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{{Short description|Chinese opera style}}
{{Featured article}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=October 2025}}
{{Infobox music genre
|name=Peking opera
|etymology=From Peking, the [[Chinese postal romanization|postal romanization]] of [[Beijing]]
|other_names=Beijing opera, Pekingese opera, Jing opera, Jingju, Jingxi, Guoju
|stylistic_origins=[[Hui opera]], [[Kunqu]], [[Qinqiang]], [[Han opera]]
|image=[[File:IMGP0739 (19415725842).jpg|260px]]
|caption=Peking opera in Shanghai, 2014
}}
{{Infobox intangible heritage
| Name = Peking Opera
| Image = [[File:二进宫143054.jpg|280px]]
| Caption = 
| Country = China
| ID = 418
| Region = APA
| Year = 2010
| List = Representative
| Session = 5th
| Below = [[File:Unesco Cultural Heritage logo.svg|100px]]
| Note = UNESCO Cultural Heritage
}}  
{{Infobox Chinese
| pic = Peking Opera (Chinese characters).svg
| piccap = "Peking Opera" in Simplified (top) and Traditional (bottom) Chinese characters
| picupright = 0.45
| s = {{linktext|京|剧}}
| t = {{linktext|京|劇}}
| l = "capital drama"
| p = Jīngjù
| tp = Jing-jyù
| w = {{tone superscript|Ching1-chü4}}
| mi = {{IPAc-cmn|j|ing|1|.|ju|4}}
| bpmf = ㄐㄧㄥ ㄐㄩˋ
| j = ging1 kek6
| y = Gīng-kehk
| ci = {{IPAc-yue|g|ing|1|-|k|ek|6}}
| tl = Kiann-kio̍k
| t2 = {{linktext|京|戲}}
| s2 = {{linktext|京|戏}}
| p2 = Jīngxì
| tp2 = Jing-sì
| w2 = {{tone superscript|Ching1-hsi4}}
| mi2 = {{IPAc-cmn|j|ing|1|.|x|i|4}}
| bpmf2 = ㄐㄧㄥ ㄒㄧˋ
| l2 = Capital play
| altname3 = 
| t3 = {{linktext|國|劇}}
| s3 = {{linktext|国|剧}}
| l3 = National drama
| p3 = Guójù
| tp3 = Guó-jyù
| w3 = {{tone superscript|Kuo2-chü4}}
| mi3 = {{IPAc-cmn|g|uo|2|.|ju|4}}
| bpmf3 = ㄍㄨㄛˊ ㄐㄩˋ
| altname4 = Former name (mainly used 19th century)
| s4 = {{linktext|皮|黄}}
| t4 = {{linktext|皮|黃}}
| p4 = Píhuáng
| tp4 = Pí-huáng
| w4 = {{tone superscript|P'i2-huang2}}
| mi4 = {{IPAc-cmn|p|i|2|.|h|uang|2}}
| bpmf4 = ㄆㄧˊ ㄏㄨㄤˊ
| altname5 = Former name (mainly used 1927–1949)
| t5 = {{linktext|平|劇}}
| s5 = {{linktext|平|剧}}
| l5 = [[Beiping]]'s drama
| p5 = Píngjù
| tp5 = Píng-jyù
| w5 = {{tone superscript|P'ing2-chü4}}
| mi5 = {{IPAc-cmn|p|ing|2|.|ju|4}}
| bpmf5 = ㄆㄧㄥˊ ㄐㄩˋ
| c = 
| altname = 
}}

'''Peking opera''', or '''Beijing opera''' ({{zh|c=京劇|p=Jīngjù}}), is the most dominant form of [[Chinese opera]], which combines instrumental music, vocal performance, mime, martial arts, dance and acrobatics. It arose in [[Beijing]] in the mid-[[Qing dynasty]] (1644–1912) and became fully developed and recognized by the mid-19th century.<ref name="Afternoon">{{harvnb|Goldstein 2007|loc=page 3.}}</ref> The form was extremely popular in the Qing court and has come to be regarded as one of the cultural treasures of China.<ref name="Taiping">{{harvnb|Mackerras 1976|loc=pages 473–501.}}</ref> Major performance troupes are based in Beijing, [[Tianjin]] and [[Shanghai]].<ref name="Contemp">{{harvnb|Wichmann 1990|loc=pages 146–178.}}</ref> The art form is also preserved in [[Taiwan]], where it is also known as {{lang|zh-Latn|Guójù}} ({{zh|t=國劇 |l=National opera}}). It has also spread to other regions such as the [[United States]] and [[Japan]].<ref name="1930 New York">{{harvnb|Rao 2000|loc=pages 135–162.}}</ref>

Peking opera features four main role types, ''[[Sheng role|sheng]]'' (gentlemen), ''[[dan role|dan]]'' (women), ''[[jing role|jing]]'' (rough men), and ''[[chou role|chou]]'' (clowns). Performing troupes often have several of each variety, as well as numerous secondary and tertiary performers. With their elaborate and colorful costumes, performers are the only focal points on Peking opera characteristically sparse stage. They use the skills of speech, song, dance and combat in movements that are symbolic and suggestive, rather than realistic. Above all else, the skill of performers is evaluated according to the beauty of their movements. Performers also adhere to a variety of stylistic conventions that help audiences navigate the plot of the production.<ref name="aural">{{harvnb|Wichmann 1991|loc=page 360.}}</ref> The layers of meaning within each movement must be expressed in time with music. The music of Peking opera can be divided into the {{lang|zh-Latn|xīpí}} ({{lang|zh|西皮}}) and {{lang|zh-Latn|èrhuáng}} ({{lang|zh-hans|二黄}}) styles. Melodies include [[aria]]s, fixed-tune melodies and [[Percussion instrument|percussion]] patterns.<ref name="aria">{{harvnb|Guy 1990|loc=pages 254–259}}</ref> The repertoire of Peking opera includes over 1,400 works, which are based on [[Chinese history]], [[Chinese folklore|folklore]] and, increasingly, contemporary life.<ref>{{harvnb|Wichmann 1991|loc=pages 12–16.}}</ref>

Traditional Peking opera was denounced as "feudalistic" and "bourgeois" during the [[Cultural Revolution]] (1966–1976) and replaced mostly with the [[revolutionary opera]]s until the period's end.<ref name="Lu Xing"/> After the Cultural Revolution, these transformations were largely undone. In recent years, Peking opera has responded to sagging audience numbers by attempting reforms, including improving performance quality, adapting new performance elements, shortening works, and performing new and original plays.

==Etymology==
"Peking opera" is the English term for the art form; the term entered the ''[[Oxford English Dictionary]]'' in 1953.<ref>''Oxford English Dictionary'', 2nd edition, 1989.</ref> "Beijing opera" is a more recent equivalent.

In China, the art form has been known by many names at different times and places. The earliest Chinese name, {{Transliteration|zh|Pihuang}}, was a combination of the {{Transliteration|zh|xipi}} and {{Transliteration|zh|erhuang}} melodies. As it increased in popularity, its name became {{Transliteration|zh|Jingju}} or {{Transliteration|zh|Jingxi}}, which reflected its start in the capital city ({{zh|c=京|p=Jīng}}). From 1927 to 1949, when Beijing was known as [[Beiping]], Peking opera was known as {{Transliteration|zh|Pingxi}} or {{Transliteration|zh|Pingju}} to reflect this change. Finally, with the establishment of the People's Republic of China in 1949, the name of the capital city was reverted to Beijing, and the formal name of this theatre in mainland China was established as {{Transliteration|zh|Jingju}}. The [[Taiwan]]ese name for this type of opera, {{Transliteration|zh|Guoju}}, or "national opera", reflects [[Political status of Taiwan|disputes]] over the true seat of the Chinese government.<ref name="Name?">{{harvnb|Guy 1995|loc=pages 85–103.}}</ref>

==History==
===Origins===
[[File: Sun Wukong at Beijing opera - Journey to the West.jpg|thumb|left|The character [[Sun Wukong]] at the Peking opera from ''[[Journey to the West]]'']]
Peking opera was born when the Four Great Anhui Troupes brought Hui opera, or what is now called ''[[Huiju]]'', in 1790 to Beijing, for the eightieth birthday of the [[Qianlong Emperor]]<ref name="Xu">{{harvnb|Xu 2012|loc=page 15.}}</ref> on 25 September.<ref name="Elliott">{{cite book|author=Mark C. Elliott|title=Emperor Qianlong: Son of Heaven, Man of the World|year=2009|publisher=Longman Publishing Group|isbn=978-0-321-08444-6|page=3}}</ref> It was originally staged for the court and only made available to the public later. In 1828, several famous Hubei troupes arrived in Beijing and performed jointly with Anhui troupes. The combination gradually formed Peking opera's melodies. Peking opera is generally regarded as having fully formed by 1845.<ref name="Afternoon"/> Although it is called Peking opera (Beijing theatre style), its origins are in the greater areas of the capital of Anhui province (the City of [[Anqing]]), including southern [[Anhui]] and eastern [[Hubei]], which share the similar dialect of [[Xiajiang Mandarin]] (Lower Yangtze Mandarin). Peking opera's two main [[Four Great Characteristic Melodies|melodies]], {{Transliteration|zh|Xipi}} and {{Transliteration|zh|Erhuang}}. {{Transliteration|zh|Xipi}} literally means "skin puppet show", referring to the puppet show that originated in [[Shaanxi province]]. Chinese puppet shows always involve singing. Much dialogue is also carried out in an archaic form of Mandarin Chinese, in which the [[Zhongyuan Mandarin]] dialects of Henan and Shaanxi are closest. This form of Mandarin is recorded in the book {{Transliteration|zh|Zhongyuan Yinyun}}. It also absorbed music from other operas and local ''[[Zhili Province|Zhili]]'' musical art forms. Some scholars believe that the {{Transliteration|zh|Xipi}} musical form was derived from the historic [[Qinqiang]], while many conventions of staging, performance elements, and [[aesthetic]] principles were retained from [[Kunqu]], the form that preceded it as court art.<ref name="XiEr">{{harvnb|Huang 1989|loc=pages 152–195}}</ref><ref name="Kunqu">{{Cite web|url=http://wtrgreenkunqu.org/Resources/Kunqu%20Description.htm|title=What is Kunqu Theatre?|access-date=2007-04-04|publisher=Wintergreen Kunqu Society|year=2006|author1=Charles Wilson|author2=Hans Frankel|format=Web|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110615064754/http://www.wtrgreenkunqu.org/Resources/Kunqu%20Description.htm|archive-date=2011-06-15|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Goldstein 2007|loc=page 2.}}</ref>

