period]] in the 5th century, some parts of Pannonia were ceded to the [[Huns]] in 433 by [[Flavius Aetius]], the [[magister militum]] of the [[Western Roman Empire]].<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=N91mj88PZEAC&q=Theodosius++Huns++433++Pannonia&pg=PA14|title=Attila, the Hun – Google Knihy |date=2003 |access-date=2018-10-17 |isbn=0-7910-7221-5|last1=Harvey |first1=Bonnie C.|publisher=Infobase }}</ref> After the collapse of the Hunnic empire in 454, large numbers of [[Ostrogoths]] were settled by Emperor [[Emperor Marcian|Marcian]] in the province as [[foederati]]. The [[Eastern Roman Empire]] controlled southern parts of Pannonia in the 6th century, during the reign of [[Justinian I]]. The Byzantine province of [[Pannonia (Byzantine province)|Pannonia]] with its capital at Sirmium was temporarily restored, but it included only a small southeastern part of historical Pannonia.

Afterwards, it was again invaded by the [[Pannonian Avars|Avars]] in the 560s, and the [[Slavs]], who first may settled c. 480s but became independent only from the 7th century. In 790s, it was invaded by the [[Franks]], who used the name "Pannonia" to designate the newly formed frontier province, the [[March of Pannonia]]. The term Pannonia was also used for Slavic [[polity]] like [[Pannonian Slavs#Principality|Lower Pannonia]] that was vassal to the [[Frankish Empire]].

Through Roman influence, a dialect of Latin now called [[Pannonian Latin]] developed in the region; the several major political shifts would see it extinct around the 6th century.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Gonda |first=Attila |date= June 2016|title=Fehér Bence: Pannonia latin nyelvtörténete. Budapest 2007. |url=https://real.mtak.hu/37591/ |journal=Antik Tanulmányok - Studia Antiqua |language=hu |volume=60 |pages=93–107 |doi=10.1556/092.2016.60.1.7 |issn=0003-567X}}</ref>

==Cities and auxiliary forts==
[[File:Gorsium-Tác.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Aerial photography: Gorsium - Tác - Hungary]]
[[File:Aquincum-Óbuda-01.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Aquincum, Hungary]]
[[File:Sirmium, Imperial Palace.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Ruins of Imperial Palace in Sirmium]]
The native settlements consisted of {{lang|la|[[pagus|pagi]]}} (cantons) containing a number of {{lang|la|[[vicus|vici]]}} (villages), the majority of the large towns being of [[Roman Empire|Roman]] origin. The cities and towns in Pannonia were:
{{div col|colwidth=18em}}
'''Now in Austria:'''
* [[Carnuntum]] ([[Petronell]], [[Bad Deutsch-Altenburg]])
* [[Vindobona]] ([[Vienna]])

'''Now in Bosnia and Herzegovina:'''
* [[Saldae (Pannonia)|Saldae]] ([[Brčko (city)|Brčko]])
* [[Serbinum]] or [[Servitium]] ([[Gradiška, Bosnia and Herzegovina|Gradiška]])
* [[Castrum and Canabea]] ([[Doboj (city)|Doboj]])

'''Now in Croatia:'''
* [[Ad Novas (Pannonia)|Ad Novas]] ([[Zmajevac]])
* [[Andautonia]] ([[Ščitarjevo]])
* [[Aqua Viva]] ([[Petrijanec]])
* [[Aquae Balisae]] ([[Daruvar]])
* [[Certissa]] ([[Đakovo]])
* [[Cibalae]] ([[Vinkovci]])
* [[Cornacum]] ([[Sotin]])
* [[Cuccium]] ([[Ilok]])
* [[Halikan|Halicanum]] ([[Sveti Martin na Muri]])
* [[Iovia]] or [[Iovia Botivo]] ([[Ludbreg]])
* [[Marsonia]] ([[Slavonski Brod]])
* [[Mursa]] ([[Osijek]])
* [[Siscia]] ([[Sisak]])
* [[Teutoburgium]] ([[Dalj]])

'''Now in Hungary:'''
* [[Mosonmagyaróvár|Ad Flexum]] ([[Mosonmagyaróvár]])
* [[Ad Mures]] ([[Ács]])
* [[Vaspuszta|Ad Statuas]] ([[Vaspuszta]])
* [[Várdomb|Ad Statuas]] ([[Várdomb]])
* [[Alisca]] ([[Szekszárd]])
* [[Alta Ripa]] ([[Tolna, Hungary|Tolna]])
* [[Aquincum]] ([[Óbuda]], Budapest)
* [[Arrabona]] ([[Győr]])
* [[Brigetio]] ([[Szőny]])
* [[Caesariana (Pannonia)|Caesariana]] ([[Baláca]])
* [[Campona]] ([[Nagytétény]])
* [[Cirpi]] ([[Dunabogdány]])
* [[Contra-Aquincum]] ([[Budapest]])
* [[Contra Constantiam]] ([[Dunakeszi]])
* [[Gorsium-Herculia]] ([[Tác]])
* [[Intercisa]] ([[Dunaújváros]])
* Iovia ([[Szakcs]])
* [[Lugio]] ([[Dunaszekcső]])
* [[Lussonium]] ([[Dunakömlőd]])
* [[Matrica]] ([[Százhalombatta]])
* [[Morgentianae]] ([[Tüskevár]] (?))
* [[Mursella]] ([[Mórichida]])
* [[Quadrata (Pannonia)|Quadrata]] ([[Lébény]])
* [[Zalalövő|Sala]] ([[Zalalövő]])
* [[Szombathely|Savaria]] ([[Szombathely]])
* [[Scarbantia]] ([[Sopron]])
* [[Solva (Hungary)|Solva]] ([[Esztergom]])
* [[Sopianae]] ([[Pécs]])
* [[Ulcisia Castra]] ([[Szentendre]])
* [[Valcum]] ([[Fenékpuszta]])

