View source for Papuan languages

{{Short description|Non-Austronesian languages of New Guinea and adjacent islands}}
{{Infobox language family
| name          = Papuan
| region        = [[Indonesia]], [[Papua New Guinea]], [[Solomon Islands]], [[East Timor]]
| familycolor   = papuan
| acceptance    = geographic
| family        = not genetically related
| map           = File:Area of Papuan languages.svg
| mapcaption    = The historical distribution of the Papuan languages, in red. Tan is [[Austronesian languages|Austronesian]] and grey the historical range of [[Australian Aboriginal languages|Australian]] languages.
}}
The '''Papuan languages''' are the non-[[Austronesian languages]] spoken on the western Pacific island of [[New Guinea]], as well as neighbouring islands in [[Eastern Indonesia]], [[Solomon Islands]], and [[East Timor]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.languagesgulper.com/eng/Papuan.html|title=Papuan|website=www.languagesgulper.com|access-date=2017-10-15}}</ref> It is a strictly geographical grouping, and does not imply a [[genetic relationship (linguistics)|genetic relationship]].

[[New Guinea]] is the most linguistically diverse region in the world. Besides the Austronesian languages, there arguably are some 800 languages divided into perhaps sixty small language families, with unclear relationships to each other or to any other languages, plus many [[language isolate]]s. The majority of the Papuan languages are spoken on the island of New Guinea, with a number spoken in the [[Bismarck Archipelago]], [[Bougainville Island]] and the [[Solomon Islands (archipelago)|Solomon Islands]] (for example, [[Lavukaleve language|Lavukaleve]]. Further details in the [https://es.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Idioma_lavukaleve Spanish article])  to the east, and in [[Halmahera]], [[Timor]] and the [[Alor Archipelago|Alor archipelago]] to the west. The westernmost language, [[Tambora language|Tambora]] in [[Sumbawa]], is extinct. One Papuan language, [[Meriam language|Meriam]], is spoken within the national borders of [[Australia]], in the eastern [[Torres Strait]]. 

Several languages of [[Flores–Lembata languages|Flores]], [[Sumba languages|Sumba]], and other islands of eastern Indonesia are classified as Austronesian but have large numbers of non-Austronesian words in their basic vocabulary and non-Austronesian grammatical features. It has been suggested that these may have originally been non-Austronesian languages that have borrowed nearly all of their vocabulary from neighboring Austronesian languages, but no connection with the Papuan languages of Timor has been found. In general, the [[Central–Eastern Malayo-Polynesian languages]] are marked by a significant historical Papuan influence, lexically, grammatically, and phonologically, and this is responsible for much of the diversity of the Austronesian language family.

==Concept==
The "Papuan languages" are a strictly geographical grouping, and does not imply a [[genetic relationship (linguistics)|genetic relationship]]. The concept of Papuan (non-Austronesian) speaking [[Melanesians]] as distinct from [[Austronesian languages|Austronesian]]-speaking [[Melanesians]] was first suggested and named by [[Sidney Herbert Ray]] in 1892.{{sfn|Ray|1892|pp=}}

According to [[William A. Foley]] (1986):
{{Quote|The term 'Papuan languages' must not be taken in the same sense as 'Austronesian languages'. While all Austronesian languages are genetically related in one family, in the sense that they all descend from a common ancestral language called Proto-Austronesian spoken some 6,000 years ago... [Papuan languages] do not all trace their origins back to a single ancestral language... when a language is termed 'Papuan', this claims nothing more than that a language is not Austronesian.{{sfn|Foley|1986|pp=2–3}}}}

==Speaker numbers==
Most Papuan languages are spoken by hundreds to thousands of people; the most populous are found in the [[New Guinea Highlands]], where a few exceed a hundred thousand. These include [[Western Dani language|Western Dani]] (180,000 in 1993) and [[Ekari language|Ekari]] (100,000 reported 1985) in the western (Indonesian) highlands, and [[Enga language|Enga]] (230,000 in 2000), [[Huli language|Huli]] (150,000 reported 2011), and [[Melpa language|Melpa]] (130,000 reported 1991) in the eastern (PNG) highlands. To the west of New Guinea, the largest languages are [[Makasae language|Makasae]] in [[East Timor]] (100,000 in 2010) and [[Galela language|Galela]] in [[Halmahera]] (80,000 reported 1990). To the east, [[Terei language|Terei]] (27,000 reported 2003) and [[Naasioi language|Naasioi]] (20,000 reported 2007) are spoken on Bougainville.

==History of classification==
Although there has been relatively little study of these languages compared with the Austronesian family, there have been three preliminary attempts at large-scale genealogical classification, by [[Joseph Greenberg]], [[Stephen Wurm]], and [[Malcolm Ross (linguist)|Malcolm Ross]]. The largest family posited for the Papuan region is the [[Trans–New Guinea languages|Trans–New Guinea]] [[Phylum (linguistics)|phylum]], consisting of the majority of Papuan languages and running mainly along the highlands of New Guinea. The various high-level families may represent distinct migrations into New Guinea, presumably from the west.<ref name="Wurm">Wurm 1975</ref> Since perhaps only a quarter of Papuan languages have been studied in detail, linguists' understanding of the relationships between them will continue to be revised.

Statistical analyses designed to pick up signals too faint to be detected by the comparative method, though of disputed validity, suggest five major Papuan stocks (roughly [[Trans–New Guinea languages|Trans–New Guinea]], [[West Papuan languages|West]], [[Sepik–Ramu languages|North]], [[East Papuan languages|East]], and [[Trans-Fly–Bulaka River languages|South]] Papuan languages);<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Explaining the Linguistic Diversity of Sahul Using Population Models|first1=Ger|last1=Reesink|first2=Ruth|last2=Singer|first3=Michael|last3=Dunn|date=November 17, 2009|journal=PLOS Biology|volume=7|issue=11|article-number=e1000241|doi=10.1371/journal.pbio.1000241|pmid=19918360|pmc=2770058 |doi-access=free }}</ref> long-range comparison has also suggested connections between selected languages, but again the methodology is not orthodox in historical linguistics.<ref>Murray Gell-Mann et al. (2009) "[http://starling.rinet.ru/Texts/distant.pdf Distant Language Relationship: The Current Perspective]", ''Journal of Language Relationship·Вопросы языкового родства''</ref>

The [[Great Andamanese languages]] may be related to some western Papuan languages, but are not themselves covered by the term Papuan.<ref name="Wurm" />

===Wurm (1975)===
The most widely used classification of Papuan languages is that of [[Stephen Wurm]], listed below with the approximate number of languages in each family in parentheses. This was the scheme used by ''[[Ethnologue]]'' prior to Ross's classification (below). It is based on very preliminary work, much of it [[language typology|typological]], and Wurm himself has stated that he does not expect it to hold up well to scrutiny. Other linguists, including [[William A. Foley]], have suggested that many of Wurm's phyla are based on [[areal feature]]s and structural similarities, and accept only the lowest levels of his classification, most of which he inherited from prior taxonomies. Foley (1986) divides Papuan languages into over sixty small language families, plus a number of isolates. However, more recently Foley has accepted the broad outline if not the details of Wurm's classification, as he and Ross have substantiated a large portion of Wurm's Trans–New Guinea phylum.

According to [[Malcolm Ross (linguist)|Ross]] (see below), the main problem with Wurm's classification is that he did not take [[Language contact|contact-induced change]] into account. For example, several of the main branches of his Trans–New Guinea phylum have no vocabulary in common with other Trans–New Guinea languages, and were classified as Trans–New Guinea because they are similar [[morphology (linguistics)|grammatically]]. However, there are also many [[Austronesian languages]] that are grammatically similar to Trans–New Guinea languages due to the influence of contact and [[bilingualism]]. Similarly, several groups that do have substantial basic vocabulary in common with Trans–New Guinea languages are excluded from the phylum because they do not resemble it grammatically.

Wurm believed the Papuan languages arrived in several waves of migration with some of the earlier languages (perhaps including the [[Sepik–Ramu languages]]) being related to the Australian languages,<ref name="books.google" /><ref name=bellwood>{{cite book|url=https://press.anu.edu.au/publications/series/comparative-austronesian/austronesians|title=The Austronesians|first1=Peter|last1=Bellwood|first2=James J.|last2=Fox|first3=Darrell|last3=Tryon|editor-first1=Peter |editor-first2=James J |editor-first3=Darrell |editor-last1=Bellwood |editor-last2=Fox |editor-last3=Tryon |year=2006 |publisher=ANU Press|doi=10.22459/A.09.2006 |isbn=978-0-7315-2132-6 |via=press.anu.edu.au |doi-access=free }}</ref> a later migration bringing the West Papuan, Torricelli and the East Papuan languages<ref name="books.google">{{Cite book | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=dQt6XWloU10C&q=relationship+between+trans+new+guinea+and+west+papuan+languages&pg=PT449 | title = Encyclopedia of the world's endangered languages | isbn = 978-0-7007-1197-0 | last1 = Moseley | first1 = Christopher | year = 2007| publisher = Routledge }}</ref> and a third wave bringing the most recent pre-Austronesian migration, the Trans–New Guinea family.<ref name="books.google" />