Thus, Peking opera is not a monolithic form, but rather a coalescence of many older forms. However, the new form also creates its own innovations. The vocal requirements for all of the major roles were greatly reduced for Peking opera. The Chou, in particular, rarely has a singing part in Peking opera, unlike the equivalent role in {{Transliteration|zh|Kunqu}} style. The [[melodies]] that accompany each play were also simplified, and are played with different traditional instruments than in earlier forms. Perhaps most noticeably, true acrobatic elements were introduced with Peking opera.<ref name="Kunqu" /> The form grew in popularity throughout the 19th century. The Anhui troupes reached their peak of excellence in the middle of the century and were invited to perform in the court of the Taiping Heavenly Kingdom that had been established during the [[Taiping Rebellion]]. Beginning in 1884, the [[Empress Dowager Cixi]] became a regular patron of Peking opera, cementing its status over earlier forms like {{Transliteration|zh|Kunqu}}.<ref name="Taiping"/> The popularity of Peking opera has been attributed to the simplicity of the form, with only a few voices and singing patterns. This allowed anyone to sing the arias themselves.<ref name="Curtain">{{harvnb|Yang 1969|loc=}}</ref><ref name="Music">{{harvnb|Hsu 1964|loc=pages 439–451.}}</ref>

[[File:無款 清末 京劇一百人物像 冊 絹本-One hundred portraits of Peking opera characters MET DP280076.jpg|thumb|One of 100 portraits of Peking opera characters housed at the [[Metropolitan Museum of Art]]]] 
At the time of its growth in the late nineteenth century, albums became used to display aspects of stage culture, including makeup and costumes of performers.<ref>{{cite web|title=One hundred portraits of Peking opera characters|publisher=Metropolitan Museum of Art|url=https://www.metmuseum.org/art/collection/search/51581|access-date=November 19, 2017}}</ref>

Peking opera was initially an exclusively male pursuit. There were bans on female performers and major limitations on female audience members, so the art form mainly catered to the tastes of male audience members.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book|last=Jiang|first=Jin|title=Women Playing Men: Yue Opera and Social Change in the Twentieth-Century Shanghai|publisher=University of Washington Press|year=2009|location=Seattle}}</ref> Qing dynasty emperors repeatedly banned female performers beginning with [[Kangxi Emperor]] in 1671. The last ban was by the [[Qianlong Emperor]] who banned all female performers in Beijing in 1772.<ref name=":0" /> The appearance of women on the stage began unofficially during the 1870s. Female performers began to impersonate male roles and declared equality with men. They were given a venue for their talents when Li Maoer, himself a former Peking-opera performer, founded the first female Peking-opera troupe in Shanghai. By 1894, the first commercial venue showcasing female performance troupes appeared in Shanghai. This encouraged other female troupes to form, which gradually increased in popularity. As a result, theatre artist Yu Zhenting petitioned for the lifting of the ban after the founding of the [[Republic of China (1912–1949)|Republic of China]] in 1911. This was accepted, and the ban was lifted in 1912, although male Dan continued to be popular after this period.<ref name="Own Poses">{{harvnb|Chou 1997|loc=}}</ref>

===Model "revolutionary opera" and Peking opera in Taiwan===
{{Main|Revolutionary opera}}
After the [[Chinese Civil War]], Peking opera became a focal point of identity for both involved parties. When the [[Chinese Communist Party]] came to power in mainland China in 1949, the newly formed government moved to bring art into line with Communist ideology, and "to make art and literature a component of the whole revolutionary machine".<ref name="8 Model">{{harvnb|Yang 1971|loc=pages 258–261.}}</ref> To this end, dramatic works without Communist themes were considered subversive, and were ultimately banned during the [[Cultural Revolution]] (1966–1976).<ref name="Yang">{{harvnb|Yang 1971|loc=page 259.}}</ref>

The use of opera as a tool to transmit communist ideology reached its climax in the Cultural Revolution, under the purview of [[Jiang Qing]], wife of [[Mao Zedong]]. The "model operas" were considered one of the great achievements of the Cultural Revolution, and were meant to express Mao's view that "art must serve the interests of the workers, peasants, and soldiers and must conform to proletarian ideology."<ref name="Lu Xing">{{cite book | author=Lu, Xing| title=Rhetoric of the Chinese Cultural Revolution | publisher=University of South California Press| year=2004| pages=143–150}}</ref>

Among the [[eight model plays]] eventually retained during that time were five Peking operas.<ref>{{harvnb|Yang 1971|loc=page 258.}}</ref> Notable among these operas was ''[[The Legend of the Red Lantern]]'', which was approved as a concert with piano accompaniment based on a suggestion from Jiang Qing.<ref>{{harvnb|Yang 1971|loc=page 261.}}</ref> Performances of works beyond the eight model plays were allowed only in heavily modified form. The endings of many traditional plays were changed, and visible stage assistants in Peking opera were eliminated.<ref name="Yang" /> After the end of the Cultural Revolution in the late 1970s, traditional Peking opera began to be performed again. Peking opera and other theatrical art forms were a controversial subject both before and during the Twelfth National People's Congress in 1982. A study carried in the ''[[People's Daily]]'' revealed that over 80 percent of musical dramas staged in the country were traditional plays from the pre-Communist era, as opposed to newly written historical dramas promoting socialist values. In response, Communist party officials enacted reforms to curb liberalism and foreign influence in theatrical works.<ref name="Twelfth ">{{harvnb|Mackerras 1984|loc=}}</ref>

After the retreat of the [[Republic of China]] to Taiwan in 1949, Peking opera there took on a special status of "political symbolism", in which the [[Kuomintang]] government encouraged the art form over other forms of performance in an attempt to claim a position as the sole representative of Chinese culture. This often occurred at the expense of traditional [[Taiwanese opera]].<ref name="Governing">{{harvnb|Guy 1999|loc=}}</ref><ref name="Crossroads">{{harvnb|Perng 1989|loc=pages 124–144.}}</ref> Due to its status as a prestigious art form with a long history, Peking opera has indeed been studied more and received more monetary support than other forms of theater in Taiwan.<ref>{{harvnb|Perng 1989|loc= page 128.}}</ref> However, there has also been a competing movement towards advocating native opera to differentiate Taiwan from the mainland. In September 1990, when the Kuomintang government participated in a state-sponsored mainland cultural event for the first time, a Taiwanese opera group was sent, possibly to emphasize "Taiwaneseness".<ref name="Taiwaneseness">{{harvnb|Chang 1997}}</ref>

===Modern Peking opera===
[[File:BeijingOperaProduction.jpg|thumb|right|300px|''[[The Hegemon-King Bids His Concubine Farewell]]'', a classic Peking opera. [[Consort Yu (Xiang Yu's wife)|Consort Yu]] (seated) deeply loved the King [[Xiang Yu]] (center stage); upon his defeat in battle, she committed suicide for him.]]
During the second half of the 20th century, Peking opera witnessed a steady decline in audience numbers. This has been attributed both to a decrease in performance quality and an inability of the traditional opera form to capture modern life.<ref>{{harvnb|Wichmann 1990|loc=pages 148–149.}}</ref> Furthermore, the archaic language of Peking opera required productions to use electronic subtitles, which hampered the development of the form. The influence of Western culture has also left the younger generations impatient with the slow pacing of Peking opera.<ref name="Macbeth">{{harvnb|Diamond 1994|loc=}}</ref> In response, Peking opera began to see reform starting in the 1980s. Such reforms have taken the form of creating a school of performance theory to increase performance quality, employing modern elements to attract new audiences, and performing new plays outside of the traditional canon. However, these reforms have been hampered by both a lack of funding and an adverse political climate that makes the performance of new plays difficult.<ref name="Wichmann">{{harvnb|Wichmann 1990|loc=page 149.}}</ref>