'''Now in Serbia:'''
* [[Acumincum]] ([[Stari Slankamen]])
* [[Ad Herculae]] ([[Čortanovci]])
* [[Bassianae]] ([[Donji Petrovci]])
* [[Banoštor|Bononia]] ([[Banoštor]])
* [[Burgenae]] ([[Novi Banovci]])
* [[Cusum (Pannonia)|Cusum]] ([[Petrovaradin]])
* [[Graio]] ([[Sremska Rača]])
* [[Onagrinum]] ([[Begeč]])
* [[Rittium]] ([[Surduk]])
* [[Sirmium]] ([[Sremska Mitrovica]])
* [[Taurunum]] ([[Zemun]])

'''Now in Slovakia:'''
* [[Gerulata]] ([[Rusovce]])

'''Now in Slovenia:'''
* [[Celeia]] ([[Celje]])
* [[Neviodunum]] ([[Drnovo]])
* [[Poetovio]] ([[Ptuj]])
{{div col end}}

==Economy==
The country was fairly productive, especially after the great forests had been cleared by [[Marcus Aurelius Probus|Probus]] and [[Galerius]]. Before that time, timber had been one of its most important exports. Its chief agricultural products were [[oat]]s and [[barley]], from which the inhabitants brewed a kind of [[beer]] named sabaea. Vines and olive trees were little cultivated. Pannonia was also famous for its breed of hunting dogs. Although no mention is made of its mineral wealth by the ancients, it is probable that it contained [[iron]] and [[silver]] mines.

=== Slavery ===
[[Slavery in ancient Rome|Slavery]] held a less important role in Pannonia's economy than in earlier established provinces. Rich civilians had domestic slaves do the housework while soldiers who had been awarded with land had their slaves cultivate it. Slaves worked in workshops primarily in western cities for rich industrialist.{{Sfn|Elekes|Lederer|Székely|1961|p=13}} In Aquincum, they were freed in a short time.{{Sfn|Elekes|Lederer|Székely|1961|p=14}}

== Religion ==
Pannonia had sanctuaries for [[Jupiter (mythology)|Jupiter]], [[Juno (mythology)|Juno]] and [[Minerva]], official deities of empire, and also for old Celtic deities. In Aquincum there was one for the mother goddess. The [[imperial cult]] was also present. In addition, [[Judaism]] and eastern [[Greco-Roman mysteries|mystery cults]] also appeared, the latter centered around [[Mithra]], [[Isis]], [[Anubis]] and [[Serapis]].{{Sfn|Elekes|Lederer|Székely|1961|p=14}}

Christianity began to spread inside the province in the 2nd century. Its popularity didn't decrease even during the big persecutions in the late 3rd century. In the 4th century, basilicas and funeral chapels were built. We know of the Church of [[Quirinus of Sescia|Saint Quirinus]] in Savaria and numerous early Christian memorials from Aquincum, Sopianae, Fenékpuszta, and Arian Christian ones from Csopak.{{Sfn|Elekes|Lederer|Székely|1961|p=14}}

==Legacy==
The ancient name Pannonia is retained in the modern term ''[[Pannonian Basin|Pannonian plain]]''.

==See also==
* [[Pannonian Basin|Pannonian plain]]
* [[Roman provinces]]
* [[Diocese of Pannonia]]
* [[Pannonian Latin]]