{{collapse top|expand=yes|Papuan families proposed by Wurm (1975) (with approximate numbers of languages)}}
* [[Amto–Musan languages]] (2)
* ''[[Burmeso language]]'' (isolate)
* ''[[Busa language (Papuan)|Busa language]]'' (isolate)
* [[East Bird's Head languages]] (3)
* [[East Papuan languages]] (36)
* [[Geelvink Bay languages]] (12)
* ''[[Yuri language (New Guinea)|Yuri language]]'' (isolate)
* ''[[Porome language]]'' (isolate)
* [[Kwomtari–Baibai languages]] (6)
* [[Left May languages]] (7)
* [[Sepik–Ramu languages]] (104)
* [[Sko languages]] (7)
* [[Torricelli languages]] (48)
* [[Trans–New Guinea languages]] (598)
* [[West Papuan languages]] (26)
* ''[[Yalë language]]'' (isolate)

Two of Wurm's isolates have since been linked as the
* [[Lower Mamberamo languages]] (2),
and since Wurm's time another isolate and two languages belonging to a new family have been discovered,
* ''[[Abinomn language]]'' (isolate)
* [[Bayono–Awbono languages]] (2).
{{collapse bottom}}

===Foley (2003)===
Foley summarized the state of the literature.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://sydney.edu.au/arts/research_projects/delp/papuan.php|title=DELP - Papuan Languages|website=sydney.edu.au}}</ref> Besides Trans–New Guinea and families possibly belonging in TNG ([[Trans–New Guinea#Foley (2003)|see]]), he accepted the proposals for,

{{collapse top|expand=yes|Papuan families other than TNG accepted by Foley (2003)}}
*[[Ramu–Lower Sepik languages|Lower Sepik-Ramu]] ([[Lower Sepik languages|Lower Sepik]] + [[Lower Ramu languages|Lower Ramu]])
*[[Middle Sepik languages|Middle Sepik]] (incl. [[Ndu languages|Ndu]] and maybe [[Sepik Hill languages|Sepik Hill]])
*[[Torricelli languages|Torricelli]]
*[[Sko languages|Sko]]
*[[Lakes Plain languages|Lakes Plain]] and [[Cenderawasih Bay languages|Cenderawasih Bay]] (probably related)
*[[East Bird's Head languages|East Bird's Head]]
*[[West Bird's Head languages|West Bird's Head]]
*[[Marind languages|Marind]]
*[[Bougainville languages (disambiguation)|Bougainville]] (2 branches not close to each other: [[North Bougainville languages|North Bougainville]] + [[South Bougainville languages|South Bougainville]])
{{collapse bottom}}

===Ross (2005)===
Malcolm Ross re-evaluated Wurm's proposal on purely lexical grounds. That is, he looked at shared vocabulary, and especially shared idiosyncrasies analogous to English ''I'' and ''me'' vs. German ''ich'' and ''mich''. The poor state of documentation of Papuan languages restricts this approach largely to [[pronoun]]s. Nonetheless, Ross believes that he has been able to validate much of Wurm's classification, albeit with revisions to correct for Wurm's partially typological approach. (See [[Trans–New Guinea languages]].) ''[[Ethnologue]]'' (2009) largely follows Ross.

It has been suggested that the families that appear when comparing pronouns may be due to pronoun borrowing rather than to genealogical relatedness. However, Ross argues that Papuan languages have [[grammatical word|closed-class]] pronoun systems, which are resistant to borrowing, and in any case that the massive number of languages with similar pronouns in a family like Trans–New Guinea preclude borrowing as an explanation. Also, he shows that the two cases of alleged pronoun borrowing in New Guinea are simple coincidence, explainable as regular developments from the protolanguages of the families in question: as earlier forms of the languages are reconstructed, their pronouns become ''less'' similar, not more. (Ross argues that [[lexical word|open-class]] pronoun systems, where borrowings are common, are found in hierarchical cultures such as those of [[Southeast Asia]] and [[Japan]], where pronouns indicate details of relationship and social status rather than simply being grammatical [[pro-form]]s as they are in the more egalitarian New Guinea societies.)

Ross has proposed 23 Papuan language families and 9–13 isolates. However, because of his more stringent criteria, he was not able to find enough data to classify all Papuan languages, especially many isolates that have no close relatives to aid in their classification.

Ross also found that the [[Lower Mamberamo languages]] (or at least the Warembori language—he had insufficient data on Pauwi) are Austronesian languages that have been heavily transformed by contact with Papuan languages, much as the [[Takia language]] has. The [[Reef Islands – Santa Cruz languages]] of Wurm's [[East Papuan languages|East Papuan]] phylum were a potential 24th family, but subsequent work has shown them to be highly divergent Austronesian languages as well.

Note that while this classification may be more reliable than past attempts, it is based on a single parameter, ''pronouns,'' and therefore must remain tentative. Although pronouns are conservative elements in a language, they are short and utilise a reduced set of the language's [[phoneme|phonemic inventory]]. Both phenomena greatly increase the possibility of chance resemblances, especially when they are not confirmed by [[lexicon|lexical]] similarities.{{citation needed|date=May 2024}}

{{collapse top|expand=yes|Papuan families proposed by Ross (2005)}}
* [[Trans–New Guinea]] (reduced to 466–493 languages)
* ? [[Extended West Papuan]] (tentative)
** [[West Papuan languages]] (27)
** [[East Bird's Head – Sentani languages]] (9)
** ''[[Yawa languages|Yawa]]'' (1–2)
* [[Mairasi languages]] (4)
* [[East Geelvink Bay languages|East Cenderawasih (Geelvink Bay) languages]] (10)
* [[Lakes Plain languages]] (19; upper [[Mamberamo River]])
* [[Tor–Kwerba languages]] (17)
* [[Nimboran languages]] (5)
* [[Sko languages|Skou languages]] (8)
* [[Border languages (New Guinea)|Border languages]] (15)
* [[Left May – Kwomtari languages]] (13) (problematic)
**[[Left May languages|Left May]] (7)
**[[Fas languages|Fas]] (2)
**? [[Kwomtari languages|Kwomtari]] (3)
* [[Senagi languages]] (2) (perhaps related to Sepik)
* [[Torricelli languages]] (40–50) (perhaps related to Sepik)
* [[Sepik languages]] (51)
* [[Ramu – Lower Sepik languages]] (40) (first proposed by Foley)
* [[Yuat languages]] (5)
* [[Piawi languages]] (2) (perhaps in Ramu)
* [[South-Central Papuan languages]] (22)
* [[Eastern Trans-Fly languages]] (4; one in [[Australia]])
* ? [[Yele – West New Britain languages]] (tentative)
** ''[[Yélî Dnye language|Yélî Dnye]]'' (Yele) (isolate)
** ''[[Anêm language|Anêm]]'' (isolate)
** ''[[Ata language|Ata]]'' (Pele-Ata, Wasi) (isolate)
* [[Baining languages|Baining (East New Britain) languages]] (8)
* [[North Bougainville languages]] (4)
* [[South Bougainville languages]] (9)
* [[Central Solomons languages]] (4)

;Language isolates
Sorted by location

''north [[Papua (Indonesian province)|Irian]]:''
*[[Abinomn language]] (Baso, Foia)
*[[Isirawa language]] (Donohue links it to Kwerba)

''[[Sandaun Province]]:''
*[[Karkar language]] (Yuri) – since shown to be a [[Pauwasi language]]
*[[Busa language (Papuan)|Busa language]]
*[[Yalë language]] (Nagatman)

''[[Sepik River]]:''
*[[Taiap language]] (Gapun), located on what had been an offshore island 4000 BCE

''[[Bismarck Archipelago]]:''
*[[Sulka language]], on [[New Britain]]
*[[Kol language (Papua New Guinea)|Kol language]], on New Britain
*[[Kuot language]] (Panaras), on [[New Ireland (island)|New Ireland]]

;Other

Former isolates classified by Ross:
* [[Burmeso language]] (Taurap), in the [[East Bird's Head – Sentani languages]]
* [[Porome language]] (Kibiri), in the Kiwai family of [[Trans–New Guinea languages|Trans–New Guinea]]
* [[Morwap language]] (Elseng), in the [[Border languages (New Guinea)|Border languages]] (on basic lexical resemblances)

Languages reassigned to the [[Austronesian languages|Austronesian family]]:
* [[Lower Mamberamo languages|Lower Mamberamo]] (Donohue argues this is a [[relexification|relexified]] Papuan family; [[Yoke language|Yoke]] may not belong)
* [[Kazukuru language]] (2007)
* [[Reef Islands – Santa Cruz languages|Reef Islands – Santa Cruz]] (2007)

Unclassified due to lack of data:
* [[Amto–Musan languages]] (2)
* [[Kenati language|Kenati]] (isolate)
* [[Komyandaret language|Komyandaret]] (isolate)
* [[Maramba language|Maramba]] (unattested)
* [[Massep language|Massep]] (isolate)
* [[Molof language|Molof]] (isolate)
* [[Momuna languages|Momuna family]]: [[Momina language|Momina]], [[Momuna language|Momuna]] (Somahai)
* [[Samarokena language|Samarokena]] (apparently Kwerba)
* [[Saponi language|Saponi]] (shares basic vocab, but not pronouns, with Lakes Plains)
* [[Tause language|Tause]] (Ross placed it provisionally in East Bird's Head – Sentani to encourage research, but does not claim it is related)
* [[Tofamna language|Tofamna]] (isolate)
* [[Usku language|Usku]] (isolate)

