View source for Peninsular War

{{Short description|1807–1814 war against Napoleon in Iberia}}
{{Use British English|date=August 2013}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=March 2022}}
{{Infobox military conflict
| conflict          = Peninsular War
| partof            = the [[Napoleonic Wars]]
| image             = <div style="display:inline-block;">
<!-- NOTE: The rect statements are in sync with the original photo size of 1,920 × 1,440-->
<imagemap>
File:Peninsular war collage.jpg|300px|Peninsular war
rect 0 0 959 719 [[The Third of May 1808]]
rect 0 720 959 1439 [[The Disasters of War]]
rect 960 720 1919 1439 [[Battle of Bayonne]]
rect 960 0 1919 719 [[Battle of Somosierra]]
desc top-right
</imagemap>
</div>
| caption           = Clockwise from top left:<br/>{{flatlist|
* [[The Third of May 1808]]
* [[Battle of Somosierra]]
* [[Battle of Bayonne]]
* [[The Disasters of War|''Disasters of War'' prints by Goya]]{{sfn|Goya|1967}}
}}
| date              = 2 May 1808 (sometimes 27 October 1807){{efn|name=Invasion of Portugal|Some accounts mark the [[1807 Franco–Spanish invasion of Portugal]] as the beginning of the war {{harv|Glover|2001|p=45}}.}} – 17 April 1814{{efn|Denotes the date of the general armistice between France and the [[Sixth Coalition]] {{harv|Glover|2001|p=335}}.}}<br/>(5 years, 11 months, 2 weeks and 1 day)
| place             = {{hlist|[[Iberian Peninsula]]|[[Southern France]]}}
| coordinates       = 
| map_type          = 
| map_relief        = 
| map_size          = 
| map_caption       = 
| result            = Coalition victory
* [[Treaty of Paris (1814)|Treaty of Paris]]
* Spanish Bourbon monarchy restored
* Spain regains [[Santo Domingo]]
* [[Spanish American wars of independence|Revolts break out in Spanish America]]
| combatant1        = {{plainlist|
* '''{{flagdeco|Spain|1785}} [[History of Spain (1808–1874)|Spain]]'''
* '''{{flagcountry|United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland}}'''
* '''{{flagdeco|Kingdom of Portugal|1750}} [[History of Portugal (1777–1834)|Portugal]]'''
}}
| combatant2        = {{plainlist|
'''{{flagicon|First French Empire}} [[First French Empire|France]]'''
}}
* '''{{flagicon|Napoleonic Spain}} [[Spain under Joseph Bonaparte|Bonapartist Spain]]''' {{small|(1807–1813)}}
* {{flagicon|Napoleonic Italy}} [[Kingdom of Italy (Napoleonic)|Italy]]
* {{flagdeco|Kingdom of Naples|1811}} [[Kingdom of Naples (Napoleonic)|Kingdom of Naples]]
* [[Confederated States of the Rhine]] {{small|(1807–1813)}}
* {{flag|Duchy of Warsaw}}
* {{Flagicon|Netherlands}} [[Kingdom of Holland|Holland]] {{small|(1807–1810)}}{{Efn|[[Dutch Brigade (Peninsular War)|The Dutch Brigade]]}}
* {{flagicon image|Early Swiss cross.svg}} [[Napoleonic Swiss Confederation|Swiss Confederation]]
| commander1        = {{plainlist |
* {{flagdeco|Spain|1785}} '''[[Miguel Ricardo de Álava|Miguel de Álava]]'''
* {{flagdeco|Spain|1785}} [[Joaquín Blake]]
* {{flagdeco|Spain|1785}} [[Francisco Javier Castaños, 1st Duke of Bailén|Francisco Castaños]]
* {{flagdeco|Spain|1785}} [[Gregorio García de la Cuesta|Gregorio de la Cuesta]]
* {{flagdeco|Spain|1785}} [[Juan O'Donojú]]
* {{flagdeco|Spain|1785}} [[Juan Martín Díez]]
* {{flagdeco|Spain|1785}} [[José de Palafox y Melci, 1st Duke of Zaragoza|José de Palafox]]
* {{flagdeco|United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland}} '''[[Spencer Perceval]]'''{{Assassinated|Assassination of Spencer Perceval}}
* {{flagdeco|United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland}} '''[[Robert Jenkinson, 2nd Earl of Liverpool|Robert Jenkinson]]'''
* {{flagdeco|United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland}} '''[[Arthur Wellesley, 1st Duke of Wellington|Arthur Wellesley]]'''
* {{flagdeco|United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland}}{{flagdeco|Portugal|1750}} [[William Beresford, 1st Viscount Beresford|William Beresford]]
* {{flagdeco|United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland}} [[Rowland Hill, 1st Viscount Hill|Rowland Hill]]
* {{flagdeco|United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland}} [[Thomas Graham, 1st Baron Lynedoch|Thomas Graham]]
* {{flagdeco|United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland}} [[John Moore (British Army officer)|John Moore]]{{KIA}}
* {{flagdeco|United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland}} [[John Hope (British Army officer, born 1765)|John Hope]]
* {{flagdeco|United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland}} [[Edward Pakenham]]
* {{flagdeco|Kingdom of Portugal|1750}} [[Miguel Pereira Forjaz, Count of Feira|Miguel Pereira Forjaz]]
* {{flagdeco|Kingdom of Portugal|1750}} '''[[John VI of Portugal|Prince John]]'''
* {{flagdeco|Kingdom of Portugal|1750}} [[Bernardim Freire de Andrade|Bernardim Freire]]{{Assassinated}}
* {{flagdeco|Kingdom of Portugal|1750}} [[Francisco da Silveira Pinto da Fonseca Teixeira, 1st Count of Amarante|Francisco da Silveira]]
}}
| commander2        = {{plainlist |
* {{flagdeco|First French Empire}} '''[[Napoleon I]]'''
* {{flagdeco|Napoleonic Spain}} '''[[Joseph Bonaparte|Joseph I]]'''
* {{flagdeco|Napoleonic Spain}} [[Mariano Luis de Urquijo|Mariano de Urquijo]]
* {{flagdeco|First French Empire}} [[Pierre Augereau]]
* {{flagdeco|First French Empire}} [[Jean-Baptiste Bessières|J.B. Bessières]]
* {{flagdeco|First French Empire}} [[Jean-Baptiste Jourdan|J.B. Jourdan]]
* {{flagdeco|First French Empire}} [[Jean-Andoche Junot]]
* {{flagdeco|First French Empire}} [[Jean Lannes]]
* {{flagdeco|First French Empire}} [[François Joseph Lefebvre|François Lefebvre]]
* {{flagdeco|First French Empire}} [[Julien Augustin Joseph Mermet|Julien Mermet]]
* {{flagdeco|First French Empire}} [[Jacques MacDonald]]
* {{flagdeco|First French Empire}} [[Laurent de Gouvion Saint-Cyr|Laurent Saint-Cyr]]
* {{flagdeco|First French Empire}} [[Auguste de Marmont]]
* {{flagdeco|First French Empire}} [[André Masséna]]
* {{flagdeco|First French Empire}} [[Bon-Adrien Jeannot de Moncey|B.A. de Moncey]]
* {{flagdeco|First French Empire}} [[Édouard Mortier, Duke of Trévise|Édouard Mortier]]
* {{flagdeco|First French Empire}} [[Pierre Hugues Victoire Merle|Pierre Merle]]
* {{flagdeco|First French Empire}} [[Joachim Murat]]
* {{flagdeco|First French Empire}} [[Michel Ney]]
* {{flagdeco|First French Empire}} [[Jean-de-Dieu Soult]]
* {{flagdeco|First French Empire}} [[Louis-Gabriel Suchet]]
* {{flagdeco|First French Empire}} [[Claude Victor-Perrin]]
* {{flagdeco|First French Empire}} [[Horace François Bastien Sébastiani de La Porta|Horace Sébastiani]]
* {{flagdeco|First French Empire}} [[Guillaume Philibert Duhesme|Guillaume Duhesme]]
* {{flagicon|Netherlands}} [[David Hendrik Chassé]]
}}
| strength1         = {{plainlist|'''November 1808:'''
* {{flagdeco|ESP|1785}} 205,000 regulars (125,000 first line, 80,000 second line){{sfn|Clodfelter|2008|p=164}}
* {{flagdeco|UKGBI}} 31,000{{sfn|Clodfelter|2008|p=164}}
* {{flagdeco|Kingdom of Portugal|1750}} 35,000{{sfn|Chartrand|2000|p=16}}