== Notes ==
{{reflist|group=note}}

==References==
{{reflist}}

==Sources==
{{refbegin}}
* {{Cite book |title=Die Römer in Ungarn |last=Borhy |first=László |publisher=Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft |year=2014 |isbn=978-3-8053-4820-1 |location=Darmstadt}}
* {{Cite book |url=http://real-eod.mtak.hu/12176/1/AkademiaiKiado_002252.pdf |title=The archaeology of Roman Pannonia |publisher=[[University Press of Kentucky]], Akadémiai Kiadó |year=1980 |isbn=0-8131-1370-9 |editor-last=Lengyel |editor-first=Alfonz |location=[[Lexington, Kentucky|Lexington]], [[Budapest]] |editor-last2=Radan |editor-first2=George T.}}
** {{harvc |last=Trogmayer |first=Ottó |year=1980 |contribution=Pannonia before the Roman conquest |in=Lengyel |in2=Radan |ignore-err=yes}}
** {{harvc |last=Barkóczi |first=László |year=1980 |contribution=History of Pannonia |in=Lengyel |in2=Radan |ignore-err=yes}}
* {{Cite book |title=Pannónia a korai császárság idején |last=Mócsy |first=András |publisher=Akadémiai Kiadó |year=1974a |isbn=963-05-0293-3 |editor-last=Harmatta |editor-first=János |editor-link=János Harmatta |location=Budapest |trans-title=Pannonia during the Early Empire |url=http://real-eod.mtak.hu/11108/1/AkademiaiKiado_001878.pdf}}
* {{Cite book |title=Pannónia a késői császárkorban |last=Mócsy |first=András |publisher=Akadémiai Kiadó |year=1974b |isbn=963-05-0293-3 |editor-last=Harmatta |editor-first=János |editor-link=János Harmatta |location=Budapest |trans-title=Pannonia during the Later Empire |url=http://real-eod.mtak.hu/11109/1/AkademiaiKiado_001879.pdf}}
* {{cite book |title=Magyarország történeti kronológiája |editor1-last=Benda |editor1-first=Kálmán |editor2-last=Solymosi |editor2-first=László |url=http://real-eod.mtak.hu/15809/1/AkademiaiKiado_004001.pdf |publisher=[[Akadémiai Kiadó]] |volume=1. A kezdetektől 1526-ig |location=[[Budapest]] |year=1983 |isbn=963-05-3182-8 |trans-title=Historical chronology of Hungary}}
** {{harvc |last=Kovács |first=Tibor |year=1983 |contribution=őskőkor-vaskor |in=Benda |in2=Solymosi |ignore-err=yes}}
** {{harvc |last=Tóth |first=István |year=1983 |contribution=római kor |in=Benda |in2=Solymosi |ignore-err=yes}}
* {{Cite book |title=The Illyrians |last=Wilkes |first=John |publisher=[[Blackwell Publishing]] |year=1992 |isbn=0-631-14671-7 |edition=1st |location=[[Bodmin]]}}
* {{Cite book |last1=Elekes |first1=Lajos |url=http://real-eod.mtak.hu/9200/1/magyarorszag_tortenete_001141310.pdf |title=Magyarország története |last2=Lederer |first2=Emma |last3=Székely |first3=György |publisher=Tankönyvkiadó |year=1961 |volume=I |location=[[Budapest]] |trans-title=History of Hungary}}
* {{Cite book |title=Die Verwaltung Pannoniens in der Römerzeit (four volumes) |last=Fitz |first=Jenő |publisher=Encyclopedia |year=1993–1995 |location=Budapest}}
* {{Cite book |last1=Petruska |first1=Magdolna |title=Az antik Róma napjai |publisher=Tankönyvkiadó |year=1983 |editor-last=Gyulás |editor-first=Istvánné |trans-title=The days of ancient Rome |chapter=A Danuvius partján |trans-chapter=On the shore of the Danuvius}}

{{refend}}

==Further reading==
*[https://hrcak.srce.hr/164529 <nowiki>Parat, Josip. "Izbori i pregledi antičkih literarnih izvora za povijest južne Panonije" [Selections and Surveys of Ancient Literary Sources for the History of Southern Pannonia]. In: </nowiki>''Scrinia Slavonica'' 15, br. 1 (2015): 9-33.]
*[http://arthist.elte.hu/Tanarok/FitzJeno/2006tavasz.htm <nowiki>Fitz, Jenő "RÓMAI MŰVÉSZET PANNONIÁBAN" [Roman art in Pannonia] (2006)</nowiki>]
* Fitz, Jenő (1993–1995). ''Die Verwaltung Pannoniens in der Römerzeit.'' Four volumes. Budapest: Encyclopedia.
* Kovács, Péter (2014). ''A history of Pannonia during the Principate.'' Bonn: Habelt.
* Kovács, Péter (2016). ''A history of Pannonia in the late Roman period I (284–363 AD).'' Bonn: Habelt ([https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-02572786/document Review] by Eric Fournier in the [[Journal of Roman Archaeology]]).

==External links==
{{Commons category|Pannonia}}
* {{Cite EB1911 |wstitle=Pannonia |volume=20 | page=680 |short=x}}
* {{cite encyclopedia |url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Pannonia |date=29 March 2018 |title=Pannonia |encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica |edition=online}}
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20080529052032/http://www.geocities.com/alexprobus/Pictures/PanoniaAntiqua.jpg Pannonia map]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20080529052031/http://www.geocities.com/alexprobus/Pictures/PannoniaNR.jpg Pannonia map]
* [http://www.civertan.hu/legifoto/legifoto.php?page_level=205 Aerial photography: Gorsium - Tác - Hungary]
* [http://www.civertan.hu/legifoto/legifoto.php?page_level=875 Aerial photography: Aquincum - Budapest - Hungary]

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