Unaccounted for:
* [[Bayono–Awbono languages|Bayono-Awbono]] (TNG)
* [[Pyu language (Papua New Guinea)|Pyu]] (isolate, has been classified as Kwomtari–Baibai)
* [[Kosare language|Kosare]]
* [[Kapori language|Kapori]]
* [[Purari language|Purari]] (has been linked to Eleman, but with little evidence)
* There is a cluster of languages in West Papua between the upper [[Taritatu River]] and the PNG border, including Molof, Usku, and Tofamna listed above but also [[Namla language|Namla]], [[Murkim language|Murkim]], [[Lepki language|Lepki]], and [[Kembra language|Kembra]], which do not appear to be related to each other or to other languages in the area. Namla, recently discovered, may prove to be related to Tofamna once more data comes in. Murkim and Lepki show some similarities to each other, though these may not be genetic.
* [[Tambora language|Tambora]] (unclassified, with one lexical item possibly connecting it to [[Timor–Alor–Pantar languages|languages of Timor]])
* [[Doso language|Doso]]
* [[Kimki language|Kimki]]
{{collapse bottom}}

===Wichmann (2013)===
[[Søren Wichmann]] (2013) accepts the following 109 groups as coherent Papuan families, based on computational analyses performed by the [[Automated Similarity Judgment Program]] (ASJP) combined with [[Harald Hammarström]]'s (2012) classification.<ref name="Wichmann2013">{{cite book |last=Wichmann |first=Søren |year=2013 |chapter-url=http://www.langlxmelanesia.com/wichmann313-386.pdf |chapter=A classification of Papuan languages |editor-last=Hammarström |editor-first=Harald |editor2-first=Wilco |editor2-last=van den Heuvel |title=History, contact and classification of Papuan languages |series=Language and Linguistics in Melanesia |volume=Special Issue 2012 |pages=313–386 |location=Port Moresby |publisher=Linguistic Society of Papua New Guinea |archive-date=2020-11-25 |access-date=2018-07-17 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201125143227/https://www.langlxmelanesia.com/wichmann313-386.pdf }}</ref> Some of the groups could turn out to be related to each other, but Wichmann (2013) lists them as separate groups pending further research.

9 families have been broken up into separate groups in Wichmann's (2013) classification, which are:
*[[Biksi languages|Biksi]] (2 groups)
*[[Dibiyaso language|Dibiyaso]]-[[Doso–Turumsa languages|Doso-Turumsa]] (2 groups)
*[[Kwalean languages|Kwalean]] (2 groups)
*[[Lower Sepik-Ramu languages|Lower Sepik-Ramu]] (5 groups)
*[[Morehead-Wasur languages|Morehead-Wasur]] (2 groups)
*[[Nuclear Trans-New Guinea languages|Nuclear Trans-New Guinea]] (16 groups)
*[[Pauwasi languages|Pauwasi]] (2 groups: ''Western'' and ''Eastern'')
*[[Sentani languages|Sentanic]] (2 groups)
*[[Sko languages|Sko]] (2 groups)