'''1811:'''
* {{flagdeco|ESP|1785}} 55,000 guerrillas{{sfn|Fraser|2008|p=394}}{{efn|In Spanish, the form of asymmetric warfare waged by the Spanish partisans was termed ''guerrilla'' ("little war"), while the practitioner of such tactics was a ''guerrillero''. Those terms are usually rendered in English as "guerrilla warfare" and "guerrilla (fighter)", respectively.}}
'''April 1813:'''
*Wellington: 172,000 Allied troops (British and Portuguese, and Spanish under British command and subsidy){{sfn|Clodfelter|2008|p=166}}
* {{flagdeco|ESP|1785}} 160,000 regulars{{sfn|Chartrand|1999|pp=3–5}}
*Coalition: 81,318 (53,749 British and 27,569 Portuguese){{sfn|Gates|2001|p=521}}
* {{flagdeco|UKGBI}} 64,000 (annual average, 1808–1814)<ref>[https://www.napoleon-series.org/research/abstract/military/army/britain/casualties/c_britcas.html Dumas, Samuel and K.O. Vedel-Petersen. Losses of Life Caused by War Oxford : Clarendon Press; 1923.]</ref>
}}
| strength2         = {{plainlist|
* '''May 1808:'''
* {{flagdeco|First French Empire}} 165,103{{sfn|Clodfelter|2008|p=164}}
* '''November 1808:'''
* {{flagdeco|First French Empire}} 244,125{{sfn|Clodfelter|2008|p=164}}
* '''February 1809:'''
* {{flagdeco|First French Empire}} 288,551{{sfn|Clodfelter|2008|p=164}}
* '''January 1810:'''
* {{flagdeco|First French Empire}} 324,996{{sfn|Clodfelter|2008|p=165}}
* '''July 1811:''' 
* {{flagdeco|First French Empire}} 291,414{{sfn|Clodfelter|2008|p=166}}
* '''June 1812:'''
* {{flagdeco|First French Empire}} 230,000{{sfn|Clodfelter|2008|p=166}}
* '''October 1812:'''
* {{flagdeco|First French Empire}} 261,933{{sfn|Clodfelter|2008|p=166}}
* '''April 1813:'''
* {{flagdeco|First French Empire}} 200,000{{sfn|Clodfelter|2008|p=166}}
}}
| casualties1       = {{plainlist|
* {{flagdeco|ESP|1785}} c. 300,000 military dead{{sfn|Urlanis|1971|pp=180–182}}
* 25,000 guerrillas killed in combat{{sfn|Clodfelter|2008|p=167}}
* {{flagdeco|UKGBI}} 35,630 dead{{sfn|Clodfelter|2008|p=167}}
* 24,053 died of disease{{sfn|Clodfelter|2008|p=167}}
** (59,683 total dead)
* 32,429 wounded{{sfn|Clodfelter|2008|p=167}}
}}
{{flagdeco|Kingdom of Portugal|1750}} 50,000 military dead{{sfn|Urlanis|1971|pp=180–182}}
| casualties2       = {{plainlist|
* {{flagdeco|First French Empire}} 180,000–240,000+ dead (91,000 killed in action){{sfn|Clodfelter|2008|p=167}}
* 237,000 wounded{{sfn|Clodfelter|2008|p=167}}
}}
| casualties3       = 1,000,000+ military and civilian dead{{sfn|Clodfelter|2008|p=167}}
| units1            = {{ubl|{{flagdeco|Spain|1785}} [[Spanish Army (Peninsular War)|Spanish Army (1808–1814)]]|{{flagdeco|United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland}} [[British Army during the French Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars|British Army (1793–1815)]]|{{flagdeco|Kingdom of Portugal|1750}} [[Portuguese Army]] (1808–1814)|{{*}}{{flagdeco|United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland}}{{flagdeco|Kingdom of Portugal|1750}} [[Anglo-Portuguese Army]]}}
| units2            = {{ubl|{{flagdeco|First French Empire}} [[French Imperial Army (1804–1815)]]|{{*}}{{lang|fr|Armée d'Espagne}}{{sup|[[:fr:Armée d'Espagne (Premier Empire)|[fr]]]}}|{{*}}{{lang|fr|[[Grande Armée]]}}}}
}}
{{Campaignbox Peninsular War}}
{{Campaignbox Napoleonic Wars}}
{{Campaignbox Franco-Spanish wars}}
{{Campaignbox Portugal in the Napoleonic Wars}}
{{Location map+ |Spain |relief=1 |float=right |width=404 | caption=[[File:Brown pog.svg|12px|link=]]1807 [[File:Red pog.svg|12px|link=]]1808 [[File:Orange pog.svg|12px|link=]]1809 [[File:Blue pog.svg|12px|link=]]1810 [[File:Green pog.svg|12px|link=]]1811 [[File:Yellow pog.svg|12px|link=]]1812 [[File:Steel pog.svg|12px|link=]]1813 [[File:White pog.svg|12px|link=]]1814 |places=
  {{location map~ |Spain |lat=38.73 |long=-9.15 |label=[[Invasion of Portugal (1807)|Lisbon]] |mark=Brown pog.svg}}
  {{location map~ |Spain |lat=40.42 |long=-3.7 |label=[[Dos de Mayo Uprising|Madrid]] |mark=Red pog.svg}}
  {{location map~ |Spain |lat=39.47 |long=-0.37 |label=[[Battle of Valencia (1808)|Valencia]] |mark=Red pog.svg}}
  {{location map~ |Spain |lat=38.1 |long=-3.8 |label=[[Battle of Bailén|Bailén]] |mark=Red pog.svg}}
  {{location map~ |Spain |lat=42.05 |long=-1.62 |label=[[Battle of Tudela|Tudela]] |mark=Red pog.svg}}
  {{location map~ |Spain |lat=43.36 |long=-8.4 |label=[[Battle of Corunna|Corunna]] |mark=Orange pog.svg}}
  {{location map~ |Spain |lat=39.97 |long=-4.83 |label=[[Battle of Talavera|Talavera]] |mark=Orange pog.svg}}
  {{location map~ |Spain |lat=36.53 |long=-6.3 |label=[[Siege of Cádiz|Cádiz]] |mark=Blue pog.svg}}
  {{location map~ |Spain |lat=38.72 |long=-6.82 |label=[[Battle of Albuera|Albuera]] |mark=Green pog.svg}}
  {{location map~ |Spain |lat=40.6 |long=-6.54 |label=[[Siege of Ciudad Rodrigo (1812)|Ciudad Rodrigo]] |mark=Yellow pog.svg  |position=left}}
  {{location map~ |Spain |lat=40.89 |long=-5.64 |label=[[Battle of Salamanca|Salamanca]] |mark=Yellow pog.svg}}
  {{location map~ |Spain |lat=42.35 |long=-3.7 |label=[[Siege of Burgos|Burgos]] |mark=Yellow pog.svg}}
  {{location map~ |Spain |lat=41.5 |long=-5 |label=[[Battle of Tordesillas (1812)|Tordesillas]] |mark=Yellow pog.svg}}
  {{location map~ |Spain |lat=42.85 |long=-2.68 |label=[[Battle of Vitoria|Vitoria]] |mark=Steel pog.svg}}
  {{location map~ |Spain |lat=43.60 |long=1.44 |label=[[Battle of Toulouse (1814)|Toulouse]] |mark=White pog.svg |position=right}}
}}
The '''Peninsular War''' (1808–1814){{efn|name=Invasion of Portugal}} was fought in the [[Iberian Peninsula]] by the Iberian nations [[Spain]] and [[Kingdom of Portugal|Portugal]], and the [[United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland|United Kingdom]] against the invading and occupying forces of the [[First French Empire]] during the [[Napoleonic Wars]]. In Spain, it is considered to overlap with the '''Spanish War of Independence'''.{{efn|name="Other names"}} It overlapped with the [[War of the Fifth Coalition]] (1809) and the [[War of the Sixth Coalition]] (1812-1814).

The war can be said to have started when the [[First French Empire|French]] and [[History of Spain (1808–1874)|Spanish]] armies [[Invasion of Portugal (1807)|invaded and occupied Portugal]] in 1807 by transiting through [[Kingdom of Spain (1810-1873)|Spain]], but it escalated in 1808 after [[First French Empire|Napoleonic France]] occupied [[History of Spain (1808–1874)|Spain]], which had been its ally. [[Napoleon Bonaparte]] [[Abdications of Bayonne|forced the abdications]] of [[Ferdinand VII of Spain|Ferdinand VII]] and his father [[Charles IV of Spain|Charles IV]] and then installed his brother [[Joseph Bonaparte]] on the Spanish throne and [[promulgated]] the [[Bayonne Constitution]]. Most Spaniards rejected French rule and fought a bloody war to oust them. The war on the peninsula lasted until the [[War of the Sixth Coalition|Sixth Coalition]] defeated Napoleon in 1814, and is regarded as one of the first [[wars of national liberation]]. It is also significant for the emergence of large-scale [[guerrilla warfare]].