In addition to more formal reform measures, Peking-opera troupes during the 1980s also adopted more unofficial changes. Some of those seen in traditional works have been called "technique for technique's sake". This has included the use of extended high pitch sequences by female Dan, and the addition of lengthier movement sections and percussion sequences to traditional works. Such changes have generally met with disdain from Peking-opera performers, who see them as ploys to gain immediate audience appeal. Plays with repetitive sequences have also been shortened to hold audience interest.<ref>{{harvnb|Wichmann 1990|loc=page 151.}}</ref> New works have naturally experienced a greater freedom to experiment. Regional, popular, and foreign techniques have been adopted, including Western-style makeup and beards and new face paint designs for Jing characters.<ref>{{harvnb|Wichmann 1990|loc=page 152.}}</ref> The spirit of reform continued during the 1990s. To survive in an increasingly open market, troupes like the Shanghai Peking Opera Company needed to bring traditional Peking opera to new audiences. To do this, they have offered an increasing number of free performances in public areas.<ref name="Shanghai Reform">{{harvnb|Wichmann-Walczak 2000}}</ref>

There has also been a general feeling of a shift in the creative attribution of Peking-opera works. The performer has traditionally played a large role in the scripting and staging of Peking-opera works. However, perhaps following the lead of the West, Peking opera in recent decades has shifted to a more director and playwright-centered model. Performers have striven to introduce innovation in their work while heeding the call for reform from this new upper level of Peking-opera producers.<ref name="Xiqu Research">{{harvnb|Wichmann 1994}}</ref>

Channel [[CCTV-11]] in mainland China is currently dedicated to broadcasting classic Chinese opera productions, including Peking opera.<ref>{{harvnb|Goldstein 2007|loc=page 1.}}</ref>

===Peking opera around the world===
In addition to its presence in mainland China, Peking opera has spread to many other places. It can be found in Hong Kong, Taiwan, and overseas Chinese communities elsewhere.<ref name="Rhetoric">{{cite book | first=D. Ray | last=Heisey | title=in Chinese Aesthetics and Literature: A Reader | year=2000 | publisher=Ablex/Greenwood | page=224}}</ref>

[[Mei Lanfang]], one of the most famous Dan performers of all time, was also one of the greatest popularizers of Peking opera abroad. During the 1920s, he performed Peking opera in Japan. This inspired an American tour in February 1930. Although some, such as the actor [[Otis Skinner]], believed that Peking opera could never be a success in the United States, the favorable reception of Mei and his troupe in New York City disproved this notion. The performances had to be relocated from the 49th Street Theater to the larger National Theater, and the duration of the tour extended from two weeks to five.<ref>{{harvnb|Rao 2000|loc=pages 135–138.}}</ref><ref name="1930 Tour">{{harvnb|Guy 2001}}</ref> Mei traveled across the United States, receiving honorary degrees from the [[University of California]] and [[Pomona College]]. He followed this tour with a tour in the Soviet Union in 1935.<ref name="Lanfang Case Model">{{harvnb|Banu et al. 1986}}</ref>

The theatre department at the [[University of Hawaiʻi at Mānoa]] has been home to English-language {{Transliteration|zh|Jingju}} for more than twenty-five years. The school offers Asian Theatre as a focus area in its Theatre and Performance Studies program<ref>{{Cite web |title=Asian Theatre {{!}} UHM Dept. of Theatre + Dance |url=https://manoa.hawaii.edu/liveonstage/theatre/asian-theatre/ |access-date=2023-09-25 |website=manoa.hawaii.edu}}</ref> and has regular {{Transliteration|zh|Jingju}} performances, the most recent being ''Lady Mu and the Yang Family Generals'' in 2014.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.hawaii.edu/news/article.php?aId=3322|title=Mānoa: English-language world premiere of Jingju (Beijing "Opera") play|work=University of Hawaii News}}</ref>

==Performers and roles==
===''Sheng''===
[[File:無款 清末 京劇一百人物像 冊 絹本-One hundred portraits of Peking opera characters MET DP280077.jpg|thumb|upright|A [[Sheng (Chinese opera)|Sheng]] role]]
The {{Transliteration|zh|Sheng}} ({{Lang|zh|生}}) is the main male role in Beijing opera. This role has numerous subtypes. The {{Transliteration|zh|laosheng}} is a dignified older role. These characters have a gentle and cultivated disposition and wear sensible costumes. One type of {{Transliteration|zh|laosheng}} role is the {{Transliteration|zh|hongsheng}}, a red-faced older male. The only two {{Transliteration|zh|hongsheng}} roles are [[Guan Gong]], the Chinese God of War, and [[Emperor Taizu of Song|Zhao Kuang-yin]], the first [[Song dynasty]] emperor. Young male characters are known as {{Transliteration|zh|xiaosheng}}. These characters sing in a high, shrill voice with occasional breaks to represent the voice changing period of adolescence. Depending on the character's rank in society, the costume of the {{Transliteration|zh|xiaosheng}} may be either elaborate or simple.<ref name="tyfo">{{Cite web|url=http://china.tyfo.com/int/ent/opera/peking/peking-index.htm|title=Peking Opera|year=2000|publisher=It's China Network - TYFO.COM|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070607182457/http://china.tyfo.com/int/ent/opera/peking/peking-index.htm|archive-date=June 7, 2007}}</ref> Off-stage, {{Transliteration|zh|xiaosheng}} actors are often involved with beautiful women by virtue of the handsome and young image they project.<ref name="Afternoon Tea">{{harvnb|Xu 2005|loc=page 163.}}</ref> The {{Transliteration|zh|wusheng}} is a martial character for roles involving combat. They are highly trained in acrobatics, and have a natural voice when singing.<ref name="tyfo"/> Troupes will always have a {{Transliteration|zh|laosheng}} actor. A {{Transliteration|zh|xiaosheng}} actor may also be added to play roles fitting to his age. In addition to these main {{Transliteration|zh|Sheng}}, the troupe will also have a secondary {{Transliteration|zh|laosheng}}.<ref>{{harvnb|Wichmann 1991|loc=pages 7-8.}}</ref>

===''Dan''===
[[File:無款 清末 京劇一百人物像 冊 絹本-One hundred portraits of Peking opera characters MET DP280074.jpg|thumb|upright|left|A [[Dan (Chinese opera)|Dan]] role]]
The [[Dan (Chinese opera)|''Dan'']] ({{Lang|zh|旦}}) refers to any female role in Beijing opera. {{Transliteration|zh|Dan}} roles were originally divided into five subtypes. Old women were played by {{Transliteration|zh|laodan}}, martial women were {{Transliteration|zh|wudan}}, young female warriors were {{Transliteration|zh|daomadan}}, virtuous and elite women were {{Transliteration|zh|qingyi}}, and vivacious and unmarried women were {{Transliteration|zh|huadan}}. One of Mei Lanfang's most important contributions to Beijing opera was in pioneering a sixth type of role, the {{Transliteration|zh|huashan}}. This role type combines the status of the {{Transliteration|zh|qingyi}} with the sensuality of the {{Transliteration|zh|huadan}}.<ref name="Goldstein Mei">{{harvnb|Goldstein 1999}}</ref> A troupe will have a young {{Transliteration|zh|Dan}} to play main roles, as well as an older {{Transliteration|zh|Dan}} for secondary parts.<ref name=wichmann12>{{harvnb|Wichmann 1991|loc=page 12.}}</ref> Four examples of famous {{Transliteration|zh|Dan}}''s'' are [[Mei Lanfang]], [[Cheng Yanqiu]], [[Shang Xiaoyun]], and [[Xun Huisheng]].<ref name="Four Dan">{{cite journal | author=Der-wei Wang, David| title=Impersonating China (in Essays and Articles)| journal=Chinese Literature: Essays, Articles, Reviews| year=2003| volume=25| pages=133–163| doi=10.2307/3594285| jstor=3594285}}</ref> In the early years of Beijing opera, all {{Transliteration|zh|Dan}} roles were played by men. Wei Changsheng, a male {{Transliteration|zh|Dan}} performer in the Qing court, developed the {{Transliteration|zh|cai ciao}}, or "false foot" technique, to simulate the bound feet of women and the characteristic gait that resulted from the practice. The ban on female performers also led to a controversial form of brothel, known as the {{Transliteration|zh|xianggong tangzi}}, in which men paid to have sex with young boys dressed as females. The performing skills taught to the youths employed in these brothels led many of them to become professional {{Transliteration|zh|Dan}} later in life.<ref>{{harvnb|Chou 1997|loc=pages 136-137.}}</ref>

===''Jing''===
[[File:無款 清末 京劇一百人物像 冊 絹本-One hundred portraits of Peking opera characters MET DP280075.jpg|thumb|upright|A [[Jing (Chinese opera)|Jing]] role]]
The {{Transliteration|zh|Jing}} ({{Lang|zh|净}}) is a painted face male role. Depending on the repertoire of the particular troupe, he will play either primary or secondary roles.<ref name=wichmann12/> This type of role will entail a forceful character, so a {{Transliteration|zh|Jing}} must have a strong voice and be able to exaggerate gestures.<ref name="Players">{{harvnb|Ward 1979}}</ref> Beijing opera boasts 16 basic facial patterns, but there are over 100 specific variations. The patterns and coloring are thought to be derived from traditional Chinese color symbolism and divination on the lines of a person's face, which is said to reveal personality. Easily recognizable examples of coloring include red, which denotes uprightness and loyalty, white, which represents evil or crafty characters, and black, which is given to characters of soundness and integrity.<ref>{{harvnb|Ward 1979|loc=page 20.}}</ref> Three main types of {{Transliteration|zh|Jing}} roles are often seen. These include {{Transliteration|zh|dongchui}}, a loyal general with a black face who excels in singing, {{Transliteration|zh|jiazi}}, a complex character played by a skilled actor, and {{Transliteration|zh|wujing}}, a martial and acrobatic character.<ref name="tyfo"/>