{{collapse top|expand=yes|Papuan families proposed by Wichmann (2013)}}
{{refbegin|20em}}
#[[Timor–Alor–Pantar languages|West Timor-Alor-Pantar]] / [[Oirata–Makasai languages|East Timor]]-''[[Bunak language|Bunaq]]''
#[[South Bougainville languages|South Bougainville]]
#''[[Wiru language|Wiru]]''
#[[Namla–Tofanma languages|Namla-Tofanma]]
#ex-Pauwasi-1 (Western [[Pauwasi languages|Pauwasi]])
#ex-Nuclear Trans New Guinea-1 ([[Asmat–Kamoro languages|Asmat–Kamoro]])
#[[Mombum languages|Mombum]]
#[[Marind languages|Marindic]]
#ex-Nuclear Trans New Guinea-2 ([[Awyu–Dumut languages|Awyu–Dumut]])
#[[Inland Gulf languages|Inland Gulf]]
#ex-Nuclear Trans New Guinea-3 (''[[Oksapmin language|Oksapmin]]'')
#ex-Nuclear Trans New Guinea-4 ([[Ok languages|Ok]])
#ex-Nuclear Trans New Guinea-5 ([[Finisterre–Huon languages|Finisterre-Huon]])
#[[Goilalan languages|Goilalan]]
#ex-Nuclear Trans New Guinea-6 ([[Chimbu–Wahgi languages|Chimbu–Wahgi]])
#''[[Kamula language|Kamula]]'' / [[Awin–Pa languages|Awin–Pa]] / [[Bosavi languages|Bosavi]] / [[East Strickland languages|East Strickland]]
#ex-Dibiyaso-Doso-Turumsa-1 (''[[Dibiyaso language|Dibiyaso]]'')
#[[Angan languages|Angan]]
#[[Duna–Pogaya languages|Duna-Bogaya]]
#ex-Nuclear Trans New Guinea-7 ([[Engan languages|Engan]])
#[[Sepik languages|Sepik]] / [[Ndu languages|Ndu]] / [[Walio languages|Walio]]
#[[Kwerbic languages|Greater Kwerba]] / [[Orya–Tor languages|Tor-Orya]]
#[[Nimboran languages|Nimboran]] / ''[[Kapori language|Kapauri]]'' / [[Border languages (New Guinea)|Border]]
#''[[Elseng language|Elseng]]''
#[[North Halmahera languages|North Halmahera]]
#''[[Yalë language|Yalë]]''
#ex-Dibiyaso-Doso-Turumsa-2 ([[Doso–Turumsa languages|Doso-Turumsa]])
#[[Kwomtari languages|Kwomtari]]
#ex-Nuclear Trans New Guinea-8 ([[Mek languages|Mek]])
#ex-Morehead-Wasur-1 (''[[Yey language|Yey]], [[Nambu languages|Nambu]]'')
#[[Hatam–Mansim languages|Hatam-Mansim]]
#''[[Mor language (Papuan)|Mor]]''
#[[Pahoturi languages|Pahoturi]] / [[Eastern Trans-Fly languages|Eastern Trans-Fly]] 
#ex-Nuclear Trans New Guinea-9 ([[Kainantu–Goroka languages|Kainantu-Goroka]])
#[[Yareban languages|Yareban]] / [[Mailuan languages|Mailuan]]
#''[[Dem language|Dem]]''
#ex-Nuclear Trans New Guinea-10 ([[Southern Adelbert languages|Southern Adelbert]]: ''[[ISO 639:anh|Nend]], [[ISO 639:ate|Atemble]], [[ISO 639:ena|Apali]], [[ISO 639:faj|Faita]], [[ISO 639:imi|Anamgura]], [[ISO 639:kqa|Mum]], [[ISO 639:mmq|Musak]], [[ISO 639:msx|Moresada]], [[ISO 639:omo|Utarmbung]], [[ISO 639:pda|Anam]], [[ISO 639:pmr|Paynamar]], [[ISO 639:sbq|Sileibi]], [[ISO 639:wdg|Wadaginam]]'')
#ex-Nuclear Trans New Guinea-11 ([[Dani languages|Dani]])
#[[West Bomberai languages|West Bomberai]]
#ex-Nuclear Trans New Guinea-12 ([[Paniai Lakes languages|Wissel Lakes]])
#[[Koiarian languages|Koiarian]]
#''[[Kaki Ae language|Kaki Ae]]''
#''[[Morori language|Moraori]]''
#''[[Mawes language|Mawes]]''
#[[Kolopom languages|Kolopom]]
#[[Bulaka River languages|Bulaka River]]
#''[[Molof language|Molof]]''
#[[Yuat languages|Yuat]]-[[Maramba language|Maramba]]
#''[[Kaure language|Kaure-Narau]]''
#[[Tirio languages|Tirio]]
#[[Kayagar languages|Kayagar]]
#[[Gogodala–Suki languages|Suki-Gogodala]] / ''[[Waia language|Waia]]'' / [[Kiwaian languages|Kiwaian]]
#ex-Nuclear Trans New Guinea-13 ([[Binanderean languages|Binanderean]] + [[Kowan languages|Kowan]]: ''[[ISO 639:bhg|Binandere]], [[ISO 639:bjz|Baruga]], [[ISO 639:koz|Kowan]], [[ISO 639:kpr|Korafe]], [[ISO 639:sue|Suena]], [[ISO 639:wsk|Waskia]], [[ISO 639:zia|Zia]]'')
#''[[Fasu language|Fasu]]''-[[East Kutubuan languages|East Kutubu]]
#''[[Pawaia language|Pawaia]]''-[[Teberan languages|Teberan]]
#[[Turama–Kikorian languages|Turama-Kikori]]
#[[North Bougainville languages|North Bougainville]]
#[[Eleman languages|Eleman]]
#[[Mairasi languages|Mairasi]]
#''[[Touo language|Touo]]''
#ex-Kwalean-1 (''[[Humene language|Humene]]''-''[[Uare language|Uare]]'')
#''[[Sumuri language|Tanahmerah]]''
#''[[Savosavo language|Savosavo]]''
#''[[Bilua language|Bilua]]''
#[[Manubaran languages|Manubaran]]
#''[[Kuot language|Kuot]]''
#''[[Burmeso language|Burmeso]]''
#[[Amto–Musan languages|Amto-Musan]] / [[Left May languages|Left May]] / ''[[Busa language (Papuan)|Busa]]''
#ex-Sentanic-1 (''[[Sowari language|Sowari]]'')
#ex-Lower Sepik-Ramu-1 (''[[Ap Ma language|Ap Ma]]'')
#''[[Taiap language|Taiap]]''
#ex-Sko-1 (''[[ISO 639:ksi|I'saka]], [[ISO 639:skv|Skou]], [[ISO 639:vam|Vanimo]], [[ISO 639:wut|Wutung]]; [[Dusur language|Dusur]], [[Leitre language|Leitre]]'')
#ex-Lower Sepik-Ramu-2 ([[Nor–Pondo languages|Nor–Pondo]]: ''[[ISO 639:aog|Angoram]], [[ISO 639:can|Chambri]], [[ISO 639:mtf|Nor]], [[ISO 639:xop|Kopar]], [[ISO 639:yee|Yimas]]'')
#[[Geelvink Bay languages|Geelvink Bay]]
#''[[Konda language (Papuan)|Konda]]''-''[[Yahadian language|Yahadian]]''
#[[South Bird's Head languages|South Bird's Head]] family / [[Inanwatan languages|Inanwatan]]
#Nuclear [[Torricelli languages|Torricelli]]
#''[[Urim language|Urim]]''
#''[[Ata language|Ata]]''
#[[Monumbo languages|Monumbo]]
#ex-Sentanic-2 ([[Sentani languages|Sentani]] proper)
#ex-Lower Sepik-Ramu-3 (''[[Banaro language|Banaro]]'')
#[[Yawa languages|Yawa]]
#ex-Kwalean-2 (''[[Mulaha language|Mulaha]]'')
#''[[Lavukaleve language|Lavukaleve]]''
#''[[Anêm language|Anem]]''
#ex-Morehead-Wasur-2 (''[[Kunja language (Papuan)|Kunja]]'')
#''[[Papi language|Papi]]''
#''[[Mpur language|Mpur]]''
#''[[Abun language|Abun]]'' / ''[[Maybrat language|Maybrat]]'' / [[West Bird's Head languages|West Bird's Head]]
#[[Lakes Plain languages|Lakes Plain]]
#''[[Pyu language (Papua New Guinea)|Pyu]]''
#ex-Biksi-1 (''[[Kimki language|Kimki]]'')
#ex-Sko-2 (''[[ISO 639:rwa|Rawo]], [[ISO 639:wra|Barupu]]; [[Poo language|Poo]], [[Uni language|Ramo]], [[Sumararo language|Sumararo]], [[Womo language|Womo]]'')
#ex-Biksi-2 (''[[Yetfa language|Yetfa]]'')
#''[[Yele language|Yeli Dnye]]''
#[[Lepki–Murkim languages|Lepki–Murkim]]
#ex-Pauwasi-2 (Eastern [[Pauwasi languages|Pauwasi]])
#[[East Bird's Head languages|East Bird's Head]]
#''[[Kosare language|Kosare]]''
#''[[Usku language|Usku]]''
#ex-Nuclear Trans New Guinea-14 ([[Croisilles languages|Croisilles]])<ref>[[ISO 639-3]] codes: [[ISO 639:abw|abw]], [[ISO 639:ali|ali]], [[ISO 639:bie|bie]], [[ISO 639:bql|bql]], [[ISO 639:buq|buq]], [[ISO 639:dmc|dmc]], [[ISO 639:hih|hih]], [[ISO 639:kgu|kgu]], [[ISO 639:mhl|mhl]], [[ISO 639:mjj|mjj]], [[ISO 639:mkr|mkr]], [[ISO 639:mmi|mmi]], [[ISO 639:mvq|mvq]], [[ISO 639:ped|ped]], [[ISO 639:pla|pla]], [[ISO 639:prw|prw]], [[ISO 639:sks|sks]], [[ISO 639:ukg|ukg]], [[ISO 639:wnb|wnb]], [[ISO 639:wnu|wnu]], [[ISO 639:xow|xow]], [[ISO 639:ybm|ybm]], [[ISO 639:yrw|yrw]]</ref>
#ex-Nuclear Trans New Guinea-15 (''[[Kobon language|Kobon]]'')
#[[Senagi languages|Senagi]]
#[[Piawi languages|Piawi]]
#ex-Lower Sepik-Ramu-4 (''[[Rao language|Rao]]'')
#ex-Lower Sepik-Ramu-5 (''[[ISO 639:geb|Kire]], [[ISO 639:kct|Kaian]], [[ISO 639:msy|Aruamu]]'')
#ex-Nuclear Trans New Guinea-16 ([[Croisilles languages|Croisilles]])<ref>[[ISO 639-3]] codes: [[ISO 639:aey|aey]], [[ISO 639:asd|asd]], [[ISO 639:awm|awm]], [[ISO 639:bbd|bbd]], [[ISO 639:bbr|bbr]], [[ISO 639:bmh|bmh]], [[ISO 639:bmx|bmx]], [[ISO 639:boj|boj]], [[ISO 639:bpi|bpi]], [[ISO 639:bpm|bpm]], [[ISO 639:bpu|bpu]], [[ISO 639:dnr|dnr]], [[ISO 639:duk|duk]], [[ISO 639:eri|eri]], [[ISO 639:fad|fad]], [[ISO 639:gap|gap]], [[ISO 639:gaw|gaw]], [[ISO 639:ggl|ggl]], [[ISO 639:gmu|gmu]], [[ISO 639:gyb|gyb]], [[ISO 639:igo|igo]], [[ISO 639:jil|jil]], [[ISO 639:klm|klm]], [[ISO 639:kmf|kmf]], [[ISO 639:kop|kop]], [[ISO 639:lei|lei]], [[ISO 639:mcz|mcz]], [[ISO 639:mdc|mdc]], [[ISO 639:mlp|mlp]], [[ISO 639:mqe|mqe]], [[ISO 639:mqv|mqv]], [[ISO 639:mqw|mqw]], [[ISO 639:mtc|mtc]], [[ISO 639:nbk|nbk]], [[ISO 639:pnr|pnr]], [[ISO 639:pup|pup]], [[ISO 639:rea|rea]], [[ISO 639:rmp|rmp]], [[ISO 639:rpt|rpt]], [[ISO 639:six|six]], [[ISO 639:snr|snr]], [[ISO 639:snx|snx]], [[ISO 639:snz|snz]], [[ISO 639:spd|spd]], [[ISO 639:sra|sra]], [[ISO 639:ssd|ssd]], [[ISO 639:ssj|ssj]], [[ISO 639:swm|swm]], [[ISO 639:tya|tya]], [[ISO 639:urg|urg]], [[ISO 639:urw|urw]], [[ISO 639:usu|usu]], [[ISO 639:utu|utu]], [[ISO 639:wmc|wmc]], [[ISO 639:wtf|wtf]], [[ISO 639:xes|xes]], [[ISO 639:xsp|xsp]], [[ISO 639:ybo|ybo]], [[ISO 639:ydk|ydk]], [[ISO 639:ynl|ynl]]</ref>
{{refend}}
{{collapse bottom}}

An automated computational analysis ([[ASJP]] 4) by Müller, Velupillai, Wichmann et al. (2013)<ref name="ASJP-4">Müller, André, Viveka Velupillai, Søren Wichmann, Cecil H. Brown, Eric W. Holman, Sebastian Sauppe, Pamela Brown, Harald Hammarström, Oleg Belyaev, Johann-Mattis List, Dik Bakker, Dmitri Egorov, Matthias Urban, Robert Mailhammer, Matthew S. Dryer, Evgenia Korovina, David Beck, Helen Geyer, Pattie Epps, Anthony Grant, and Pilar Valenzuela. 2013. ''[https://asjp.clld.org/static/WorldLanguageTree-004.zip ASJP World Language Trees of Lexical Similarity: Version 4 (October 2013)]''.</ref> found lexical similarities among the following language groups. Note that some of these automatically generated groupings are due to chance resemblances.{{citation needed|date=May 2024}}

{{collapse top|expand=yes|Selected Papuan family groupings in the ''ASJP World Language Trees of Lexical Similarity'' (version 4)}}
{{refbegin|20em}}