In 1808, the Spanish army in [[Andalusia]] defeated the French at the [[Battle of Bailén]], considered the first open-field defeat of the Napoleonic army on a European battlefield. [[Siege of Cádiz|Besieged]] by 70,000 French troops, a reconstituted national government, the [[Cortes of Cádiz|Cortes]]—in effect a [[government-in-exile]]—fortified itself in the secure port of [[Cádiz]] in 1810. The British army, under [[Arthur Wellesley, 1st Duke of Wellington|Arthur Wellesley]], the future Duke of Wellington, guarded Portugal and campaigned against the French alongside the reformed [[Portuguese Army#Peninsular War|Portuguese Army]] and provided whatever supplies they could get to the Spanish, while the [[Spanish Army (Peninsular War)|Spanish armies]] and [[guerrillas]] tied down vast numbers of Napoleon's troops.{{efn|By 1813, Spanish guerrillas had tied down over 75% of the French occupying army, leaving only a small fraction free to concentrate and face the conventional allied forces under Wellington.{{sfn|Fraser|2008|p=365}}}} In 1812, when Napoleon set out with a massive army on what proved to be a disastrous [[French invasion of Russia]], a combined allied army defeated the French at [[Battle of Salamanca|Salamanca]] and took the capital [[Madrid]]. In the following year the Coalition defeated King [[Joseph Bonaparte]]'s army at the [[Battle of Vitoria]], paving the way for victory in the war in the Iberian Peninsula.

Pursued by the armies of Britain, Spain and Portugal, Marshal [[Jean-de-Dieu Soult]], no longer getting sufficient support from a depleted France, led the exhausted and demoralized French forces in a fighting withdrawal across the [[Pyrenees]] during the winter of 1813–1814. The years of fighting in Spain were a heavy burden on [[French Imperial Army (1804–1815)|France's Imperial Army]]. While the French won several battles they were eventually defeated, as their communications and supplies were severely tested and their units were frequently isolated, harassed or overwhelmed by Spanish [[Partisan (military)|partisans]] fighting an intense guerrilla war of raids and ambushes. The Spanish armies were repeatedly beaten and driven to the peripheries, but they would regroup and relentlessly hound and demoralize the French troops. This drain on French resources led Napoleon, who had unwittingly provoked a [[total war]], to call the conflict the "Spanish ulcer".{{sfn|Hindley|2010}}{{sfn|Ellis|2014|p=100}}

For France, the Peninsular War bogged down Napoleon's troops, which allowed the rest of Europe to challenge Napoleon once more, including in the [[War of the Fifth Coalition]], the French invasion of Russia, and culminating in Napoleon's defeat in the [[War of the Sixth Coalition]]. The war against Napoleon's occupation led to the [[Spanish Constitution of 1812]], promulgated by the [[Cortes of Cádiz]], later a cornerstone of [[European liberalism]].{{sfn|Payne|1973|pp=432–433}} Though victorious in war—France would never again threaten a full-scale invasion of Spain—the burden of war destroyed the social and economic fabric of both Portugal and Spain, and the following civil wars between [[Liberalism|liberal]] and [[Absolute monarchy|absolutist]] factions ushered in [[Spanish American wars of independence|revolts in Spanish America]] and the beginning of an era of social turbulence, increased political instability, and economic stagnation.

==1807==

===Extortion of Portugal===
The [[Treaties of Tilsit]], negotiated during a meeting in July 1807 between Emperors [[Alexander I of Russia]] and [[Napoleon]], concluded the [[War of the Fourth Coalition]]. With [[Kingdom of Prussia|Prussia]] shattered, and the [[Russian Empire]] allied with the [[First French Empire]], Napoleon expressed irritation that [[Portugal]] was open to trade with Britain.{{sfn|Chandler|1995|p=588}} Pretexts were plentiful; Portugal was Britain's [[Anglo-Portuguese Alliance|oldest ally in Europe]], Britain was finding new opportunities for trade with Portugal's colony in Brazil, the [[Royal Navy]] used Lisbon's port in its operations against France, and he wanted to deny the British the use of the Portuguese fleet. Furthermore, [[John VI of Portugal|Prince John of Braganza]], regent for his insane mother [[Maria I of Portugal|Queen Maria I]], had declined to join the emperor's [[Continental System]] against British trade.{{sfn|Chandler|1995|p=596}}

Events moved rapidly. The Emperor sent orders on 19 July 1807 to his Foreign Minister, [[Charles Maurice de Talleyrand-Périgord]], to order Portugal to declare war on Britain, close its ports to British ships, detain British subjects on a provisional basis and sequester their goods. After a few days, a large force started concentrating at [[Bayonne]].{{sfn|Chandler|1995|p=597}} Meanwhile, the Portuguese government's resolve was stiffening, and shortly afterward Napoleon was once again told that Portugal would not go beyond its original agreements. Napoleon now had all the pretext that he needed, while his force, the First Corps of Observation of the Gironde with [[divisional general]] [[Jean-Andoche Junot]] in command, was prepared to march on Lisbon. After he received the Portuguese answer, he ordered Junot's corps to cross the frontier into Spain.{{sfn|Oman|1902|p=7}}

While all this was going on, France and Spain signed the secret [[Treaty of Fontainebleau (October 1807)|Treaty of Fontainebleau]]. The document was drawn up by Napoleon's marshal of the palace [[Géraud Duroc]] and Eugenio Izquierdo, an agent for [[Manuel Godoy]].{{sfn|Oman|1902|p=8}} The treaty proposed to carve up Portugal into three entities. [[Porto]] and the northern part was to become the [[Kingdom of Northern Lusitania]], under [[Charles II, Duke of Parma]]. The southern portion, as the Principality of the Algarves, would fall to Godoy. The rump of the country, centered on Lisbon, was to be administered by the French.{{sfn|Oman|1902|p=9}} According to the Treaty of Fontainebleau, Junot's invasion force was to be supported by 25,500 Spanish troops.{{sfn|Oman|1902|p=26}} On 12 October, Junot's corps began crossing the [[Bidasoa]] River into Spain at [[Irun]].{{sfn|Oman|1902|p=7}} Junot was selected because he had served as ambassador to Portugal in 1805. He was known as a good fighter and an active officer, although he had never exercised independent command.{{sfn|Oman|1902|p=8}}

<gallery widths="145px" heights="200px">
File:Jean-Baptiste Debret - Retrato de Dom João VI (MNBA) - cores compensadas.jpg|alt=Portrait of Prince John of Braganza.|''Portrait of Prince John of Braganza'' by [[Jean-Baptiste Debret]] (1817).
File:Napoleon I of France by Andrea Appiani.jpg|alt=Portrait of Napoleon as King of Italy.|''Napoleon Bonaparte'' by [[Andrea Appiani]] (1805).
</gallery>

===Spanish dilemma===
{{Further|History of Spain (1700–1810)}}

By 1800, Spain was in a state of social unrest. Townsfolk and peasants all over the country, who had been forced to bury family members in new municipal cemeteries rather than churches or other consecrated ground, took back their bodies at night and tried to restore them to their old resting-places. In [[Madrid]], the growing numbers of ''[[afrancesado|''afrancesados'']]'' (Francophiles) at court were opposed by the ''majos'': shopkeepers, artisans, tavern keepers, and laborers who dressed in traditional style, and took pleasure in picking fights with ''petimetres'', the young who styled themselves with French fashion and manners.{{sfn|Esdaile|2003|p=22}}

Spain was an ally of Napoleon's First French Empire; however, defeat in the naval [[Battle of Trafalgar]] in October 1805, which had decimated Spain's navy, had removed the reason for alliance with France. Manuel Godoy, the favorite of King [[Charles IV of Spain]], began to seek some form of escape. At the start of the [[War of the Fourth Coalition]], which pitted the Kingdom of Prussia against Napoleon, Godoy issued a proclamation that was obviously aimed at France, even though it did not specify an enemy. After Napoleon's decisive victory at the [[Battle of Jena–Auerstedt]], Godoy quickly withdrew the proclamation. However, it was too late to avert Napoleon's suspicions. Napoleon planned from that moment to deal with his inconstant ally at some future time. In the meantime, the Emperor forced Godoy and Charles IV into providing a division of Spanish troops to serve in northern Europe.{{sfn|Gates|2001|pp=6–7}} The [[Division of the North]] spent the winter of 1807–1808 in [[Swedish Pomerania]], [[Mecklenburg]], and towns of the old [[Hanseatic League]] and Spanish troops marched into [[Denmark]] in early 1808.{{sfn|Oman|1902|p=367}}

<gallery widths="175px" heights="200px">
File:Fernando VII, by López.jpg|alt=Portrait of Fernando VII de España.|''Prince [[Fernando VII of Spain]]'' by [[Vicente López Portaña]]
File:Carlos IV de rojo.jpg|alt=Portrait of Charles IV.|''[[Charles IV of Spain|King Charles IV of Spain]]'' by [[Francisco Goya]]
</gallery>

===Invasion of Portugal===
{{Main|Invasion of Portugal (1807)}}
[[File:Departure of H.R.H. the Prince Regent of Portugal for the Brazils (Campaigns of the British Army in Portugal, London, 1812) - Henry L'Evêque, F. Bartollozzi.png|thumb|alt=Painting shows crowds of people dressed in early 1800s clothing getting off horse-drawn carriages near the sea.|[[Transfer of the Portuguese court to Brazil]], 1807.]]