===''Chou''===
[[File:無款 清末 京劇一百人物像 冊 絹本-One hundred portraits of Peking opera characters MET DP280073.jpg|thumb|upright|A [[Chou (Chinese opera)|Chou]] role]]
The {{Transliteration|zh|Chou}} ({{Lang|zh|丑}}) is a male clown role. The {{Transliteration|zh|Chou}} usually plays secondary roles in a troupe.<ref name=wichmann12/> Indeed, most studies of Beijing opera classify the {{Transliteration|zh|Chou}} as a minor role. The name of the role is a [[homophone]] of the [[Mandarin Chinese]] word {{Transliteration|zh|chou}}, meaning "ugly". This reflects the traditional belief that the clown's combination of ugliness and laughter could drive away evil spirits. {{Transliteration|zh|Chou}} roles can be divided into {{Transliteration|zh|Wen Chou}}, civilian roles such as [[merchant]]s and jailers, and {{Transliteration|zh|Wu Chou}}, minor military roles. The {{Transliteration|zh|Wu Chou}} combines comic acting and acrobatics. {{Transliteration|zh|Chou}} characters are generally amusing and likable, if a bit foolish. Their costumes range from simple for characters of lower status to elaborate, perhaps overly so, for high-status characters. {{Transliteration|zh|Chou}} characters wear special face paint, called {{Transliteration|zh|xiaohualian}}, that differs from that of {{Transliteration|zh|Jing}} characters. The defining characteristic of this type of face paint is a small patch of white chalk around the nose. This can represent either a mean and secretive nature or a quick wit.<ref name="tyfo"/>

Beneath the whimsical persona of the {{Transliteration|zh|Chou}}, a serious connection to the form of Beijing opera exists. The {{Transliteration|zh|Chou}} is the character most connected to the ''[[Guban (instrument)|guban]]'', the drums and [[Paiban|clapper]] commonly used for musical accompaniment during performances. The {{Transliteration|zh|Chou}} actor often uses the {{Transliteration|zh|guban}} in solo performance, especially when performing {{Transliteration|zh|Shu Ban}}, light-hearted verses spoken for comedic effect. The clown is also connected to the small [[gong]] and [[cymbals]], percussion instruments that symbolize the lower classes and the raucous atmosphere inspired by the role. Although {{Transliteration|zh|Chou}} characters do not sing frequently, their [[arias]] feature large amounts of [[improvisation]]. This is considered a license of the role, and the orchestra will accompany the {{Transliteration|zh|Chou}} actor even as he bursts into an unscripted folk song. However, due to the standardization of Beijing opera and political pressure from government authorities, {{Transliteration|zh|Chou}} improvisation has lessened in recent years. The {{Transliteration|zh|Chou}} has a vocal timbre that is distinct from other characters, as the character will often speak in the common [[Beijing dialect]], as opposed to the more formal dialects of other characters.<ref>{{harvnb|Thorpe 2005|loc=pages 269–292.}}</ref>

==Training==
[[File:Li Cunxiao Peking opera 16.jpg|thumb|right|An actor doing a backflip to show that his character is destroyed in battle by the hero [[Li Cunxiao]].]]
{{main|Schools for Chinese opera}}
Becoming a Peking opera performer takes a long and difficult apprenticeship starting at an early age. Before the 20th century, students were often picked personally at a young age by a teacher and trained for seven years on account of the contract from the child's parents. Since the teacher fully provided for the student during this period, the student accrued a debt to his master that was later repaid through performance earnings. After 1911, training took place in more formally organized schools. Students at these schools rose as early as five o'clock in the morning for exercise. Daytime was spent learning the skills of acting and combat, and senior students performed in outside theaters in the evening. The entire group was beaten with bamboo canes if they made any mistakes during such performances. Schools with less harsh training methods began appearing in 1930, but all schools were closed in 1931 after the Japanese invasion. New schools were not opened until 1952.<ref name="Halson">{{harvnb|Halson 1966|loc=page 8.}}</ref>

Performers are first trained in acrobatics, followed by singing and gestures. Several performing schools, all based on the styles of famous performers, are taught. Some examples are the [[Mei Lanfang]] school, the [[Cheng Yanqiu]] school, the Ma Lianliang school, and the Qi Lintong school.<ref name="Performing Arts in China Review">{{cite journal | author=F. S. Yang, Richard| title=The Performing Arts in Contemporary China (in Book Reviews)| journal=Asian Theatre Journal| year=1984| volume=1| issue=2| pages=230–234 | doi=10.2307/1124569 | jstor=1124569 | publisher=Asian Theatre Journal, Volume 1, Number 2}}</ref> Students previously trained exclusively in the art of performance, but modern performance schools now include academic studies as well. Teachers assess the qualifications of each student and assign them roles as primary, secondary, or tertiary characters accordingly. Students with little acting talent often become Peking opera musicians.<ref>{{harvnb|Chang et al. 1974|loc=pages 183–191.}}</ref> They may also serve as the supporting cast of foot soldiers, attendants, and servants that is present in every Peking-opera troupe.<ref name=wichmann12/> In Taiwan, the [[Ministry of National Defense of the Republic of China]] runs a national Peking-opera training school.<ref>{{harvnb|Perng 1989|loc=page 140.}}</ref>

==Visual performance elements==
[[File:SummerPalaceOperaStageAdj.jpg|thumb|A traditional Peking-opera stage at the [[Summer Palace]] in Beijing]]

Peking-opera performers use four main skills. The first two are song and speech. The third is dance-acting. This includes pure dance, pantomime, and all other types of dance. The final skill is combat, which includes both acrobatics and fighting with all manner of weaponry. All of these skills are expected to be performed effortlessly, in keeping with the spirit of the art form.<ref name="Wichmann_3">{{harvnb|Wichmann 1991|loc=page 2}}</ref>

===Aesthetic aims and principles of movement===
Peking opera follows other traditional Chinese arts in emphasizing meaning, rather than accuracy. The highest aim of performers is to put beauty into every motion. Indeed, performers are strictly criticized for lacking beauty during training.<ref name="Wichmann_3" /> Additionally, performers are taught to create a synthesis between the different aspects of Peking opera. The four skills of Peking opera are not separate, but rather should be combined in a single performance. One skill may take precedence at certain moments during a play, but this does not mean that other actions should cease.<ref>{{harvnb|Wichmann 1991|loc=pages 3–4.}}</ref> Much attention is paid to tradition in the art form, and gestures, settings, music, and character types are determined by long-held convention. This includes conventions of movement, which are used to signal particular actions to the audience. For example, walking in a large circle always symbolizes traveling a long distance, and a character straightening their costume and headdress symbolizes that an important character is about to speak. Some conventions, such as the pantomimic opening and closing of doors and mounting and descending of stairs, are more readily apparent.<ref name="Wichmann_4">{{harvnb|Wichmann 1991|loc=page 6.}}</ref><ref name="aesthetics">{{cite book|first1=Elizabeth|last1=Wichmann-Walczak|editor=Corinne H. Dale|title=In Chinese Aesthetics and Literature: A Reader|year=2004|publisher=SUNY Press|pages=129}}</ref>

Many performances deal with behaviors that occur in daily life. However, in accordance with the overriding principle of beauty, such behaviors are stylized to be presented on stage. Peking opera does not aim to accurately represent reality. Experts of the art form contrast the principles of Peking opera with the principle of {{Transliteration|zh|Mo}}, mimes or imitation, that is found in western dramas. Peking opera should be suggestive, not imitative. The literal aspects of scenes are removed or stylized to better represent intangible emotions and characters.<ref name="Mo">{{harvnb|Chen 1997}}</ref> The most common stylization method in Peking opera is roundness. Every motion and pose is carefully manipulated to avoid sharp angles and straight lines. A character looking upon an object above them will sweep their eyes in a circular motion from low to high before landing on the object. Similarly, a character will sweep their hand in an arc from left to right in order to indicate an object on the right. This avoidance of sharp angles extends to three-dimensional movement as well; reversals of orientation often take the form of a smooth, S-shaped curve.<ref>{{harvnb|Wichmann 1991|loc=pages 4–5.}}</ref> All of these general principles of aesthetics are present within other performance elements as well.