*[[Yuat languages|Yuat]], [[Kwalean languages|Kwalean]], [[Mailuan languages|Mailuan]]
*[[Lower Sepik languages|Lower Sepik]], [[Monumbo languages|Monumbo]]
*[[Lakes Plain languages|Lakes Plain]], [[Wipi language|Wipi]], [[Marind languages|Marind]]
*[[Pyu language (Papuan)|Pyu]], [[Kimki language|Kimki]]
*[[Biksi language|Biksi]], [[Yele language|Yele]]
*[[Lepki-Murkim languages|Lepki-Murkim]], [[Karkar-Yuri language|Karkar-Yuri]]
*[[Skou languages|Skou]], [[Kaure language|Kaure]]-[[Usku language|Usku]], [[Marienberg languages|Marienberg]]
*[[Mairasi languages|Mairasi]], [[Mpur language|Mpur]]
*[[Touo language|Touo]], [[Savosavo language|Savosavo]], [[Bilua language|Bilua]]
*[[Angan languages|Angan]], [[Sepik languages|Sepik]]
*[[Binandere languages|Binandere]], [[Waskia language|Waskia]], [[Tiwi language|Tiwi]], [[Senagi languages|Senagi]]
*[[Border languages|Border]], [[Elseng language|Elseng]]
*[[Kwerba languages|Kwerba]], [[Nimboran languages|Nimboran]]
*[[Mek languages|Mek]], [[Tayap language|Tayap]], [[Abau language|Abau]], [[Yale language|Yale]]
*[[North Halmahera languages|North Halmahera]], [[Timor-Alor-Pantar languages|Timor-Alor-Pantar]]
*[[West Bomberai languages|West Bomberai]], [[Dani languages|Dani]], [[Oriomo languages|Oriomo]], [[Morehead languages|Morehead]]
*[[Meyah language|Meyah]], [[Sougb language|Sougb]], [[Hatam language|Hatam]]
*[[Kainantu languages|Kainantu]], [[Yareban languages|Yareban]]-[[Manubaran languages|Manubaran]]
*[[Kwomtari languages|Kwomtari]], [[Pawaia language|Pawaia]], [[Kwalean languages|Kwalean]]
*[[Sentani languages|Sentani]], [[Busa language (Papuan)|Busa]], [[Amto-Musan languages|Amto-Musan]], [[Left May languages|Left May]]
*[[Lavukaleve language|Lavukaleve]]. Further datails in the [https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Idioma_lavukaleve Spanish version]), [[Anem language|Anem]], [[Urim language|Urim]]
*[[Gorokan languages|Gorokan]]
*[[Kaure language|Kaure]], [[Makayam language|Makayam]]
*[[Gogodala languages|Gogodala]], [[Tabo language|Tabo]], [[Kiwaian languages|Kiwaian]], [[Madang languages|Madang]]
*[[Kayagaric languages|Kayagaric]], [[Mor language (Papuan)|Mor]], [[Bulaka River languages|Bulaka River]]
*[[North Bougainville languages|North Bougainville]], [[Eleman languages|Eleman]]
*[[Engan languages|Engan]], [[Duna-Bogaya languages|Duna-Bogaya]]
*[[Marind languages|Marind]], [[Asmat-Kamoro languages|Asmat-Kamoro]], [[Mombum languages|Mombum]]-[[Kolopom languages|Kolopom]]
*[[Dubu-Towei languages|Dubu-Towei]], [[Wiru language|Wiru]]
*[[Tofanma language|Tofanma]], [[Turama-Kikorian languages|Turama-Kikorian]]
*[[Awyu languages|Awyu]]
*[[Inland Gulf languages|Inland Gulf]], [[Ok-Oksapmin languages|Ok-Oksapmin]]
*[[Bosavi languages|Bosavi]], [[East Strickland languages|East Strickland]], [[Kapauku language|Kapauku]], [[Doso language|Doso]]
*[[Kutubuan languages|Kutubuan]]
*[[Angan languages|Angan]]
*[[Kamula language|Kamula]], [[Awin-Pa languages|Awin-Pa]], [[Goilalan languages|Goilalan]], [[Leonard Schultze languages|Leonard Schultze]]
*[[Koiarian languages|Koiarian]]
*[[Purari language|Purari]], [[Kaki Ae language|Kaki Ae]]
*[[Chimbu-Wahgi languages|Chimbu-Wahgi]], [[Finisterre-Huon languages|Finisterre-Huon]]
{{refend}}
{{collapse bottom}}

===Palmer (2018)===
Bill Palmer et al. (2018) propose 43 independent families and 37 language isolates in the Papuasphere, comprising a total of 862 languages.<ref name="Palmer-LLNGA">{{cite book |last=Palmer |first=Bill |editor1-last=Palmer |editor1-first=Bill |date=2018 |title=The Languages and Linguistics of the New Guinea Area: A Comprehensive Guide |chapter=Language families of the New Guinea Area |series= The World of Linguistics |volume=4 |location=Berlin |publisher=De Gruyter Mouton |pages=1–20 |isbn=978-3-11-028642-7}}</ref> A total of 80 independent groups are recognized. While [[Andrew Pawley|Pawley]] & [[Harald Hammarström|Hammarström]]'s internal classification of Trans-New Guinea largely resembles a composite of Usher's and Ross' classifications, Palmer et al. do not address the more tentative families that Usher proposes, such as [[Northwest Papuan languages|Northwest New Guinea]].

The coherence of the [[South Bird's Head languages|South Bird's Head]], [[East Bird's Head languages|East Bird's Head]], [[Pauwasi languages|Pauwasi]], [[Kwomtari–Fas languages|Kwomtari]], and [[Central Solomons languages|Central Solomons]] families are uncertain, and hence are marked below as "tentative."<ref name="Foley-Sepik-Ramu">{{cite book | last = Foley | first = William A. | author-link = William A. Foley | year = 2005 | chapter = Linguistic prehistory in the Sepik-Ramu basin | title = Papuan pasts: cultural, linguistic and biological histories of Papuan-speaking peoples | location = Canberra | publisher = Pacific Linguistics | isbn = 0-85883-562-2 | oclc = 67292782 | editor = Andrew Pawley | editor-link = Andrew Pawley | editor2 = Robert Attenborough | editor3 = Robin Hide | editor4 = Jack Golson | pages = 109&ndash;144 }}</ref><ref name="Holton-Birds-Head">{{cite book |last1=Holton |first1=Gary |last2=Klamer |first2=Marian |editor1-last=Palmer |editor1-first=Bill |date=2018 |title=The Languages and Linguistics of the New Guinea Area: A Comprehensive Guide |chapter=The Papuan languages of East Nusantara and the Bird's Head |series= The World of Linguistics |volume=4 |location=Berlin |publisher=De Gruyter Mouton |pages=569–640 |isbn=978-3-11-028642-7}}</ref><ref name="Stebbins-Island">{{cite book |last1=Stebbins |first1=Tonya |last2=Evans |first2=Bethwyn |last3=Terrill |first3=Angela |editor1-last=Palmer |editor1-first=Bill |date=2018 |title=The Languages and Linguistics of the New Guinea Area: A Comprehensive Guide |chapter=The Papuan languages of Island Melanesia |series= The World of Linguistics |volume=4 |location=Berlin |publisher=De Gruyter Mouton |pages=775–894 |isbn=978-3-11-028642-7}}</ref><ref name="Pawley-TNG">{{cite book |last1=Pawley |first1=Andrew |last2=Hammarström |first2=Harald |editor1-last=Palmer |editor1-first=Bill |date=2018 |title=The Languages and Linguistics of the New Guinea Area: A Comprehensive Guide |chapter=The Trans New Guinea family |series= The World of Linguistics |volume=4 |location=Berlin |publisher=De Gruyter Mouton |pages=21–196 |isbn=978-3-11-028642-7}}</ref>

{{collapse top|expand=yes|Papuan families proposed by Palmer (2018)}}
{{col-begin}}
{{col-break}}
'''''Papuan independent language families (43 families)'''''

*[[Trans New Guinea languages|Trans New Guinea]] (431)
*[[Torricelli languages|Torricelli]] (50)
*[[Sepik languages|Sepik]] (45)
*[[Lower Sepik-Ramu languages|Lower Sepik-Ramu]] (35)
*[[Yam languages|Yam]] (27)
*[[Timor-Alor-Pantar languages|Timor-Alor-Pantar]] (26)
*[[Tor-Kwerba languages|Tor-Kwerba]] (23)
*[[Lakes Plain languages|Lakes Plain]] (20)
*[[Border languages|Border]] (14)
*[[Sko languages|Sko]] (13)
*[[East Cenderawasih Bay languages|East Cenderawasih Bay]] (10)
*[[North Halmahera languages|North Halmahera]] (10)
*[[South Bird's Head languages|South Bird's Head]] (10) [tentative; 3 families?]
*[[Kwomtari–Fas languages|Kwomtari]] (6) [tentative; 4 families?]
*[[Leonard Schultze languages|Leonard Schultze]] (6)
*[[Upper Yuat languages|Upper Yuat]] (6)
*[[West Bird's Head languages|West Bird's Head]] (6)
*[[East Bird's Head languages|East Bird's Head]] (5) [tentative; 2 families?]
*[[Baining languages|Baining]] (5)
*[[Pauwasi languages|Pauwasi]] (5) [tentative; 2 families?]
*[[Nimboran languages|Nimboran]] (5)
*[[Yuat languages|Yuat]] (5)
*[[Left May languages|Left May]] (5)
*[[Pahoturi River languages|Pahoturi River]] (5)
*[[Eleman languages|Eleman]] (5)
*[[North Bougainville languages|North Bougainville]] (4)
*[[South Bougainville languages|South Bougainville]] (4)
*[[Central Solomons languages|Central Solomons]] (4) [tentative; 4 isolates?]
*[[Oriomo languages|Oriomo]] (4)
*[[Sentani languages|Sentani]] (4)
*[[Mairasi languages|Mairasi]] (3)
*[[Butam–Taulil languages|Butam-Taulil]] (2)
*[[Bayono–Awbono languages|Bayono-Awbono]] (2)
*[[Teberan languages|Teberan]] (2)
*[[Kaure languages|Kaure]] (2)
*[[Lepki languages|Lepki]] (2)
*[[Senagi languages|Senagi]] (2)
*[[Tofanma languages|Tofanma]] (2)
*[[Yawa languages|Yapen]] (2)
*[[Amto–Musan languages|Amto-Musan]] (2)
*[[Doso–Turumsa languages|Doso-Turumsa]] (2)
*[[Komolom languages|Komolom]] (2)
*[[Yelmek-Maklew languages|Yelmek-Maklew]] (2)
{{col-break}}
'''''Papuan isolates and unclassified languages (37 total)'''''