Napoleon instructed Junot, with the cooperation of Spanish military troops, to invade Portugal, moving west from [[Alcántara]] along the [[Tagus]] valley to Portugal, a distance of only {{convert|120|mi|km|0}}.{{sfn|Oman|1902|p=27}} On 19 November 1807, the French troops under Junot set out for Lisbon and occupied it on 30 November.{{sfn|Oman|1902|p=28}}

The Prince Regent John escaped, loading his family, courtiers, state papers and treasure aboard the fleet, protected by the British, and fled to Brazil. He was joined in flight by many nobles, merchants and others. With 15 warships and more than 20 transports, the fleet of refugees weighed anchor on 29 November and [[Transfer of the Portuguese Court to Brazil|set sail for the colony of Brazil]].{{sfn|Oman|1902|p=30}} The flight had been so chaotic that 14 carts loaded with treasure were left behind on the docks.{{sfn|Chandler|1995|p=599}}

As one of Junot's first acts, the property of those who had fled to Brazil was sequestered{{sfn|Oman|1902|p=31}} and a 100-million-[[franc]] indemnity imposed.{{sfn|Oman|1902|p=32}} The army formed into a [[Portuguese Legion (Napoleonic Wars)|Portuguese Legion]], and went to northern Germany to perform garrison duty.{{sfn|Oman|1902|p=31}} Junot did his best to calm the situation by trying to keep his troops under control. While the Portuguese authorities were generally subservient toward their French occupiers, the ordinary Portuguese were angry,{{sfn|Oman|1902|p=31}} and the harsh taxes caused bitter resentment among the population. By January 1808, there were executions of persons who resisted the exactions of the French. The situation was dangerous, but it would need a trigger from outside to transform unrest into revolt.{{sfn|Oman|1902|p=32}}

==1808==
===Coup d'état===
[[File:Manuel de Godoy, por Francisco Bayeu (Real Academia de Bellas Artes de San Fernando).jpg|thumb|right|upright=0.9|alt=Portrait of Manuel Godoy (1767–1851)|''Portrait of [[Manuel Godoy]]'' by [[Francisco Bayeu y Subías]], 1792]]
[[File:Kinsoen - Portrait en buste de Joseph Bonaparte.jpg|thumb|[[Joseph Bonaparte|Joseph I of Spain]] by [[François Kinson]], 1811]]

Between 9 and 12 February, the French divisions of the eastern and western Pyrenees crossed the border and occupied [[Navarre]] and [[Catalonia]], including the citadels of [[Pamplona]] and [[Barcelona]]. The Spanish government demanded explanations from their French allies, but these did not satisfy and in response Godoy pulled Spanish troops out of Portugal.{{sfn|Esdaile|2003|pp=30–31}} Since Spanish fortress commanders had not received instructions from the central government, they were unsure how to treat the French troops, who marched openly as allies with flags flying and bands announcing their arrival. Some commanders opened their fortresses to them, while others resisted. General [[Guillaume Philibert Duhesme]], who occupied Barcelona with 12,000 troops, soon found himself besieged in the citadel; he was not relieved until January 1809.{{sfn|Connelly|2006|p=145}}

On 20 February, [[Joachim Murat]] was appointed lieutenant of the emperor and commander of all French troops in Spain, which now numbered 60,000{{sfn|Esdaile|2003|pp=30–31}}–100,000.{{sfn|Connelly|2006|p=145}} On 24 February, Napoleon declared that he no longer considered himself bound by the Treaty of Fontainebleau.{{sfn|Esdaile|2003|pp=30–31}} In early March, Murat established his headquarters in [[Vitoria-Gasteiz|Vitoria]] and received 6,000 reinforcements from the [[Imperial Guard (Napoleon I)|Imperial Guard]].{{sfn|Esdaile|2003|pp=30–31}}

On 19 March 1808, Godoy fell from power in the [[Mutiny of Aranjuez]] and Charles IV was forced to abdicate in favour of his son, [[Ferdinand VII of Spain|Ferdinand VII]].{{sfn|Esdaile|2003|pp=34–35}} In the aftermath of the abdication, attacks on ''godoyistas'' were frequent.{{sfn|Esdaile|2003|p=37}} On 23 March, Murat entered Madrid with pomp. Ferdinand VII arrived on 27 March and asked Murat to get Napoleon's confirmation of his accession.{{sfn|Connelly|2006|p=145}} Charles IV, however, was persuaded to protest his abdication to Napoleon, who summoned the royal family, both kings included, to [[Bayonne]] in France. There on 5 May, under French pressure, the two kings both [[Abdications of Bayonne|abdicated their claims to Napoleon]].{{sfn|Esdaile|2003|pp=34–35}} Napoleon then had the Junta de Gobierno—the council of regency in Madrid—formally ask him to appoint his brother Joseph as King of Spain. The abdication of Ferdinand was only publicised on 20 May.{{sfn|Esdaile|2003|p=49}}

===Iberia in revolt===
{{Further|Dos de Mayo Uprising}}

On 2 May, the citizens of Madrid [[Dos de Mayo Uprising|rebelled]] against the French occupation; the uprising was put down by Joachim Murat's elite Imperial Guard and [[Mamluk]] cavalry, which crashed into the city and trampled the rioters.{{sfn|Chandler|1995|p=610}} In addition, the [[Mamelukes of the Imperial Guard]] of Napoleon fought residents of Madrid, wearing turbans and using curved scimitars, thus provoking memories of [[Muslim Spain]].{{sfn|Fremont-Barnes|2002|p=71}} The next day, as immortalized by [[Francisco Goya]] in his painting ''[[The Third of May 1808]]'', the French army shot hundreds of Madrid's citizens. Similar reprisals occurred in other cities and continued for days. Bloody, spontaneous fighting known as ''[[guerrilla]]'' (literally "little war") broke out in much of Spain against the French as well as the [[Ancien Régime]]'s officials. Although the Spanish government, including the [[Council of Castile]], had accepted Napoleon's decision to grant the Spanish crown to his brother, [[Joseph Bonaparte]], the Spanish population rejected Napoleon's plans.{{sfn|Esdaile|2003|pp=302–303}} The first wave of uprisings were in [[Cartagena, Spain|Cartagena]] and [[Valencia]] on 23 May; [[Zaragoza]] and [[Murcia]] on 24 May; and the province of [[Asturias]], which cast out its French governor on 25 May and declared war on Napoleon. Within weeks, all the Spanish provinces followed suit.{{sfn|Gates|2001|p=12}} After hearing of the Spanish uprising, Portugal erupted in revolt in June. A French detachment under [[Louis Henri Loison]] crushed the rebels at [[Battle of Évora (1808)|Évora]] on 29 July and massacred the town's population.

The deteriorating strategic situation led France to increase its military commitments. By 1&nbsp;June, over 65,000 troops were rushing into the country to control the crisis.{{sfn|Gates|2001|p=162}} The main French army of 80,000 held a narrow strip of central Spain from [[Pamplona]] and [[San Sebastián]] in the north to Madrid and [[Toledo, Spain|Toledo]] in the centre. The French in Madrid sheltered behind an additional 30,000 troops under Marshal [[Bon-Adrien Jeannot de Moncey]]. [[Jean-Andoche Junot]]'s corps in Portugal was cut off by {{convert|300|mi|km}} of hostile territory, but within days of the outbreak of revolt, French columns in Old Castile, [[New Castile (Spain)|New Castile]], Aragon and [[Catalonia]] were searching for the insurgent forces.