===Staging and costumes===
[[File:Beijng-Opera1.jpg|thumb|left|A scene from Peking opera]]

Peking opera stages have traditionally been square platforms. The action on stage is usually visible from at least three sides. The stage is divided into two parts by an embroidered curtain called a {{Transliteration|zh|shoujiu}}. Musicians are visible to the audience on the front part of the stage.<ref name="tyfo"/> Traditional Peking opera stages were built above the line of sight of the viewers, but some modern stages have been constructed with higher audience seating. Viewers are always seated south of the stage. Therefore, north is the most important direction in Peking opera, and performers will immediately move to "center north" upon entering the stage. All characters enter from the east and exit from the west.<ref name="Afternoon Tea"/> In line with the highly symbolic nature of Peking opera, the form uses very few props. This reflects seven centuries of Chinese performance tradition.<ref>{{harvnb|Perng 1989|loc=page 135.}}</ref> The presence of large objects is frequently indicated through conventions. The stage will almost always have a table and at least one chair, which can be turned through convention into such diverse objects as a city wall, a mountain, or a bed. Peripheral objects will often be used to signify the presence of a larger, main object. For example, a whip is used to indicate a horse and an oar symbolizes a boat.<ref name="Wichmann_4" />

The length and internal structure of Peking-opera plays is highly variable. Prior to 1949, {{Transliteration|zh|zhezixi}}, short plays or plays made up of short scenes from longer plays, were often performed. These plays usually center on one simple situation or feature a selection of scenes designed to include all four of the main Peking opera skills and showcase the virtuosity of the performers. This format has become less prevalent in recent times, but plays of one act are still performed. These short works, as well as individual scenes within longer works, are marked by an emotional progression from the beginning of the play to the end. For example, the concubine in the one act play ''The Favorite Concubine Becomes Intoxicated'' begins in a state of joy, and then moves to anger and jealousy, drunken playfulness, and finally to a feeling of defeat and resignation. A full-length play usually has from six to fifteen or more scenes. The overall story in these longer works is told through contrasting scenes. Plays will alternate between civil and martial scenes, or scenes that involve protagonists and antagonists. There are several major scenes within the work that follow the pattern of emotional progression. It is these scenes that are usually excerpted for later {{Transliteration|zh|zhezixi}} productions. Some of the most complex plays may even have an emotional progression from scene to scene.<ref>{{harvnb|Wichmann 1991|loc=pages 18–21.}}</ref>

Due to the scarcity of props in Peking opera, costumes take on added importance. Costumes function first to distinguish the rank of the character being played. Emperors and their families wear yellow robes, and high-ranking officials wear purple. The robe worn by these two classes is called a {{Transliteration|zh|mang}}, or python robe. It is a costume suitable for the high rank of the character, featuring brilliant colors and rich embroidery, often in the design of a dragon. Persons of high rank or virtue wear red, lower-ranking officials wear blue, young characters wear white, the old wear white, brown, or olive, and all other men wear black. On formal occasions, lower officials may wear the {{Transliteration|zh|kuan yi}}, a simple gown with patches of embroidery on both the front and back. All other characters, and officials on informal occasions, wear the {{Transliteration|zh|chezi}}, a basic gown with varying levels of embroidery and no jade girdle to denote rank. All three types of gowns have [[water sleeves]], long flowing sleeves that can be flicked and waved like water, attached to facilitate emotive gestures. Tertiary characters of no rank wear simple clothing without embroidery. Hats are intended to blend in with the rest of the costume and will usually have a matching level of embroidery. Shoes may be high or low-soled, the former being worn by characters of high rank, and the latter by characters of low rank or acrobatic characters.<ref>{{harvnb|Halson 1966|loc=pages 19–38.}}</ref>

===Stage properties (''Qimo'')===
[[file:Beijing opera02.jpg|200px|thumb|right|An actor can act out the scene of galloping the horse simply by using a horsewhip without riding a real horse on stage.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.travelchinaguide.com/intro/arts/beijing_opera/|title=Beijing/Peking Opera: History, Roles, Facial Painting, Artists|website=www.travelchinaguide.com}}</ref>]]
{{Transliteration|zh|Qimo}} (stage props) is the name for all stage properties and some simple decorations. The term first occurred in the [[Jin dynasty (266–420)]]. {{Transliteration|zh|Qimo}} includes articles of everyday life such as candlesticks, lanterns, fans, handkerchiefs, brushes, paper, ink and ink slabs, and tea and wine sets. The props also include: sedan chairs, vehicle flags, oars, and horsewhips, as well as weapons. Also employed are various articles to demonstrate environments, such as cloth backdrops to represent cities, and curtains, flags, table curtains, and chair covers. Traditional {{Transliteration|zh|qimo}} are not just imitations of real articles, but also artistic articles in their own right.<ref name="auto">Stage Props in Peking Opera {{cite web |url=http://arts.cultural-china.com/en/87Arts4904.html |title=Stage Props in Peking Opera |access-date=2017-04-18 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170419103944/http://arts.cultural-china.com/en/87Arts4904.html |archive-date=2017-04-19}}</ref> Flags are also frequently used on the stage. A square flag with the Chinese character for "marshal" on it, a rectangular flag with the Chinese character for "commander" on it, and a flag with the name of a certain army on it represent the location of army camps and commanders-in-chief. In addition, there are water, fire, wind, and vehicle flags. Actors shake these flags to represent waves, fire, wind, or moving vehicles.<ref name="auto"/>

==Aural performance elements==
===Vocal production===
Vocal production in Peking opera is conceived of as being composed of "four levels of song": songs with music, verse recitation, prose dialogue, and non-verbal vocalizations. The conception of a sliding scale of vocalization creates a sense of smooth continuity between songs and speech. The three basic categories of vocal production technique are the use of breath ({{Transliteration|zh|yongqi}}), pronunciation ({{Transliteration|zh|fayin}}), and special Peking-opera pronunciation ({{Transliteration|zh|shangkouzi}}).<ref name="Wichmann, Elizabeth 1991">{{harvnb|Wichmann 1991|loc=pages 177–178.}}</ref>

In Chinese opera, breath is based in the pubic region and supported by the abdominal muscles. Performers follow the basic principle that "strong centralized breath moves the melodic-passages" ({{Transliteration|zh|zhong qi xing xiang}}). Breath is visualized as being drawn up through a central breathing cavity extending from the pubic region to the top of the head. This "cavity" must be under performers' control at all times, and they develop special techniques to control both entering and exiting air. The two major methods of taking in breath are known as "exchanging breath" ({{Transliteration|zh|huan qi}}) and "stealing breath" ({{Transliteration|zh|tou qi}}). "Exchanging breath" is a slow, unhurried process of breathing out old air and taking in new. It is used at moments when the performer is not under time constraint, such as during a purely instrumental musical passage or when another character is speaking. "Stealing breath" is a sharp intake of air without prior exhalation, and is used during long passages of prose or song when a pause would be undesirable. Both techniques should be invisible to the audience and take in only the precise amount of air required for the intended vocalization. The most important principle in exhalation is "saving the breath" ({{Transliteration|zh|cun qi}}). Breath should not be expended all at once at the beginning of a spoken or sung passage, but rather expelled slowly and evenly over its length. Most songs and some prose contain precise written intervals for when breath should be "exchanged" or "stolen". These intervals are often marked by carats.<ref>{{harvnb|Wichmann 1991|loc=pages 178–180.}}</ref>

Pronunciation is conceptualized as shaping the throat and mouth into the shape necessary to produce the desired vowel sound, and clearly articulating the initial consonant. There are four basic shapes for the throat and mouth, corresponding to four vowel types, and five methods of articulating consonants, one for each type of consonant. The four throat and mouth shapes are "opened-mouth" ({{Transliteration|zh|kaikou}}), "level-teeth" ({{Transliteration|zh|qichi}}), "closed-mouth" ({{Transliteration|zh|hekou}} or {{Transliteration|zh|huokou}}), and "scooped-lips" ({{Transliteration|zh|cuochun}}). The five consonant types are denoted by the portion of the mouth most critical to each type's production: throat, or larynx ({{Transliteration|zh|hou}}); tongue ({{Transliteration|zh|she}}); molars, or the jaws and palate ({{Transliteration|zh|chi}}); front teeth ({{Transliteration|zh|ya}}); and lips ({{Transliteration|zh|chun}}).<ref>{{harvnb|Wichmann 1991|loc=pages 184–185.}}</ref>

Some syllables (written [[Chinese characters]]) have special pronunciations in Peking opera. This is due to the collaboration with regional forms and [[kunqu]] that occurred during the development of Peking opera. For example, {{Lang|zh|你}}, meaning "you", may be pronounced {{Transliteration|zh|li}}, as it is in the Anhui dialect, rather than the Standard Chinese {{Transliteration|zh|ni}}. {{Lang|zh|我}}, meaning "{{serif|I}}" and pronounced {{Transliteration|zh|wo}} in Standard Chinese, becomes {{Transliteration|zh|ngo}}, as it is pronounced in the dialect of [[Suzhou, Jiangsu|Suzhou]]. In addition to pronunciation differences that are due to the influence of regional forms, the readings of some characters have been changed to promote ease of performance or vocal variety. For example, {{Transliteration|zh|zhi}}, {{Transliteration|zh|chi}}, {{Transliteration|zh|shi}}, and {{Transliteration|zh|ri}} sounds do not carry well and are difficult to sustain, because they are produced far back in the mouth. Therefore, they are performed with an additional ''i'' sound, as in {{Transliteration|zh|zhii}}.<ref>{{harvnb|Wichmann 1991|loc=pages 188–190.}}</ref>

These techniques and conventions of vocal production are used to create the two main categories of vocalizations in Peking opera: stage speech and song.