;[[Bird's Head Peninsula]] / [[Bomberai Peninsula]] (5)
*[[Abun language|Abun]]
*[[Mpur language|Mpur]]
*[[Maibrat language|Maibrat]]
*[[Mor language (Papuan)|Mor]]
*[[Sumuri language|Tanah Merah]]

;North coast / hinterland (12)
*[[Abinomn language|Abinomn]]
*[[Burmeso language|Burmeso]]
*[[Elseng language|Elseng]]
*[[Kapauri language|Kapauri]]
*[[Kembra language|Kembra]]
*[[Keuw language|Keuw]]
*[[Kimki language|Kimki]]
*[[Massep language|Massep]]
*[[Mawes language|Mawes]]
*[[Molof language|Molof]]
*[[Usku language|Usku]]
*[[Yetfa language|Yetfa]]

;Central [[West Papua (province)|West Papua]] (2)
*[[Dem language|Dem]]
*[[Uhunduni language|Uhunduni]]

;[[Sepik]]-[[Ramu]] basin (3)
*[[Busa language (Papuan)|Busa]]
*[[Taiap language|Taiap]]
*[[Yadë language|Yadë]]

;[[Gulf of Papua]] / hinterland (8)
*[[Dibiyaso language|Dibiyaso]]
*[[Kaki Ae language|Kaki Ae]]
*[[Kamula language|Kamula]]
*[[Karami language|Karami]]
*[[Pawaia language|Pawaia]]
*[[Porome language|Porome]]
*[[Purari language|Purari]]
*[[Tabo language|Tabo]]

;[[Bismarck Archipelago]] (6)
*[[Anêm language|Anêm]]
*[[Ata language|Ata]]
*[[Kol language (Papua New Guinea)|Kol]]
*[[Kuot language|Kuot]]
*[[Makolkol language|Makolkol]]
*[[Sulka language|Sulka]]

;[[Rossel Island]] ([[Louisiade Archipelago]]) (1)
*[[Yélî Dnye language|Yélî Dnye]]
{{col-end}}
{{collapse bottom}}

===''Glottolog'' 4.0 (2019)===
''[[Glottolog]]'' 4.0 (2019), based partly on Usher, recognizes 70 independent families and 55 isolates.<ref name="Glottolog-4-0">{{cite web |url=https://glottolog.org/glottolog/family |title=Glottolog |version=4.0 |editor1-last=Hammarström |editor1-first=Harald |editor2-last=Forkel |editor2-first=Robert |editor3-last=Haspelmath |editor3-first=Martin |date=2019 |location=Jena |publisher=[[Max Planck Institute for the Science of Human History]]}}</ref>

{{collapse top|expand=yes|Papuan families proposed in ''[[Glottolog]]'' 4.0}}
{{col-begin}}
{{col-break}}
;Families (70)

*[[Nuclear Trans-New Guinea languages|Nuclear Trans-New Guinea]] (314)
**''Subgroups'':
**[[Madang languages|Madang]] (106)
**[[Finisterre-Huon languages|Finisterre-Huon]] (61)
**[[Asmat-Awyu-Ok languages|Asmat-Awyu-Ok]] (49)
**[[Kainantu-Goroka languages|Kainantu-Goroka]] (28)
**[[Chimbu-Wahgi languages|Chimbu-Wahgi]] (17)
**[[Enga-Kewa-Huli languages|Enga-Kewa-Huli]] (14)
**[[Dani languages|Dani]] (13)
**[[Greater Binanderean languages|Greater Binanderean]] (13)
**[[Mek languages|Mek]] (8)
**[[Paniai Lakes languages|Paniai Lakes]] (5)
*[[Nuclear Torricelli languages|Nuclear Torricelli]] (55)
*[[Sepik languages|Sepik]] (36)
*[[Lower Sepik-Ramu languages|Lower Sepik-Ramu]] (30)
*[[Timor-Alor-Pantar languages|Timor-Alor-Pantar]] (23)
*[[Lakes Plain languages|Lakes Plain]] (20)
*[[Morehead-Wasur languages|Morehead-Wasur]] (19)
*[[Anim languages|Anim]] (17)
*[[Border languages|Border]] (15)
*[[North Halmahera languages|North Halmahera]] (15)
*[[Angan languages|Angan]] (13)
*[[Ndu languages|Ndu]] (13)
*[[Tor-Orya languages|Tor-Orya]] (13)
*[[Geelvink Bay languages|Geelvink Bay]] (10)
*[[Sko languages|Sko]] (10)
*[[Dagan languages|Dagan]] (9)
*[[South Bougainville languages|South Bougainville]] (9)
*[[Greater Kwerba languages|Greater Kwerba]] (8)
*[[Koiarian languages|Koiarian]] (8)
*[[Mailuan languages|Mailuan]] (8)
*[[Bosavi languages|Bosavi]] (7)
*[[Baining languages|Baining]] (6)
*[[East Strickland languages|East Strickland]] (6)
*[[Goilalan languages|Goilalan]] (6)
*[[Kiwaian languages|Kiwaian]] (6)
*[[Left May languages|Left May]] (6)
*[[South Bird's Head languages|South Bird's Head]] (6)
*[[Eleman languages|Eleman]] (5)
*[[Nimboranic languages|Nimboranic]] (5)
*[[Pauwasi languages|Pauwasi]] (5)
{{col-break}}
*[[West Bird's Head languages|West Bird's Head]] (5)
*[[Yareban languages|Yareban]] (5)
*[[Yuat languages|Yuat]] (5)
*[[Arafundi languages|Arafundi]] (4)
*[[Eastern Trans-Fly languages|Eastern Trans-Fly]] (4)
*[[North Bougainville languages|North Bougainville]] (4)
*[[Sentanic languages|Sentanic]] (4)
*[[Suki-Gogodala languages|Suki-Gogodala]] (4)
*[[Turama-Kikori languages|Turama-Kikori]] (4)
*[[Walioic languages|Walioic]] (4)
*[[East Bird's Head languages|East Bird's Head]] (3)
*[[Kamula-Elevala languages|Kamula-Elevala]] (3)
*[[Kayagaric languages|Kayagaric]] (3)
*[[Kolopom languages|Kolopom]] (3)
*[[Kwalean languages|Kwalean]] (3)
*[[Mairasic languages|Mairasic]] (3)
*[[Ulmapo languages|Ulmapo]] (3)
*[[West Bomberai languages|West Bomberai]] (3)
*[[Amto-Musan languages|Amto-Musan]] (2)
*[[Baibai-Fas languages|Baibai-Fas]] (2)
*[[Bayono-Awbono languages|Bayono-Awbono]] (2)
*[[Bogia languages|Bogia]] (2)
*[[Bulaka River languages|Bulaka River]] (2)
*[[Doso-Turumsa languages|Doso-Turumsa]] (2)
*[[East Kutubu languages|East Kutubu]] (2)
*[[Hatam-Mansim languages|Hatam-Mansim]] (2)
*[[Inanwatan languages|Inanwatan]] (2)
*[[Konda-Yahadian languages|Konda-Yahadian]] (2)
*[[Kwomtari-Nai languages|Kwomtari-Nai]] (2)
*[[Lepki-Murkim languages|Lepki-Murkim]] (2)
*[[Manubaran languages|Manubaran]] (2)
*[[Mombum-Koneraw languages|Mombum-Koneraw]] (2)
*[[Namla-Tofanma languages|Namla-Tofanma]] (2)
*[[Pahoturi languages|Pahoturi]] (2)
*[[Piawi languages|Piawi]] (2)
*[[Senagi languages|Senagi]] (2)
*[[Somahai languages|Somahai]] (2)
*[[Taulil-Butam languages|Taulil-Butam]] (2)
*[[Teberan languages|Teberan]] (2)
*[[Yawa-Saweru languages|Yawa-Saweru]] (2)
{{col-break}}
;Isolates (55)

*[[Abinomn language|Abinomn]]
*[[Abun language|Abun]]
*[[Ambakich language|Ambakich]]
*[[Anem language|Anem]]
*[[Ap Ma language|Ap Ma]]
*[[Asabano language|Asabano]]
*[[Bilua language|Bilua]]
*[[Bogaya language|Bogaya]]
*[[Burmeso language|Burmeso]]
*[[Damal language|Damal]]
*[[Dem language|Dem]]
*[[Dibiyaso language|Dibiyaso]]
*[[Duna language|Duna]]
*[[Elseng language|Elseng]]
*[[Fasu language|Fasu]]
*[[Guriaso language|Guriaso]]
*[[Kaki Ae language|Kaki Ae]]
*[[Kapori language|Kapori]]
*[[Karami language|Karami]]
*[[Kaure-Narau language|Kaure-Narau]]
*[[Kehu language|Kehu]]
*[[Kembra language|Kembra]]
*[[Kibiri language|Kibiri]]
*[[Kimki language|Kimki]]
*[[Kol language (Papua New Guinea)|Kol]]
*[[Kosadle language|Kosadle]]
*[[Kuot language|Kuot]]
*[[Lavukaleve language|Lavukaleve]]. Further datails in the [https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Idioma_lavukaleve Spanish version])
{{col-break}}
*[[Marori language|Marori]]
*[[Massep language|Massep]]
*[[Mawes language|Mawes]]
*[[Maybrat-Karon language|Maybrat-Karon]]
*[[Molof language|Molof]]
*[[Mor language (Papuan)|Mor]]
*[[Mpur language|Mpur]]
*[[Odiai language|Odiai]]
*[[Papi language|Papi]]
*[[Pawaia language|Pawaia]]
*[[Pele-Ata language|Pele-Ata]]
*[[Purari language|Purari]]
*[[Pyu language (Papua New Guinea)|Pyu]]
*[[Sause language|Sause]]
*[[Savosavo language|Savosavo]]
*[[Sulka language|Sulka]]
*[[Tabo language|Tabo]]
*[[Taiap language|Taiap]]
*[[Tambora language|Tambora]]
*[[Sumuri language|Tanahmerah]]
*[[Touo language|Touo]]
*[[Usku language|Usku]]
*[[Wiru language|Wiru]]
*[[Yale language|Yale]]
*[[Yele language|Yele]]
*[[Yerakai language|Yerakai]]
*[[Yetfa language|Yetfa]]
{{col-end}}
{{collapsebottom}}