<gallery widths="200px" heights="160px">
File:El Crit del Palleter.jpg|[[Joaquín Sorolla]]: ''[[Valencia]]ns prepare to [[Battle of Valencia (1808)|resist]] the invaders'' (by [[Joaquín Sorolla]], 1884)
File:Dos de mayo, por Joaquín Sorolla.jpg|Second of May 1808: [[Pedro Velarde y Santillán|the defenders of Monteleón]] make their [[last stand]] (by [[Joaquín Sorolla]], 1884)
File:El dos de mayo de 1808 en Madrid rdit.jpg|''[[The Second of May 1808]]'' (by [[Francisco Goya|Goya]], 1814)
File:El Tres de Mayo, by Francisco de Goya, from Prado thin black margin.jpg|''[[The Third of May 1808]]'' French soldiers execute civilians (by [[Francisco Goya|Goya]], 1814)
</gallery>

===Conventional warfare===
[[File:La Rendición de Bailén (Casado del Alisal).jpg|thumb|right|The [[Spanish Army]]'s triumph at [[Battle of Bailén|Bailén]] was the French Empire's first land defeat. ''[[The Surrender of Bailén]]'' by [[José Casado del Alisal]]]]

To defeat the insurgency, [[Pierre Dupont de l'Étang]] led 24,430 men south toward [[Seville]] and Cádiz; Marshal [[Jean-Baptiste Bessières]] moved into Aragon and Old Castile with 25,000 men, aiming to capture [[Santander, Cantabria|Santander]] and Zaragoza. Moncey marched toward Valencia with 29,350 men, and [[Guillaume Philibert Duhesme]] marshalled 12,710 troops in Catalonia and moved against [[Girona]].{{sfn|Chandler|1995|p=611}}{{sfn|Gates|2001|pp=181–182}}

At the two successive [[Combat of El Bruc|Combats of El Bruc]] outside [[Barcelona]], local [[Catalans|Catalan]] militia, the ''[[Miquelet (militia)|Miquelets]]'' (also known as ''sometents''), defeated [[François Xavier de Schwarz]]'s 4,000 troops. [[Guillaume Philibert Duhesme]]'s Franco-Italian division of almost 6,000 troops failed to storm [[Battle of Gerona (1808)|Girona]] and was forced to return to Barcelona.{{sfn|Gates|2001|p=61}} Six thousand French troops under [[Charles Lefebvre-Desnouettes]] attacked [[First Siege of Zaragoza|Zaragoza]] and were beaten off by [[José de Palafox y Melci]]'s militia.{{sfn|Esdaile|2003|p=67}} Moncey's push to take Valencia ended in failure, with 1,000 French recruits dying in an attempt to [[Battle of Valencia (1808)|storm the city]]. After defeating Spanish counterattacks, Moncey retreated.{{sfn|Chandler|1995|p=614}} At the [[Battle of Medina de Rioseco]] on 14 July, Bessières defeated Cuesta and Old Castile returned to French control. Blake escaped, but the Spaniards lost 2,200 men and thirteen guns. French losses were minimal at 400 men.{{sfn|Esdaile|2003|p=73}} Bessières's victory salvaged the French army's strategic position in northern Spain. Joseph entered Madrid on 20 July;{{sfn|Esdaile|2003|p=73}} and on 25 July he was crowned King of Spain.{{sfn|Esdaile|2003|p=74}} On 10 June, five French [[ships of the line]] anchored at Cádiz were [[Capture of the Rosily Squadron|seized]] by the Spanish.{{sfn|Glover|2001|p=53}} Dupont was disturbed enough to curtail his march at Cordoba, and then on 16 June to fall back to [[Andújar]].{{sfn|Esdaile|2003|p=77}} Cowed by the mass hostility of the Andalusians, he broke off his offensive and was then defeated at [[Battle of Bailén|Bailén]], where he surrendered his entire [[Corps|Army Corps]] to [[Francisco Javier Castaños, 1st Duke of Bailén|Castaños]].

The catastrophe was total. With the loss of 24,000 troops, Napoleon's military machine in Spain collapsed. Stunned by the defeat, on 1 August Joseph evacuated the capital for Old Castile, while ordering Verdier to abandon the siege of Zaragoza and Bessières to retire from Leon; the entire French army sheltered behind the Ebro.{{sfn|Esdaile|2003|p=84}} By this time, Girona had resisted a [[Second Siege of Gerona|Second Siege]]. Europe welcomed this first check to the hitherto unbeatable Imperial armies—a Bonaparte had been chased from his throne; tales of Spanish heroism inspired Austria and showed the force of national resistance. Bailén set in motion the rise of the [[War of the Fifth Coalition|Fifth Coalition]].{{sfn|Chandler|1995|p=617}}

===British intervention===
{{Further|British Army during the Napoleonic Wars}}
[[File:Batalha do Vimeiro (cropped).jpg|thumb|Portuguese and British troops fighting the French at [[Battle of Vimeiro|Vimeiro]]]]

Britain's involvement in the Peninsular War was the start of a prolonged campaign in Europe to increase British military power on land and liberate the Iberian peninsula from the French.{{sfn|Esdaile|2003|p=87}} In August 1808, 15,000 British troops—including the [[King's German Legion]]—landed in Portugal under the command of [[Lieutenant-General]] [[Arthur Wellesley, 1st Duke of Wellington|Arthur Wellesley]], who drove back [[Henri François Delaborde]]'s 4,000-strong detachment at [[Battle of Roliça|Roliça]] on 17 August and smashed Junot's main force of 14,000 men at [[Battle of Vimeiro|Vimeiro]]. Wellesley was replaced at first by [[Sir Harry Burrard, 1st Baronet, of Lymington|Harry Burrard]] and then [[Sir Hew Dalrymple, 1st Baronet, of High Mark|Hew Dalrymple]]. Dalrymple granted Junot an unmolested evacuation from Portugal by the Royal Navy in the controversial [[Convention of Cintra]] in August. In early October 1808, following the scandal in Britain over the Convention of Cintra and the recall of the generals Dalrymple, Burrard and Wellesley, [[John Moore (British Army officer)|John Moore]] took command of the 30,000-man British force in Portugal.{{sfn|Richardson|1921|p=343}} In addition, [[Sir David Baird, 1st Baronet|David Baird]], in command of an expedition of reinforcements out of [[Falmouth, Cornwall|Falmouth]] consisting of 150 transports carrying between 12,000 and 13,000 men, convoyed by HMS ''Louie'', [[HMS Amelia (1796)|HMS ''Amelia'']] and [[HMS Champion|HMS ''Champion'']], entered Corunna Harbour on 13 October.{{sfn|Gay|1903|p=231}} Logistical and administrative problems prevented any immediate British offensive.{{sfn|Chandler|1995|p=628}}

Meanwhile, the British had made a substantial contribution to the Spanish cause by helping to evacuate some 9,000 men of [[Pedro Caro, 3rd Marquis of la Romana|La Romana]]'s [[Division of the North]] from Denmark.{{sfn|Esdaile|2003|p=106}} In August 1808, the British Baltic fleet helped [[Evacuation of La Romana's division|transport the Spanish division]], except three regiments that failed to escape, back to Spain by way of [[Gothenburg]] in Sweden. The division arrived in Santander in October 1808.{{sfn|Oman|1902|pp=367–375}}

===Napoleon's invasion of Spain<!--{{anchor|Napoleon's invasion}} Napoleon's invasion of Spain redirects here-->===
[[File:Battle of Somosierra 1808.PNG|thumb|''La bataille de Somosierra'' by [[Louis-François, Baron Lejeune]] (oil on canvas, 1810)]]

After the surrender of a French army corps at Bailén and the loss of Portugal, Napoleon was convinced of the peril he faced in Spain. With his {{lang|fr|Armée d'Espagne}} of 278,670 men drawn up on the Ebro, facing 80,000 raw, disorganized Spanish troops,{{sfn|Glover|2001|p=55}} Napoleon and his [[Marshal of France|marshals]] carried out a massive [[double envelopment]] of the Spanish lines in November 1808.{{sfn|Chandler|1995|p=631}} Napoleon struck with overwhelming strength and the Spanish defense evaporated at [[Battle of Burgos|Burgos]], [[Battle of Tudela|Tudela]], [[Battle of Espinosa|Espinosa]] and [[Battle of Somosierra|Somosierra]]. The Junta was forced to abandon Madrid in November 1808, and resided in the [[Alcázar of Seville]] from 16 December 1808 until 23 January 1810.{{sfn|Martínez|1999|p={{page needed|date=February 2014}}}} Madrid surrendered on 1 December and Joseph Bonaparte was restored to his throne. In [[Catalonia]], [[Laurent Gouvion Saint-Cyr]]'s 17,000-strong [[VII Corps (Grande Armée)|VII Corps]] besieged and captured [[Siege of Roses (1808)|Roses]], destroyed part of [[Juan Miguel de Vives y Feliu]]'s Spanish army at [[Battle of Cardedeu|Cardedeu]] near Barcelona on 16 December and routed the Spaniards under [[Count of Caldagues|Conde de Caldagues]] and [[Theodor von Reding]] at [[Battle of Molins de Rei|Molins de Rei]].