===Stage speech===
Peking opera is performed using both [[Classical Chinese]] and [[Modern Standard Chinese]] with some slang terms added for color. The social position of the character being played determines the type of language that is used. Peking opera features three major types of stage speech ({{Transliteration|zh|nianbai}}, [[wikt:念白|念白]]). Monologues and dialogue, which make up the majority of most plays, consist of prose speeches. The purpose of prose speech is to advance the plot of the play or inject humor into a scene. They are usually short, and are performed mostly using vernacular language. However, as Elizabeth Wichmann points out, they also have rhythmic and musical elements, achieved through the "stylized articulation of monosyllabic sound units" and the "stylized pronunciation of speech-tones", respectively. Prose speeches were frequently improvised during the early period of Peking opera's development, and {{Transliteration|zh|chou}} performers carry on that tradition today.<ref>{{harvnb|Wichmann 1991|loc=pages 25, 47.}}</ref>

The second main type of stage speech consists of quotations drawn from classical Chinese poetry. This type is rarely used in Peking opera; plays have one or two such quotations at most, and often none at all. In most instances, the use of classical poetry is intended to heighten the impact of a scene. However, ''Chou'' and more whimsical ''Dan'' characters may misquote or misinterpret the classical lines, creating a comical effect.<ref>{{harvnb|Wichmann 1991|loc=pages 47–48.}}</ref>

The final category of stage speech is conventionalized stage speeches ({{Transliteration|zh|chengshi nianbai}}). These are rigid formulations that mark important transition points. When a character enters for the first time, an entrance speech ({{Transliteration|zh|shangchang}}) or self-introduction speech ({{Transliteration|zh|zi bao jiamen}}) is given, which includes a prelude poem, a set-the-scene poem, and a prose set-the-scene speech, in that order. The style and structure of each entrance speech is inherited from earlier [[Yuan dynasty]], [[Ming dynasty]], folk, and regional forms of Chinese opera. Another conventionalized stage speech is the exit speech, which may take the form of a poem followed by a single spoken line. This speech is usually delivered by a supporting character, and describes their present situation and state of mind. Finally, there is the recapitulation speech, in which a character will use prose to recount the story up to that point. These speeches came about as a result of the {{Transliteration|zh|zhezixi}} tradition of performing only one part of a larger play.<ref>{{harvnb|Wichmann 1991|loc=pages 48–52.}}</ref>

===Song===
There are six main types of song lyrics in Peking opera: emotive, condemnatory, narrative, descriptive, disputive, and "shared space separate sensations" lyrics. Each type uses the same basic lyrical structure, differing only in kind and degree of emotions portrayed. Lyrics are written in couplets ({{Transliteration|zh|lian}}) consisting of two lines ({{Transliteration|zh|ju}}). Couplets can consist of two ten character lines, or two seven character lines. The lines are further subdivided into three {{Transliteration|zh|dou}} ({{lit|pause}}), typically in a 3-3-4 or 2-2-3 pattern. Lines may be "padded" with extra characters for the purpose of clarifying meaning. Rhyme is an extremely important device in Peking opera, with thirteen identified rhyme categories. Song lyrics also use the speech tones of Mandarin Chinese in ways that are pleasing to the ear and convey proper meaning and emotion. The first and second of Chinese's four tones are normally known as "level" ({{Transliteration|zh|ping}}) tones in Peking opera, while the third and fourth are called "oblique" ({{Transliteration|zh|ze}}). The closing line of every couplet in a song ends in a level tone.<ref>{{harvnb|Wichmann 1991|loc=pages 27–44.}}</ref>

Songs in Peking opera are proscribed by a set of common aesthetic values. A majority of songs are within a pitch range of an octave and a fifth. High pitch is a positive aesthetic value, so a performer will pitch songs at the very top of their vocal range. For this reason, the idea of a song's key has value in Peking opera only as a technical tool for the performer. Different performers in the same performance may sing in different keys, requiring the accompanying musicians to constantly retune their instruments or switch out with other players. Elizabeth Wichmann describes the ideal basic timbre for Peking opera songs as a "controlled nasal tone". Performers make extensive use of vocal vibrato during songs, in a way that is "slower" and "wider" than vibrato used in Western performances. The Peking opera aesthetic for songs is summed up by the expression {{Transliteration|zh|zi zheng qiang yuan}}, meaning that the written characters should be delivered accurately and precisely, and the melodic passages should be weaving, or "round".<ref name="Wichmann, Elizabeth 1991" />

===Music===
[[File:Jinghu (1).jpg|thumb|The ''[[Jinghu (instrument)|jinghu]]'', an instrument commonly used in Peking-opera music]]

The accompaniment for a Peking opera performance usually consists of a small ensemble of traditional melodic and percussion instruments. The lead melodic instrument is the ''[[Jinghu (instrument)|jinghu]]'', a small, high-pitched, two-string spike fiddle.<ref name="Hsu, Dolores Menstell 1964 pp.447">{{harvnb|Hsu 1964|loc=page 447.}}</ref> The {{Transliteration|zh|jinghu}} is the primary accompaniment for performers during songs. Accompaniment is heterophonic – the {{Transliteration|zh|jinghu}} player follows the basic contours of the song's melody, but diverges in pitch and other elements. The {{Transliteration|zh|jinghu}} often plays more notes per measure than the performer sings, and does so an octave lower. During rehearsal, the {{Transliteration|zh|jinghu}} player adopts their own signature version of the song's melody, but also must adapt to spontaneous improvisations on the part of the performer due to changed performance conditions. Thus, the {{Transliteration|zh|jinghu}} player must have an instinctive ability to change their performance without warning to properly accompany the performer.<ref>{{harvnb|Wichmann 1991|loc=pages 244–246.}}</ref>

The second is the circular bodied plucked lute, the ''[[yueqin]]''. Percussion instruments include the ''[[daluo]]'', ''[[xiaoluo]]'', and ''[[naobo]]''. The player of the [[Guban (instrument)|''gu'' and ''ban'']], a small high pitch drum and [[Paiban|clapper]], is the conductor of the entire ensemble.<ref>{{harvnb|Hsu 1964|loc=page 451.}}</ref> The two main musical styles of Peking opera, {{Transliteration|zh|Xipi}} and {{Transliteration|zh|Erhuang}}, originally differed in subtle ways. In the {{Transliteration|zh|Xipi}} style, the strings of the {{Transliteration|zh|jinghu}} are tuned to the keys of A and D. The melodies in this style are very disjointed, possibly reflecting the style's derivation from the high and loud melodies of the Qinqiang opera of northwestern China. It is commonly used to tell joyous stories. In {{Transliteration|zh|Erhuang}}, on the other hand, the strings are tuned to the keys of C and G. This reflects the low, soft, and despondent folk tunes of south-central [[Hubei]] province, the style's place of origin. As a result, it is used for lyrical stories. Both musical styles have a standard meter of two beats per bar. The two musical styles share six different tempos, including {{Transliteration|zh|manban}} (a slow tempo), {{Transliteration|zh|yuanban}} (a standard, medium-fast tempo), {{Transliteration|zh|kuai sanyan}} ("leading beat"), {{Transliteration|zh|daoban}} ("leading beat"), {{Transliteration|zh|sanban}} ("rubato beat"), and {{Transliteration|zh|yaoban}} ("shaking beat"). The {{Transliteration|zh|xipi}} style also uses several unique tempos, including {{Transliteration|zh|erliu}} ("two-six"), and {{Transliteration|zh|kuaiban}} (a fast tempo). Of these tempos, {{Transliteration|zh|yuanban}}, {{Transliteration|zh|manban}}, and {{Transliteration|zh|kuaiban}} are most commonly seen. The tempo at any given time is controlled by a percussion player who acts as director.<ref>{{harvnb|Huang 1989|loc=pages 154–155.}}</ref> {{Transliteration|zh|Erhuang}} has been seen as more improvisational, and {{Transliteration|zh|Xipi}} as more tranquil. The lack of defined standards among performance troupes and the passage of time may have made the two styles more similar to each other today.<ref name="Hsu, Dolores Menstell 1964 pp.447" />

The melodies played by the accompaniment mainly fall into three broad categories. The first is the aria. The arias of Peking opera can be further divided into those of the {{Transliteration|zh|Erhuang}} and {{Transliteration|zh|Xipi}} varieties. An example of an aria is {{Transliteration|zh|wawa diao}}, an aria in the {{Transliteration|zh|Xipi}} style that is sung by a young {{Transliteration|zh|Sheng}} to indicate heightened emotion.<ref>{{harvnb|Guy 1990|loc=pages 254–259.}}</ref> The second type of melody heard in Peking opera is the fixed-tune melody, or {{Transliteration|zh|qupai}}. These are instrumental tunes that serve a wider range of purposes than arias. Examples include the "Water Dragon Tune" ({{zh|c=水龍吟|p=Shuǐlóng Yín|labels=no}}), which generally denotes the arrival of an important person, and "Triple Thrust" ({{zh|c=急三槍|p=Jí Sān Qiāng|labels=no}}), which may signal a feast or banquet.<ref name="Guy">{{harvnb|Guy 1990|loc=page 256.}}</ref> The final type of musical accompaniment is the percussion pattern. Such patterns provide context to the music in ways similar to the fixed-tune melodies. For example, there are as many as 48 different percussion patterns that accompany stage entrances. Each one identifies the entering character by their individual rank and personality.<ref name="Guy" />
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==Repertoire==
[[File:Fearther03.jpg|left|thumb|A scene from a play based on the ''[[Generals of the Yang Family]]'' legends]]