===Usher & Suter (2024)===
[[Image:NewGuineaSelonUsher.png|thumb|right|upright=2|Language families of New Guinea, the North Moluccas, and the Lesser Sunda Islands according to Timothy Usher. Languages of Bougainville, the Solomon Islands, the Torres Strait Islands, and Northern Australia were not included in the study, and they are portrayed here according to current consensus.]]
The following families are identified by Timothy Usher and Edgar Suter in their NewGuineaWorld project:<ref>Usher, Timothy and Edgar Suter. [https://newguineaworld.linguistik.uzh.ch/system/app/pages/subPages?path=/families NewGuineaWorld].</ref>

{{collapse top|expand=yes|Papuan families proposed by Usher & Suter (2024)}}
*''[[Abinomn language|Abinomn]]''
*[[Arai and Samaia Rivers languages|Arai and Samaia Rivers]] (unites [[Left May languages|Left May]], [[Amto–Musan languages|Amto–Musan]], and ''[[Pyu language (Papuan)|Pyu]]'')
*[[Bulaka River languages|Bulaka River]] 
*[[Cenderawasih Bay languages|Cenderawasih Bay]] (= East Geelvink Bay)
*Central New Guinea Highlands ([[Enga – Southern Highlands languages|Enga – Southern Highlands]] and [[Simbu – Western Highlands languages|Simbu – Western Highlands]] = Chimbu–Wahgi) 
*[[Trans-Fly languages|East Trans-Fly]] (unites [[Eastern Trans-Fly languages|Eastern Trans-Fly]], [[Pahoturi languages|Pahoturi]], and ''[[Waia language|Waia]]'')
*[[Etna Bay languages|Etna Bay]] (= Mairasi)
*[[Kaki Ae – Kerema Bay languages|Kaki Ae – Kerema Bay]] (= Eleman)
*[[Keram and Ramu Rivers languages|Keram and Ramu Rivers]] (= Ramu)
*''[[Kibiri-Porome language|Kibiri-Porome]]''
*[[Kiwai languages|Kiwai]] 
*[[Lakes Plains languages|Lakes Plains]] 
*[[Lower Sepik River languages|Lower Sepik River]] 
*[[Madang languages|Madang]] – [[Upper Yuat River languages|Upper Yuat River]] (unites [[Arafundi languages|Arafundi]] and [[Piawi languages|Piawi]])
*[[Middle Yuat River languages|Middle Yuat River]]
*[[Morehead River languages|Morehead River]] (= Yam)
*[[Nawa River languages|Nawa River]] (= Kaure–Kosare)
*[[Northwest Papuan languages|Northwest New Guinea]] (tentative. unites [[Fas languages|Fas]], [[Sentani languages|Sentani]], [[Border languages (New Guinea)|Border]], [[Sko languages|Sko]], and [[Foja Range languages|Tor–Kwerba–Nimboran]])
*[[Oro – Wharton Range languages|Oro – Wharton Range]] (unites [[Binanderean languages|Binanderean]] and [[Goilalan languages|Goilalan]])
*[[Papuan Gulf languages|Papuan Gulf]] (tentative. unites [[Kutubuan languages|Kutubuan]]–[[Turama–Kikorian languages|Kikorian]], [[East Strickland languages|East Strickland]], [[Doso–Turumsa languages|Doso–Turumsa]], [[Gogodala–Suki languages|Gogodala–Suki]], and [[Teberan languages|Teberan]]–''[[Wiru language|Wiru]]''–''[[Pawaia language|Pawaia]]'')
*[[Pauwasi River languages|Pauwasi River]] (expands Pauwasi with several recently discovered languages)
*[[Senagi languages|Senagi]] 
*[[Senu River languages|Senu River]] (unites ''[[Kwomtari language|Kwomtari]]'', ''[[Yalë language|Nagatman]]'', and ''[[Busa language (Papuan)|Busa]]'')
*[[Sepik River languages|Sepik River]] 
*[[Torricelli Range – Sepik Coast languages|Torricelli Range – Sepik Coast]] (= Torricelli)
*[[Trans–New Guinea]] 
*[[West Papuan languages|West Papuan]] 
{{collapse bottom}}

In addition, poorly attested [[Karami language|Karami]] remains unclassified. 
Extinct [[Tambora language|Tambora]] and the [[East Papuan languages]] have not been addressed, except to identify [[Yele language|Yele]] as an Austronesian language.

===Greenberg's classification===
Joseph Greenberg proposed an [[Indo-Pacific languages|Indo-Pacific]] phylum containing the (Northern) [[Andamanese languages]], all Papuan languages, and the [[Tasmanian languages]], but not the [[Australian Aboriginal languages]]. Very few linguists accept his grouping. It is distinct from the Trans–New Guinea phylum of the classifications below.

==External relations==
[[Joseph Greenberg]] proposed that the [[Andamanese languages]] (or at least the [[Great Andamanese languages]]) off the coast of [[Burma]] are related to the Papuan or West Papuan languages. [[Stephen Wurm]] stated that the lexical similarities between Great Andamanese and the West Papuan and Timor–Alor families "are quite striking and amount to virtual formal identity [...] in a number of instances". However, he considered this not evidence of a connection between (Great) Andamanese and Trans&ndash;New Guinea, but of a [[Substrata (linguistics)|substratum]] from an earlier migration to New Guinea from the west.

Greenberg also suggested a connection to the [[Tasmanian languages]]. However, the Tasmanian peoples were isolated for perhaps 10,000 years, their disappearance wiped out their languages before much was recorded of them, and few linguists expect that they will ever be linked to another language family.{{citation needed|date=July 2024}}

[[William A. Foley]] (1986) noted lexical similarities between [[R. M. W. Dixon]]'s 1980 reconstruction of proto-[[Australian Aboriginal languages|Australian]] and the [[East New Guinea Highlands languages|languages of the East New Guinea Highlands]].{{sfn|Foley|1986|pp=}} He believed that it was naïve to expect to find a single Papuan or Australian language family when New Guinea and Australia had been a [[Australia (continent)|single landmass]] for most of their human history, having been separated by the [[Torres Strait]] only 8000 years ago, and that a deep reconstruction would likely include languages from both. However, Dixon later abandoned his proto-Australian proposal,<ref>{{cite book |last=Dixon |first=R. M. W. |year=2002 |title=Australian Languages: Their Nature and Development |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=0-521-47378-0 }}</ref> and Foley's ideas need to be re-evaluated in light of recent research. Wurm also suggested the [[Sepik–Ramu languages]] have similarities with the Australian languages, but believed this may be due to a substratum effect,<ref name=bellwood/> but nevertheless believed that the Australian languages represent a linguistic group that existed in New Guinea before the arrival of the Papuan languages (which he believed arrived in at least two different groups).<ref name="books.google" />

==Typology==
The [[West Papuan languages|West Papuan]], [[Lower Mamberamo languages|Lower Mamberamo]], and most [[Torricelli languages|Torricelli]] languages are all [[head (linguistics)|left-headed]], as well as the languages of [[New Britain]] and [[New Ireland (island)|New Ireland]]. These languages all have [[SVO word order]], with the exception of the language isolate [[Kuot language|Kuot]], which has [[VSO word order]]. All other Papuan languages are [[head (linguistics)|right-headed]].<ref name="Foley-Typology">{{cite book |last=Foley |first=William A. |author-link=William A. Foley |editor1-last=Palmer |editor1-first=Bill |date=2018 |title=The Languages and Linguistics of the New Guinea Area: A Comprehensive Guide |chapter=The morphosyntactic typology of Papuan languages |series= The World of Linguistics |volume=4 |location=Berlin |publisher=De Gruyter Mouton |pages=895–938 |isbn=978-3-11-028642-7}}</ref>

[[Tone (linguistics)|Tonal]] Papuan languages include the [[Skou languages|Sko]], [[Lepki language|Lepki]], [[Kaure language|Kaure]], [[Kembra language|Kembra]], [[Lakes Plain languages|Lakes Plain]], and [[Keuw language|Keuw]] languages.<ref name="Foley-Typology"/>

==See also==
{{Portal|New Guinea}}
*[[Trans–New Guinea languages]]
*[[Proto-Trans–New Guinea]]