==={{anchor|Corunna Campaign}}Corunna campaign, 1808–1809===
[[File:36 214430~death-of-sir-john-moore-(1761-1809)-january-17th-1809,-from-'the-martial-achievements-of-great-britain-and-her-allies-from-1799-.jpg|thumb|''Death of Sir John Moore, 17 January 1809'', [[Aquatint]] by [[William Heath (artist)|William Heath]], engraved by [[Thomas Sutherland (artist)|Thomas Sutherland]]]]

By November 1808, the British army led by Moore was advancing into Spain with orders to assist the Spanish armies' fight against Napoleon's forces.{{sfn|Oman|1902|p=492}} Moore decided to attack Soult's scattered and isolated 16,000-man corps' at [[Carrión de los Condes|Carrión]], opening his attack with a successful raid by Lieutenant-General [[Henry Paget, 1st Marquess of Anglesey|Paget]]'s cavalry on the French [[Picket (military)|''picquets'']] at [[Battle of Sahagún|Sahagún]] on 21 December.{{sfn|Gates|2001|p=108}}{{sfn|Fremont-Barnes|2002|p=35}}

Abandoning plans to immediately conquer Seville and Portugal, Napoleon rapidly amassed 80,000 troops and [[debouch]]ed from the [[Sierra de Guadarrama]] into the plains of Old Castile to encircle the British Army. Moore retreated for the safety of the British fleet at La Coruna and Soult failed to intercept him.{{sfn|Esdaile|2003|p=146}}{{sfn|Esdaile|2003|p=150}} The rearguard of [[Pedro Caro, 3rd Marquis of la Romana|La Romana]]'s retreating force was overrun at [[Battle of Mansilla|Mansilla]] on 30 December by Soult, who captured [[León, Spain|León]] the next day. Moore's retreat was marked by a breakdown of discipline in many regiments and punctuated by stubborn rearguard actions at [[Battle of Benavente|Benavente]] and [[Battle of Cacabelos|Cacabelos]].{{sfn|Fletcher|1999|p=97}} The British troops escaped to the sea after fending off a strong French attack at [[Battle of Corunna|Corunna]], in which Moore was killed. Some 26,000 troops reached Britain, with 7,000 men lost over the course of the expedition.{{sfn|Gates|2001|p=114}} The French occupied the most populated region in Spain, including the important towns of Lugo and La Corunna.{{sfn|Esdaile|2003|p=155}} The Spanish were shocked by the British retreat.{{sfn|Esdaile|2003|p=156}} Napoleon returned to France on 19 January 1809 to prepare for war with Austria, giving the Spanish command back to his marshals.

==1809==

===Spanish campaign, early 1809===

====Fall of Zaragoza====
[[File:Santa Engracia - Lejeune.jpg|thumb|[[Siege of Zaragoza (1809)|Saragossa]]: ''The assault on the Santa Engracia monastery'' by [[Louis-François Lejeune]], oil on canvas, 1827]]

Zaragoza, already scarred from [[Charles Lefebvre-Desnouettes|Lefebvre]]'s bombardments that summer, was [[Siege of Zaragoza (1809)|under a second siege]] that had commenced on 20 December. Lannes and Moncey committed two army corps of 45,000 men and considerable artillery firepower. Palafox's second defence brought the city enduring national and international fame.{{sfn|Glover|2001|p=89}} The Spaniards fought with determination, endured disease and starvation, entrenching themselves in convents and burning their own homes. The garrison of 44,000 was left with 8,000 survivors{{mdash}}1,500 of them ill{{mdash}}{{sfn|Gates|2001|p=114}} but the {{lang|fr|Grande Armée}} did not advance beyond the [[Ebro]]. On 20 February 1809, the garrison capitulated, leaving behind burnt-out ruins filled with 64,000 corpses, of which 10,000 were French.{{sfn|Glover|2001|p=89}}{{sfn|Bell|2009}}

====First Madrid offensive====
The Junta took over direction of the Spanish war effort and established war taxes, organized an Army of La Mancha, signed a treaty of alliance with Britain on 14 January 1809 and issued a royal decree on 22 May to convene at Cortes. An attempt by the Spain's Army of the Centre to recapture Madrid ended with the complete destruction of the Spanish forces at [[Battle of Uclés (1809)|Uclés]] on 13 January by Victor's [[I Corps (Grande Armée)|I Corps]]. The French lost 200 men while their Spanish opponents lost 6,887. King Joseph made a triumphant entry into Madrid after the battle. [[Horace François Bastien Sébastiani de La Porta|Sébastiani]] defeated [[José de Urbina y Urbina, 3rd Conde de Cartaojal|Cartaojal]]'s army at [[Battle of Ciudad Real|Ciudad Real]] on 27 March, inflicting 2,000 casualties and suffering negligible losses. Victor invaded southern Spain and routed [[Gregorio García de la Cuesta|Gregorio de la Cuesta]]'s army at [[Battle of Medellín|Medellín]] near Badajoz on 28 March,{{sfn|Bodart|1908|p=395}} where Cuesta lost 10,000 men in a staggering defeat, while the French lost only 1,000.{{sfn|Gates|2001|p=123}}

====Liberation of Galicia====
On 27 March, Spanish forces defeated the French at [[Vigo]], recaptured most of the cities in the province of [[Pontevedra]] and forced the French to retreat to [[Santiago de Compostela]]. On 7 June, the French army of Marshal [[Michel Ney]] was defeated in the [[Battle of Ponte Sampaio]] in Pontevedra by Spanish forces under the command of Colonel [[Pablo Morillo]], and Ney and his forces retreated to [[Lugo]] on 9 June while being harassed by Spanish guerrillas. Ney's troops joined up with those of Soult and these forces withdrew for the last time from [[Galicia (Spain)|Galicia]] in July 1809.{{citation needed|date=April 2021}}

====French advance in Catalonia====
In Catalonia, Saint-Cyr defeated Reding again at [[Battle of Valls|Valls]] on 25 February. Reding was killed and his army lost 3,000 men for French losses of 1,000. Saint-Cyr began the [[Third siege of Girona (Peninsular War)|third siege of Girona]] on 6 May and the city finally fell on 12 December.{{sfn|Scott|1811|p=768}} [[Louis-Gabriel Suchet]]'s III Corps was defeated at [[Battle of Alcañiz|Alcañiz]] by Blake on 23 May, losing 2,000 men. Suchet retaliated at [[Battle of María|María]] on 15 June, crushing Blake's right wing and inflicting 5,000 casualties. Three days later, Blake lost 2,000 more men to Suchet at [[Battle of Belchite (1809)|Belchite]]. Saint-Cyr was relieved of his command in September for deserting his troops.{{citation needed|date=April 2021}}

===Second Portuguese campaign===
[[File:LargeBattleofOportobyBeaume.jpg|thumb|Marshal [[Jean-de-Dieu Soult]] at the [[First Battle of Porto]] by [[Joseph Beaume]] (1840 or 1843)]]

After Corunna, Soult turned his attention to the invasion of Portugal. Discounting garrisons and the sick, Soult's [[II Corps (Grande Armée)|II Corps]] had 20,000 men for the operation. He stormed the Spanish naval base at [[Ferrol, Galicia|Ferrol]] on 26 January 1809, capturing eight ships of the line, three [[frigate]]s, several thousand prisoners and 20,000 [[Brown Bess]] muskets, which were used to re-equip the French infantry.{{sfn|Gates|2001|p=138}} In March 1809, Soult invaded Portugal through the northern corridor, with [[Francisco da Silveira]]'s 12,000 Portuguese troops unraveling amid riot and disorder, and within two days of crossing the border at [[Battle of Monterrey (1809)|Monterrey]], Soult had taken the fortress of [[Chaves, Portugal|Chaves]].{{sfn|Esdaile|2003|p=178}} Swinging west, 16,000 of Soult's professional troops attacked and killed 4,000 of 25,000 unprepared and undisciplined Portuguese at [[Battle of Braga (1809)|Braga]] at the cost of 200 Frenchmen. At the [[First Battle of Porto]] on 29 March, the Portuguese defenders panicked, many attempting to flee alongside the city's residents south over the river Douro, to die in the [[Porto Boat Bridge disaster]]. Between 6,000 and 20,000 Portuguese soldiers were dead, wounded or captured. Suffering fewer than 500 casualties, Soult had secured Portugal's second city and, with its valuable dockyards and arsenals intact, captured immense quantities of supplies.{{sfn|Gates|2001|p=142}}{{sfn|Esdaile|2003|p=179}} Soult halted at Porto to refit his army before advancing on Lisbon.{{sfn|Southey (vol. III)|1828|p=250}}

Wellesley returned to Portugal in April 1809 to command the British army, reinforced with Portuguese regiments trained by [[William Beresford, 1st Viscount Beresford|General Beresford]]. These new forces turned Soult out of Portugal at the [[Battle of Grijó]] (10–11 May) and the [[Second Battle of Porto]] (12 May), and the other northern cities were recaptured by General Silveira. Soult escaped without his heavy equipment by marching through the mountains to Orense.{{sfn|Southey (vol. III)|1828|p=418}}

===Spanish campaign, late 1809===

====Talavera campaign====
[[File:Heath - Battle of Talavera, July 28th 1809.jpg|thumb|The Battle of Talavera by [[William Heath (artist)|William Heath]]]]

With Portugal secured, Wellesley advanced into Spain to unite with Cuesta's forces. Victor's [[I Corps (Grande Armée)|I Corps]] retreated before them from Talavera.{{sfn|Gates|2001|p=177}} Cuesta's pursuing forces fell back after Victor's reinforced army, now commanded by Marshal [[Jean-Baptiste Jourdan]], drove upon them. Two British divisions advanced to help the Spanish.{{sfn|Guedalla|2005|p=186}} On 27 July at the [[Battle of Talavera]], the French advanced in three columns and were repulsed several times, but at a heavy cost to the Anglo-Allied force, which lost 7,500 men for French losses of 7,400. Wellesley withdrew from Talavera on 4 August to avoid being cut off by Soult's converging army, which defeated a Spanish blocking force in an assault crossing at the River Tagus near [[Battle of Arzobispo|Puente del Arzobispo]]. Lack of supplies and the threat of French reinforcement in the spring led Wellesley, elevated to the peerage as Viscount Wellington following the action,{{sfnp|Muir|2013|p=343}} to retreat into Portugal. A Spanish attempt to capture Madrid after Talavera failed at [[Battle of Almonacid|Almonacid]], where [[Horace François Bastien Sébastiani de La Porta|Sébastiani]]'s [[IV Corps (Grande Armée)|IV Corps]] inflicted 5,500 casualties on the Spanish, forcing them to retreat at the cost of 2,400 French losses.