The repertoire of Peking opera includes nearly 1,400 works. The plays are mostly taken from historical novels or traditional stories about civil, political and military struggles. Early plays were often adaptations from earlier Chinese theatre styles, such as {{Transliteration|zh|kunqu}}''.'' Nearly half of 272 plays listed in 1824 were derived from earlier styles.<ref name="wichmann12" /> Many classification systems have been used to sort the plays. Two traditional methods have existed since Peking opera first appeared in China. The oldest and most generally used system is to sort plays into civil and martial types. Civil plays focus on the relationships between characters, and feature personal, domestic, and romantic situations. The element of singing is frequently used to express emotion in this type of play. Martial plays feature a greater emphasis on action and combat skill. The two types of play also feature different arrays of performers. Martial plays predominantly feature young {{Transliteration|zh|sheng}}, {{Transliteration|zh|jing}}, and {{Transliteration|zh|chou}}, while civil plays have a greater need for older roles and {{Transliteration|zh|dan}}. In addition to being civil or martial, plays are also classified as either {{Transliteration|zh|daxi}} (serious) or {{Transliteration|zh|xiaoxi}} (light). The performance elements and performers used in serious and light plays greatly resemble those used in martial and civil plays, respectively. Of course, the aesthetic principle of synthesis frequently leads to the use of these contrasting elements in combination, yielding plays that defy such dichotomous classification.<ref>{{harvnb|Wichmann 1991|loc=pages 15–16.}}</ref>

Since 1949, a more detailed classification system has been put into use based on thematic content and the historical period of a play's creation. The first category in this system is {{Transliteration|zh|chuantongxi}}, traditional plays that were in performance before 1949. The second category is {{Transliteration|zh|xinbian de lishixi}}, historical plays written after 1949. This type of play was not produced at all during the Cultural Revolution, but is a major focus today. The final category is {{Transliteration|zh|xiandaixi}}, contemporary plays. The subject matter of these plays is taken from the 20th century and beyond. Contemporary productions are also frequently experimental in nature, and may incorporate Western influences.<ref>{{harvnb|Wichmann 1991|loc=pages 14–15.}}</ref> In the second half of the 20th century, Western works have increasingly been adapted for Peking opera. The works of [[Shakespeare]] have been especially popular.<ref name="Shakespeare">{{harvnb|Fei and Sun 2006}}</ref> The movement to adapt Shakespeare to the stage has encompassed all forms of Chinese theatre.<ref name="Shakespeare other forms">{{harvnb|Zha and Tian 1988}}</ref> Peking opera in particular has seen versions of ''[[A Midsummer Night's Dream]]'' and ''[[King Lear]]'', among others.<ref name="Shakespeare Beijing opera">{{harvnb|Brockbank 1988|}}</ref> In 2017, Li Wenrui wrote in ''[[China Daily]]'' that 10 masterpieces of the traditional Peking opera repertoire are ''The Drunken Concubine'', ''Monkey King'', ''[[The Hegemon-King Bids His Lady Farewell|Farewell My Concubine]]'', ''A River All Red'', Wen Ouhong's ''Unicorn Trapping Purse'' ("the representative work of Peking Opera master Chen Yanqiu"), ''White Snake Legend'', ''The Ruse of the Empty City'' (from ''[[Romance of the Three Kingdoms]]''), [[Du Mingxin]]'s ''Female Generals of the Yang Family'', ''Wild Boar Forest'', and ''The Phoenix Returns Home''.<ref>{{Cite news|last=Wenrui|first=Li|date=2017-11-09|title=10 masterpieces in traditional Peking Opera repertoire|url=https://www.chinadaily.com.cn/culture/2017-11/09/content_34307355.htm|access-date=2021-03-31|newspaper=China Daily}}</ref>

==Film==
Peking opera and its stylistic devices have appeared in many Chinese films. It often was used to signify a unique "Chineseness" in contrast to sense of culture being presented in Japanese films. [[Fei Mu]], a director of the pre-Communist era, used Peking opera in a number of plays, sometimes within Westernized, realistic plots. [[King Hu]], a later Chinese film director, used many of the formal norms of Peking opera in his films, such as the parallelism between music, voice, and gesture.<ref name="Hu">{{harvnb|Rodríguez 1998}}</ref> In the 1993 film ''[[Farewell My Concubine (film)|Farewell My Concubine]]'', by [[Chen Kaige]], Peking opera serves as the object of pursuit for the protagonists and a backdrop for their romance. However, the film's portrayal of Peking opera has been criticized as one-dimensional.<ref name="Kwok">{{harvnb|Lau 1995|loc=pages 22–23.}}</ref>

==See also==
* [[China National Peking Opera Company]]
* [[Huguang Guild Hall]]
* [[Yun Jin]], a ''[[Genshin Impact]]'' character based on Peking opera performers
* [[Yunbai]]
* [[Zheng Yici Peking Opera Theatre]]