==References==

===Notes===
{{Reflist}}

===General references===
{{Refbegin}}
* {{cite book | first = Lois | last = Carrington | year = 1996 | title = A linguistic bibliography of the New Guinea area | url = https://archive.org/details/linguisticbiblio0000carr | url-access = registration | publisher = Australian National University | location = Canberra | isbn = 978-0-85883-449-1 | oclc = 41223774 }}
* {{cite book | first = William A. | last = Foley | author-link = William A. Foley | year = 1986 | title = The Papuan Languages of New Guinea | location = Cambridge | publisher = Cambridge University Press | isbn = 0-521-28621-2 | oclc = 13004531 }}
* {{cite book |editor1=Pawley, Andrew |editor-link=Andrew Pawley |editor2=Robert Attenborough |editor3=Robin Hide |editor4=Jack Golson | year = 2005 | title = Papuan pasts: cultural, linguistic and biological histories of Papuan-speaking peoples | location = Canberra | publisher = Pacific Linguistics | isbn = 0-85883-562-2 | oclc = 67292782 }}
* {{cite journal | first = Sidney Herbert | last = Ray | author-link = Sidney Herbert Ray | title = The languages of British New Guinea | journal =  Transactions of the Ninth International Congress of Orientalists | year = 1892 | volume=II (1892) | pages = 754&ndash;770 }}
* {{Malcolm Ross Pronouns}}
* {{cite journal |editor-first = Stephen A. |editor-last = Wurm |editor-link = Stephen Wurm |year = 1975 |title = Papuan languages and the New Guinea linguistic scene: New Guinea area languages and language study 1 |url = http://www.papuaweb.org/dlib/bk/pl/C38/_toc.html |publisher = Dept. of Linguistics, Research School of Pacific Studies, Australian National University |location = Canberra |doi = 10.15144/PL-C38 |oclc = 37096514 |hdl = 1885/145150 |hdl-access = free |last1 = Wurm |first1 = S.A. (Ed.) |journal = C-38 |isbn = 978-0-85883-132-2 |archive-date = 2010-06-20 |access-date = 2009-08-13 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20100620132933/http://papuaweb.org/dlib/bk/pl/C38/_toc.html }}
* {{cite book | first = Stephen A. | last = Wurm | author-link = Stephen Wurm |  year = 1982 | title = The Papuan Languages of Oceania | location = Tübingen | publisher = Narr | isbn = 3-87808-357-2 | oclc = 8592292 }}
* {{cite journal | first = Stephen A. | last = Wurm | author-link = Stephen Wurm |  year = 1983 | title = Papuan linguistics: past and future | journal = Language and Linguistics in Melanesia | volume = 14 | pages = 5–25| oclc = 9188672  }}
{{Refend}}

==Further reading==
;Comparative wordlists
{{Refbegin}}
* Conrad, R. and Dye, W. "[http://dx.doi.org/10.15144/PL-A40.1 Some Language Relationships in the Upper Sepik Region of Papua New Guinea]". In Conrad, R., Dye, W., Thomson, N. and Bruce Jr., L. editors, ''Papers in New Guinea Linguistics'' No. 18. A-40:1-36. Pacific Linguistics, The Australian National University, 1975. {{doi|10.15144/PL-A40.1}}
* Davies, J. and [[Bernard Comrie|Comrie, B.]] "[http://dx.doi.org/10.15144/PL-A63.275 A linguistic survey of the Upper Yuat]". In Adams, K., Lauck, L., Miedema, J., Welling, F., Stokhof, W., Flassy, D., Oguri, H., Collier, K., Gregerson, K., Phinnemore, T., Scorza, D., Davies, J., Comrie, B. and Abbott, S. editors, ''Papers in New Guinea Linguistics'' No. 22. A-63:275-312. Pacific Linguistics, The Australian National University, 1985. {{doi|10.15144/PL-A63.275}}
* [[Tom Dutton (linguist)|Dutton, T.E.]] "Notes on the Languages of the Rigo Area of the Central District of Papua". In Wurm, S.A. and Laycock, D.C. editors, ''Pacific linguistic studies in honour of Arthur Capell''. C-13:879-984. Pacific Linguistics, The Australian National University, 1970. {{doi|10.15144/PL-C13.879}}
* [[William A. Foley|Foley, W.A.]] "Linguistic prehistory in the Sepik-Ramu basin". In Pawley, A., Attenborough, R., Golson, J. and Hide, R. editors, ''Papuan Pasts: Cultural, linguistic and biological histories of Papuan-speaking peoples''. PL-572:109-144. Pacific Linguistics, The Australian National University, 2005.
* Franklin, K.J. "Other Language Groups in the Gulf District and Adjacent Areas". In Franklin, K. editor, ''The linguistic situation in the Gulf District and adjacent areas, Papua New Guinea''. C-26:261-278. Pacific Linguistics, The Australian National University, 1973. {{doi|10.15144/PL-C26.261}}
* [[Donald Laycock|Laycock, Donald C.]] 1968. Languages of the Lumi Subdistrict (West Sepik District), New Guinea. ''[[Oceanic Linguistics]]'', 7 (1): 36–66.
* Macdonald, G.E. "[http://dx.doi.org/10.15144/PL-C26.111 The Teberan Language Family]". In Franklin, K. editor, ''The linguistic situation in the Gulf District and adjacent areas, Papua New Guinea''. C-26:111-148. Pacific Linguistics, The Australian National University, 1973. {{doi|10.15144/PL-C26.111}}
* McElhanon, K.A. and [[Clemens Voorhoeve|Voorhoeve, C.L.]] ''The Trans-New Guinea Phylum: Explorations in deep-level genetic relationships''. B-16, vi + 112 pages. Pacific Linguistics, The Australian National University, 1970. {{doi|10.15144/PL-B16}}
* Miedema, J. and Welling, F.I. "Fieldnotes on languages and dialects in the Kebar district, Bird's Head, Irian Jaya". In Adams, K., Lauck, L., Miedema, J., Welling, F., Stokhof, W., Flassy, D., Oguri, H., Collier, K., Gregerson, K., Phinnemore, T., Scorza, D., Davies, J., Comrie, B. and Abbott, S. editors, ''Papers in New Guinea Linguistics'' No. 22. A-63:29-52. Pacific Linguistics, The Australian National University, 1985. {{doi|10.15144/PL-A63.29}}
* Shaw, R.D. "[http://dx.doi.org/10.15144/PL-A70.45 The Bosavi language family]". In Laycock, D., Seiler, W., Bruce, L., Chlenov, M., Shaw, R.D., Holzknecht, S., Scott, G., Nekitel, O., Wurm, S.A., Goldman, L. and Fingleton, J. editors, ''Papers in New Guinea Linguistics'' No. 24. A-70:45-76. Pacific Linguistics, The Australian National University, 1986. {{doi|10.15144/PL-A70.45}}
* Shaw, R.D. "[http://dx.doi.org/10.15144/PL-C26.187 A Tentative Classification of the Languages of the Mt Bosavi Region]". In Franklin, K. editor, ''The linguistic situation in the Gulf District and adjacent areas, Papua New Guinea''. C-26:187-215. Pacific Linguistics, The Australian National University, 1973. {{doi|10.15144/PL-C26.187}}
* Thomson, N.P. "The Dialects of Magi". In Conrad, R., Dye, W., Thomson, N. and Bruce Jr., L. editors, ''Papers in New Guinea Linguistics'' No. 18. A-40:37-90. Pacific Linguistics, The Australian National University, 1975. {{doi|10.15144/PL-A40.37}}
* [[Clemens Voorhoeve|Voorhoeve, C.L.]] ''Languages of Irian Jaya: Checklist. Preliminary classification, language maps, wordlists''. B-31, iv + 133 pages. Pacific Linguistics, The Australian National University, 1975. {{doi|10.15144/PL-B31}}
* [[Clemens Voorhoeve|Voorhoeve, C.L.]] "Miscellaneous Notes on Languages in West Irian, New Guinea". In Dutton, T., Voorhoeve, C. and Wurm, S.A. editors, ''Papers in New Guinea Linguistics'' No. 14. A-28:47-114. Pacific Linguistics, The Australian National University, 1971. {{doi|10.15144/PL-A28.47}}
{{Refend}}

==External links==
*[http://transnewguinea.org/ TransNewGuinea.org - database of the languages of New Guinea] (by Simon Greenhill)
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20160422025649/http://papuaweb.org/bib/hays/loc/ 2003 bibliography of languages (Papuan and Austronesian) of Indonesian Papua]
*[http://www.sil.org/pacific/png/index.asp Summer Institute of Linguistics site on languages (Papuan and Austronesian) of Papua New Guinea]
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20060517013958/http://www.eastpapuan.ling.su.se/index.html?map.html Map of Papuan languages (formerly known as the East Papuan family) of island Melanesia]
*[http://www.arts.usyd.edu.au/research_projects/delp/papuan.php Bill Foley on Papuan languages]
* [http://linguistics.buffalo.edu/people/faculty/dryer/dryer/papuan Dryer's Papuan Language Families and Genera]
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20101011125015/http://www.elpr.bun.kyoto-u.ac.jp/essay/sakiyama.htm Endangered Languages of the Pacific Region]
*[https://newguineaworld.linguistik.uzh.ch/about-newguineaworld Timothy Usher's Newguineaworld site]

{{Papuan languages}}
{{Trans–New Guinea languages}}
{{Oceania topic|Languages of}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Papuan languages| ]]
[[Category:Languages of Indonesia]]
[[Category:Languages of Papua New Guinea]]