====Second Madrid offensive====
The Spanish [[Supreme Central and Governing Junta of the Kingdom]] was forced by popular pressure to set up the [[Cortes of Cádiz]] in the summer of 1809. The Junta came up with what it hoped would be a war-winning strategy, a two-pronged offensive to recapture Madrid, involving over 100,000 troops in three armies under the [[Vicente Cañas y Portocarrero|Duke del Parque]], [[Juan Carlos de Aréizaga]] and the [[José María de la Cueva, 14th Duke of Alburquerque|Duke of Alburquerque]].{{sfn|Gates|2001|p=94}}{{sfn|Gates|2001|pp=194–196}}{{sfn|Gates|2001|p=494}} Del Parque defeated [[Jean Gabriel Marchand]]'s [[VI Corps (Grande Armée)|VI Corps]] at the [[Battle of Tamames]] on 18 October 1809{{sfn|Smith|1998|pp=333–334}} and occupied Salamanca on 25 October.{{sfn|Gates|2001|pp=197–199}} Marchand was replaced by [[François Étienne de Kellermann]], who brought up reinforcements in the form of his own men as well as General of Brigade [[Nicolas Godinot]]'s force. Kellermann marched on Del Parque's position at Salamanca, who promptly abandoned it and retreated south. In the meantime, the guerrillas in the [[Province of León]] increased their activity. Kellermann left the VI Corps holding Salamanca and returned to León to stamp out the uprising.{{sfn|Gates|2001|p=199}}

Aréizaga's army was destroyed by Soult at the [[Battle of Ocaña]] on 19 November. The Spanish lost 19,000 men compared to French losses of 2,000. Albuquerque soon abandoned his efforts near Talavera. Del Parque moved on Salamanca again, hustling one of the VI Corps brigades out of [[Alba de Tormes]] and occupying Salamanca on 20 November.{{sfn|Oman|1908|pp=97–98}}{{sfn|Smith|1998|p=336}} Hoping to get between Kellermann and Madrid, Del Parque advanced towards [[Medina del Campo]]. Kellermann counterattacked and was repulsed at the [[Battle of Carpio]] on 23 November.{{sfn|Oman|1908|p=98}} The next day, Del Parque received news of the Ocaña disaster and fled south, intending to shelter in the mountains of central Spain.{{sfn|Oman|1908|p=99}}{{sfn|Gates|2001|p=204}} On the afternoon of 28 November, Kellermann attacked Del Parque at [[Battle of Alba de Tormes|Alba de Tormes]] and routed him after inflicting losses of 3,000 men.{{sfn|Oman|1908|p=99}} Del Parque's army fled into the mountains, its strength greatly reduced through combat and non-combat causes by mid-January.{{sfn|Oman|1908|p=101}}

==1810==
===Joseph I's régime===
{{Main|Spain under Joseph Bonaparte}}
[[File:Joseph-Bonaparte.jpg|thumb|right|''[[Portrait of Joseph Bonaparte]]'' by [[François Gérard]], 1808]]

Joseph contented himself with working within the apparatus extant under the old regime, while placing responsibility for local government in many provinces in the hands of royal commissioners. After much preparation and debate, on 2 July 1809 Spain was divided into 38 new provinces, each headed by an [[Intendant]] appointed by King Joseph, and on 17 April 1810 these provinces were converted into French-style [[prefecture]]s and [[sub-prefecture]]s.

The French obtained a measure of acquiescence among the propertied classes. [[Francisco de Goya]], who remained in Madrid throughout the French occupation, painted Joseph's picture and documented the war in a series of 82 prints called ''[[The Disasters of War|Los Desastres de la Guerra]]'' (''The Disasters of War''). For many imperial officers, life could be comfortable.{{sfn|Brandt|1999|p=87}} Among the liberal, republican and radical segments of the Spanish and Portuguese populations there was much support for a potential French invasion. The term ''[[afrancesado]]'' ("turned French") was used to denote those who supported the [[Age of Enlightenment|Enlightenment]], [[Secularism|secular ideals]], and the [[French Revolution]].{{sfn|McLynn|1997|pp=396–406}} Napoleon relied on support from these ''afrancesados'' both in the conduct of the war and administration of the country. Napoleon removed all feudal and clerical privileges but most Spanish liberals soon came to oppose the occupation because of the violence and brutality it brought.{{sfn|McLynn|1997|pp=396–406}} Marxians wrote that there was a positive identification on the part of the people with the Napoleonic revolution, but this is probably impossible to substantiate by the reasons for collaboration being practical rather than ideological.{{sfn|Esdaile|2003|p=239}}

===Emergence of the guerrilla===
{{Main|Guerrilla warfare in the Peninsular War}}
[[File:Juan Martín Díez.jpg|thumb|[[Juan Martín Díez]], ''El Empecinado'', a key guerrilla leader]]

The Peninsular War is regarded as one of the first people's wars, significant for the emergence of large-scale guerrilla warfare. It is from this conflict that the English language borrowed the word.{{sfn|etymology|2021}} The guerrillas troubled the French troops, but they also frightened their own countrymen with forced conscription and looting.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book |last=Chartrand |first=Rene |title=Spanish Guerrillas in the Peninsular War 1808–14 |publisher=Osprey Publishing |date=2004 |isbn=978-1841766294 |location=Oxford |language=en}}{{page needed|date=June 2023}}</ref> Many of the partisans were either fleeing the law or trying to get rich.<ref name=":0"/> Later in the war the authorities tried to make the guerrillas reliable, and many of them formed regular army units such as [[Francisco Espoz y Mina|Espoz y Mina]]'s "Cazadores de Navarra". The French believed that [[enlightened absolutism]] had made less progress in Spain and Portugal than elsewhere, and that resistance was the product of a century's worth of what the French perceived as backwardness in knowledge and social habits, Catholic [[obscurantism]], superstition and counter-revolution.{{sfn|Rocca|Rocca|1815|p=126}}

The guerrilla style of fighting was the Spanish military's single most effective tactic. Most organized attempts by regular Spanish forces to take on the French ended in defeat. Once a battle was lost and the soldiers reverted to their guerrilla roles, they tied down large numbers of French troops over a wide area with a much lower expenditure of men, energy, and supplies{{citation needed|date=June 2012}}<ref name=":0"/> and facilitated the conventional victories of Wellington and his Anglo-Portuguese army and the subsequent liberation of Portugal and Spain.{{sfn|Glover|2001|p=10}} Mass resistance by the people of Spain inspired the war efforts of Austria, Russia and Prussia against Napoleon.{{sfn|Chandler|1995|p=746}}

Hatred of the French and devotion to ''[[dios, rey y patria|God, King and Fatherland]]'' were not the only reason to join the Partisans.{{sfn|Esdaile|2003|p=270}} The French imposed restrictions on movement and on many traditional aspects of street life, so opportunities to find alternative sources of income were limited{{mdash}}industry was at a standstill and many ''señores'' were unable to pay their existing retainers and domestic servants, and could not take on new staff. Hunger and despair reigned on all sides.{{sfn|Esdaile|2003|p=271}} Because the military record was so dismal, many Spanish politicians and publicists exaggerated the activities of the guerrillas.{{sfn|Esdaile|2003|p=280}}

===Revolution under siege===
{{Further|Siege of Cádiz}}
[[File:Cortes de cadiz.jpg|thumb|''The Proclamation of the Constitution of 1812'' by [[Salvador Viniegra]]]]

The French invaded Andalusia on 19 January 1810. 60,000 French troops{{mdash}}the corps of Victor, Mortier and Sebastiani together with other formations{{mdash}}advanced southwards to assault the Spanish positions. Overwhelmed at every point, [[Juan Carlos de Aréizaga|Aréizaga]]'s men fled eastwards and southwards, leaving town after town to fall into the hands of the enemy. The result was revolution. On 23 January the Junta Central at Seville decided to flee to the safety of Cádiz.{{sfn|Esdaile|2003|p=220}} It then dissolved itself on 29 January 1810 and set up a five-person Regency Council of Spain and the Indies, charged with convening the Cortes.{{sfn|Martínez|1999|p={{page needed|date=February 2014}}}} Soult cleared all of southern Spain except Cádiz, which he left Victor to blockade.{{sfn|Southey (vol. IV)|1828|p=396}} The system of juntas was replaced by a regency and the [[Cortes of Cádiz]], which established a permanent government under the [[Spanish Constitution of 1812|Constitution of 1812]].