==References==
===Citations===
{{Reflist}}

===Sources===
; Journal articles
{{Refbegin}}
* {{Cite journal |last1=Banu |first1=Georges |first2 = Ella L. |last2=Wiswell |first3 = June V. |last3=Gibson |title = Mei Lanfang: A Case against and a Model for the Occidental Stage |volume=3 |issue=2 |pages=153–178 |journal=[[Asian Theatre Journal]] |year=1986 |jstor=1124399 |ref={{harvid|Banu et al. 1986}} |doi=10.2307/1124399}}
* {{Cite journal |last=Brockbank |first = J. Philip |title=Shakespeare Renaissance in China |journal=[[Shakespeare Quarterly]] |year=1988 |volume=39 |issue=2 |pages=195–204 |jstor=2870630 |ref={{harvid|Brockbank 1988}} |doi=10.2307/2870630}}
* {{Cite journal |last1=Chang|first1=Donald|last2=Mitchell |first2=John D. |last3=Yeu |first3=Roger |title = How the Chinese Actor Trains: Interviews with Two Peking Opera Performers |journal=[[Educational Theatre Journal]] |year=1974 |volume=26 |issue=2 |pages=183–191 |jstor=3206634 |ref={{harvid|Chang et al. 1974}} |doi=10.2307/3206634}}
* {{Cite journal |last=Chang |first=Huei-Yuan Belinda |title = A Theatre of Taiwaneseness: Politics, Ideologies, and Gezaixi |journal=[[TDR (journal)|TDR]] |year=1997 |volume=41 |issue=2 |pages=111–129 |jstor=1146628 |ref={{harvid|Chang 1997}} |doi=10.2307/1146628}}
* {{Cite journal |last=Chen |first=Jingsong |title = To Make People Happy, Drama Imitates Joy: The Chinese Theatrical Concept of Mo |journal=[[Asian Theatre Journal]]| year=1997 | volume=14| issue=1| pages=38–55 |jstor=1124084 |ref={{harvid|Chen 1997}} |doi=10.2307/1124084}}
* {{Cite journal |last=Chou |first =Hui-ling |title = Striking Their Own Poses: The History of Cross-Dressing on the Chinese Stage| journal=[[TDR (journal)|TDR]]| year=1997| volume=41| issue=2| pages=130–152| jstor=1146629|ref={{harvid|Chou 1997}}|doi=10.2307/1146629}}
* {{Cite journal |last=Diamond|first=Catherine| title=Kingdom of Desire: The Three Faces of Macbeth| journal=[[Asian Theatre Journal]]| year=1994| volume=11| issue=1| pages=114–133 |jstor=1124387 |ref={{harvid|Diamond 1994}}|doi=10.2307/1124387}}
* {{Cite journal |last1=Fei|first1=Faye Chunfang|last2=Sun|first2=William Huizhu |title=Othello and Beijing Opera: Appropriation As a Two-Way Street |journal=[[TDR (journal)|TDR]]|volume=50|number=1|year=2006|pages=120–133|jstor=4492662 |ref={{harvid|Fei and Sun 2006}} }}
* {{Cite journal |first=Joshua |last=Goldstein|title=Mei Lanfang and the Nationalization of Peking Opera, 1912-1930 |journal=East Asian Cultures Critique |year=1999|volume=7|issue=2 |pages=377–420|ref={{harvid|Goldstein 1999}} |doi=10.1215/10679847-7-2-377|s2cid=144119467}}
* {{Cite journal |title =BThe Appreciation of Chinese Opera: A Reply to Ching-Hsi Perng |last=Guy|first = Nancy A. |jstor=1124341|journal=[[Asian Theatre Journal]]|volume=7|number=2|year=1990|pages=254–259|ref={{harvid|Guy 1990}}|doi=10.2307/1124341}}
* {{Cite journal |last=Guy|first= Nancy A. |title = Peking Opera as "National Opera" in Taiwan: What's in a Name? |journal=[[Asian Theatre Journal]] |year=1995 |volume=12|issue=1 |jstor=1124469|pages=85–103 |ref={{harvid|Guy 1995}}|doi= 10.2307/1124469}}
* {{Cite journal |last=Guy|first= Nancy|title=Governing the Arts, Governing the State: Peking Opera and Political Authority in Taiwan| journal=[[Ethnomusicology (journal)|Ethnomusicology]]|year=1999|volume=43|issue=3|pages=508–526 |jstor=852559 |ref={{harvid|Guy 1999}} |doi= 10.2307/852559}}
* {{Cite journal|title=Brokering Glory for the Chinese Nation: Peking Opera's 1930 American Tour|journal=Comparative Drama|year=2001|first=Nancy|last=Guy|volume=35|issue=3/4|pages= 377–392|jstor=41154150|ref={{harvid|Guy 2001}}|doi=10.1353/cdr.2001.0025|s2cid=192074009 }}
* {{Cite journal|title="Farewell My Concubine": History, Melodrama, and Ideology in Contemporary Pan-Chinese Cinema|journal=[[Film Quarterly]]|date=1995|first=Jenny Kwok Wah|last=Lau|volume=49|issue=1|pages=16–27|jstor=1213489|ref={{harvid|Lau 1995}}|doi=10.1525/fq.1995.49.1.04a00030}}
* {{Cite journal |last=Hsu|first=Dolores Menstell|title=Musical Elements of Chinese Opera|journal=[[The Musical Quarterly]]|year=1964|volume=50|issue=4|pages=439–451|jstor=740955|ref={{harvid|Hsu 1964}}|doi=10.1093/mq/L.4.439}}
* {{Cite journal |author=Huang Jinpei |title = Xipi and Erhuang of Beijing and Guangdong styles |journal=[[Asian Music (journal)|Asian Music]]|year=1989 |volume=20|issue=2|jstor=834024 |pages=152–195 |ref={{harvid|Huang 1989}}| doi=10.2307/834024}}
* {{Cite journal |last=Mackerras|first=Colin Patrick|author-link=Colin Mackerras|title=Theatre and the Taipings|journal=[[Modern China (journal)|Modern China]]|year=1976|volume=2|issue=4|jstor=188958|pages=473–501|ref={{harvid|Mackerras 1976}}|doi=10.1177/009770047600200404|s2cid=144595388}}
* {{Cite journal |last=Mackerras|first=Colin |author-link=Colin Mackerras|title=Drama and Politics in the China of the Twelfth Party Congress |journal=[[Asian Theatre Journal]]|year=1984|volume=1|issue=2|pages=147–165 |jstor=1124562 |ref={{harvid|Mackerras 1984}}|doi=10.2307/1124562}}
* {{Cite journal |last=Perng|first=Ching-Hsi |title=At the Crossroads: Peking Opera in Taiwan Today |journal=[[Asian Theatre Journal]] | year=1989|volume=6|issue=2 |pages=124–144 |jstor=1124455 |ref={{harvid|Perng 1989}} |doi=10.2307/1124455}}
* {{Cite journal |last=Rao|first=Nancy Yunhwa|title=Racial Essences and Historical Invisibility: Chinese Opera in New York, 1930 |journal=Cambridge Opera Journal |year=2000 |volume=12 |issue=2|pages=135–162 |jstor=3250710 |ref={{harvid|Rao 2000}} |doi = 10.1017/S095458670000135X}}
* {{Cite journal |title= Questions of Chinese Aesthetics: Film Form and Narrative Space in the Cinema of King Hu |journal=[[Cinema Journal]]|year=1998|first=Héctor|last=Rodríguez|volume=38|issue=1|pages=73–97 |jstor= 1225736 |ref={{harvid|Rodríguez 1998}} |doi=10.2307/1225736}}
* {{Cite journal |last=Thorpe|first=Ashley |title = Only Joking? The Relationship between the Clown and Percussion in "Jingju" |journal=[[Asian Theatre Journal]]|volume=22|number=2|year=2005|jstor=4137134|pages=269–292 |ref={{harvid|Thorpe 2005}} |doi=10.1353/atj.2005.0034|s2cid=161408409}}
* {{Cite journal |last=Ward |first=Barbara E. |title = Not Merely Players: Drama, Art and Ritual in Traditional China |journal=[[Man (journal)|Man]] |year=1979|volume=14|issue=1| pages=18–39|jstor=2801638 |ref={{harvid|Ward 1979}} |doi=10.2307/2801638}}
* {{Cite journal |last=Wichmann |first=Elizabeth|title=Tradition and Innovation in Contemporary Beijing Opera Performance|journal=[[TDR (journal)|TDR]]| year=1990|volume=34|issue=1|jstor=1146013 | pages=146–178 |ref={{harvid|Wichmann 1990}} |doi=10.2307/1146013}}
* {{Cite journal |last=Wichmann|first=Elizabeth |title = Xiqu Research and Translation with the Artists in Mind (in Symposium: What More Do We Need to Know about Chinese Theatre?) |journal=[[Asian Theatre Journal]] |year=1994 |volume=11|issue=1|pages=96–119 |jstor=1124385 |ref={{harvid|Wichmann 1994}} }}
* {{Cite journal |last=Wichmann-Walczak|first=Elizabeth|title = 'Reform' at the Shanghai Beijing Opera Company and Its Impact on Creative Authority and Repertory |journal=[[TDR (journal)|TDR]]| year=2000|volume=44|issue=4|pages=96–119|jstor=1146865|ref={{harvid|Wichmann-Walczak 2000}} |doi=10.1162/10542040051058500 |s2cid=57570808}}
* {{Cite journal |last=Yang|first=Daniel S. P. |title=Censorship: 8 Model Works |journal=[[TDR (journal)|TDR]] |year=1971|volume=15|issue=2 |jstor=1144648|pages=258–261 |doi=10.2307/1144648 |ref={{harvid|Yang 1971}} }}
* {{Cite journal |last=Yang|first=Richard F. S. |title=Behind the Bamboo Curtain: What the Communists Did to the Peking Opera|journal=[[Asian Theatre Journal]]|year=1969|volume=21|issue=1|pages=60–66|jstor=3205778|ref={{harvid|Yang 1969}}|doi=10.2307/3205778}}
* {{Cite journal |author1=Zha Peide |author2=Tian Jia |title = Shakespeare in Traditional Chinese Operas |journal=[[Shakespeare Quarterly]] |year=1988 |volume=39 |issue=2 |pages=204–211 |jstor=2870631 |ref={{harvid|Zha and Tian 1988}} |doi=10.2307/2870631}}
{{refend}}

; Books
{{Refbegin}}
* {{Cite book |first=Joshua |last=Goldstein |title = Drama Kings: Players and Publics in the Re-creation of Peking Opera, 1870–1937 |year=2007 |publisher=[[University of California Press]] |isbn=978-0-520-24752-9 |ref ={{harvid|Goldstein 2007}} }}
* {{Cite book |title = Peking Opera: A Short Guide |last=Halson |first=Elizabeth |year=1966 |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |ref={{harvid|Halson 1966}} }}
* {{Cite book |title = Mei Lanfang and the Twentieth Century International Stage: Chinese Theatre Placed and Displaced |last=Tian |first=Min |year=2012 |location = New York, New York |publisher= [[Palgrave Macmillan]] }}
* {{Cite book |title= Listening to Theatre: The Aural Dimension of Beijing Opera |last=Wichmann|first=Elizabeth |year=1991|publisher=[[University of Hawaii Press]]|isbn=978-0-8248-1221-8 |ref={{harvid|Wichmann 1991}} }}
* {{Cite book |title = An Afternoon Tea of Beijing Opera Tidbits |last=Xu |first = Chengbei |translator=Yawtsong Lee |year=2005 |page=163 |publisher=Long River Press |isbn=978-1-59265-057-6 |ref={{harvid|Xu 2005}} }}
* {{Cite book |title=Peking Opera |last=Xu |first = Chengbei|translator=Chen Gengtao|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|year=2012|isbn=978-0-521-18821-0|ref={{harvid|Xu 2012}} }}
{{Refend}}

==External links==
{{Commons category|Peking Opera}}
{{Spoken Wikipedia|En-Beijing opera-article.ogg|date=2007-11-01}}
* [http://www.wdl.org/en/item/3023/ World Digital Library Office of Great Peace Album of Opera Faces]
* [http://www.ebeijing.gov.cn/feature_2/Sino_ltaly_culture_year/Contrast/Opera/Peking_Opera/ Beijing Official Web Portal] ({{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170106101830/http://www.ebeijing.gov.cn/feature_2/Sino_ltaly_culture_year/Contrast/Opera/Peking_Opera/ |date=2017-01-06 }})
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20091027132153/http://geocities.com/Vienna/Opera/8692/index0.html Beijing Opera introduction]
* [http://www.paulnoll.com/China/Opera/index.html Beijing Opera Masks]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20081010120605/http://www.cicpa-us.org/ Beijing Opera performance archives of the Beijing Opera Troupe]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20091017082847/http://www.beijing-opera.com/ Beijing Opera in modern China]
* [https://archive.today/20130130203323/http://operabeijing.com/ Beijing Opera videos with background information in English]

{{UNESCO Oral and Intangible music}}
{{Chinese opera}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Peking opera| ]]
[[Category:Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity]]