Cádiz was heavily fortified, while the harbour was full of British and Spanish warships. [[José María de la Cueva, 14th Duke of Alburquerque|Alburquerque's]] army and the Voluntarios Distinguidos had been reinforced by 3,000 soldiers who had fled Seville, and a strong Anglo-Portuguese brigade commanded by General William Stewart. Shaken by their experiences, the Spaniards had abandoned their earlier scruples about a British garrison.{{sfn|Esdaile|2003|p=282}} Victor's French troops camped at the shoreline and tried to bombard the city into surrender. Thanks to British naval supremacy, a naval blockade of the city was impossible. The French bombardment was ineffectual and the confidence of the ''[[gaditanos]]'' grew and persuaded them that they were heroes. With food abundant and falling in price, the bombardment was hopeless despite both hurricane and epidemic{{mdash}}a storm destroyed many ships in the spring of 1810 and the city was ravaged by yellow fever.{{sfn|Esdaile|2003|p=283}}

Once Cádiz was secured, attention turned to the political situation. The Junta Central announced that the ''cortes'' would open on 1 March 1810. Suffrage was to be extended to all male householders over 25. After public voting, representatives from district-level assemblies would choose deputies to send to the provincial meetings that would be the bodies from which the members of the ''cortes'' would emerge.{{sfn|Esdaile|2003|p=284}} From 1 February 1810, the implementation of these decrees had been in the hands of the new regency council selected by the Junta Central.{{sfn|Argüelles|1970|p=90}} The viceroyalties and independent captaincies general of the overseas territories would each send one representative. This scheme was resented in the Americas for providing unequal representation to the overseas territories. Unrest erupted in [[Quito]] and [[Sucre|Charcas]], which saw themselves as the capitals of kingdoms and resented being subsumed in the larger "kingdom" of [[Viceroyalty of Peru|Peru]]. The revolts were suppressed (See [[Luz de América]] and [[Bolivian War of Independence]]). Throughout early 1809 the governments of the capitals of the viceroyalties and captaincies general elected representatives to the Junta, but none arrived in time to serve on it.

===Third Portuguese campaign===
{{Further|Lines of Torres Vedras}}
[[File:1000 reis Manuel 1910 - Peninsula War.png|thumb|[[Silver coin]]: 1000 reis [[Manuel II of Portugal]], 1910 – commemorating the Peninsular War]]
[[File:FortOlheiros1.jpg|thumb|right|alt=View of gun emplacements|[[Fort of Olheiros]], site of the [[Battle of Sobral]].]]

{{Location map+ |Portugal |relief=1 |float=right |width=304 |caption=Peninsular war: Portugal<br/>[[File:Brown pog.svg|12px|link=]]1807 
 [[File:Red pog.svg|12px|link=]]1808 [[File:Orange pog.svg|12px|link=]]1809 [[File:Blue pog.svg|12px|link=]]1810 [[File:Green pog.svg|12px|link=]]1811 |places=
  {{location map~ |Portugal |lat=38.73 |long=-9.15 |label=[[Invasion of Portugal (1807)|Lisbon]] |mark=Brown pog.svg |marksize=12}}
  {{location map~ |Portugal |lat=38.57 |long=-7.91 |label=[[Battle of Évora (1808)|Évora]] |mark=Red pog.svg |marksize=12}}
  {{location map~ |Portugal |lat=39.31 |long=-9.18 |label=[[Battle of Roliça|Roliça]] |mark=Red pog.svg |marksize=12}}
  {{location map~ |Portugal |lat=39.18 |long=-9.32 |label=[[Battle of Vimeiro|Vimeiro]] |mark=Red pog.svg |marksize=12}}
  {{location map~ |Portugal |lat=41.74  |long=-7.47 |label=[[Siege of Chaves|Chaves]] |mark=Orange pog.svg |marksize=12}}
  {{location map~ |Portugal |lat=41.54  |long=-8.42 |label=[[Battle of Braga (1809)|Braga]] |mark=Orange pog.svg |marksize=12}}
  {{location map~ |Portugal |lat=41.03  |long=-8.58 |label='''Grijó''' |mark=Orange pog.svg |marksize=12}}
  {{location map~ |Portugal |lat=41.16  |long=-8.62 |label=[[Second Battle of Porto|Porto]] |mark=Orange pog.svg |marksize=12}}
  {{location map~ |Portugal |lat=40.73 |long=-6.91 |label=[[Siege of Almeida (1810)|Almeida]] |mark=Blue pog.svg |marksize=12}}
  {{location map~ |Portugal |lat=40.33 |long=-8.33 |label=[[Battle of Bussaco|Bussaco]] |mark=Blue pog.svg |marksize=12}}
  {{location map~ |Portugal |lat=39.01 |long=-9.09 |label=[[Battle of Sobral|Sobral]] |mark=Blue pog.svg |marksize=12}}
  {{location map~ |Portugal |lat=41.11 |long=-7.93 |label=[[Combat of Padrões de Teixeira|Teixeira]] |mark=Blue pog.svg |marksize=12}}
  {{location map~ |Portugal |lat=38.91 |long=-9.26 |label=[[Lines of Torres Vedras|TorresVedras]] |mark=Blue pog.svg |marksize=12}}
  {{location map~ |Portugal |lat=39.78 |long=-8.58 |label=[[Battle of Pombal|Pombal]] |mark=Green pog.svg |marksize=12}}
  {{location map~ |Portugal |lat=40.05 |long=-8.63 |label=[[Battle of Redinha|Redinha]] |mark=Green pog.svg |marksize=12}}
  {{location map~ |Portugal |lat=40.35 |long=-7.08 |label=[[Battle of Sabugal|Sabugal]] |mark=Green pog.svg |position=right |marksize=12}}
  {{location map~ |Portugal |lat=40.58 |long=-6.82 |label=[[Battle of Fuentes de Oñoro|FuentesDeOñoro]] |mark=Green pog.svg |marksize=12}}
}}
Convinced by intelligence that a new French assault on Portugal was imminent, Wellington created a powerful defensive position near Lisbon, to which he could fall back if necessary.{{sfn|Esdaile|2003|p=217}}{{sfn|Grehan|2015}}{{full citation needed|date=September 2015}} To protect the city, he ordered the construction of the [[Lines of Torres Vedras]]—three strong lines of mutually supporting forts, [[blockhouse]]s, [[redoubt]]s, and [[ravelin]]s with fortified artillery positions{{mdash}}under the supervision of [[Sir Richard Fletcher, 1st Baronet|Richard Fletcher]]. The various parts of the lines communicated with each other by [[Flag semaphore|semaphore]], allowing immediate response to any threat. The work began in the autumn of 1809 and the main defences were finished just in time one year later. To further hamper the enemy, the areas in front of the lines were subjected to a [[scorched earth]] policy: they were denuded of food, forage and shelter. 200,000 inhabitants of neighbouring districts were relocated inside the lines. Wellington exploited the facts that the French could conquer Portugal only by conquering Lisbon, and that they could in practice reach Lisbon only from the north. Until these changes occurred the Portuguese administration was free to resist British influence, [[William Beresford, 1st Viscount Beresford|Beresford]]'s position being rendered tolerable by the firm support of the [[Minister of War]], [[Miguel de Pereira Forjaz]].{{sfn|Esdaile|2003|p=313}}

As a prelude to invasion, Ney took the Spanish fortified town of [[Siege of Ciudad Rodrigo (1810)|Ciudad Rodrigo]] after a siege lasting from 26 April to 9 July 1810. The French re-invaded Portugal with an army of around 65,000, led by [[Andre Masséna|Marshal Masséna]], and forced Wellington back through Almeida to Busaco.{{sfn|Southey (vol. IV)|1828|p=440}} At the [[Battle of the Côa]] the French drove back [[Robert Crauford]]'s [[Light Division]] after which Masséna moved to attack the held British position on the heights of [[Bussaco]]{{mdash}}a {{Convert|10|miles|km|adj=on}}-long ridge{{mdash}}resulting in the [[Battle of Buçaco]] on 27 September. Suffering heavy casualties, the French failed to dislodge the Anglo-Portuguese army. Masséna outmaneuvered Wellington after the battle, who steadily fell back to the prepared positions in the Lines.{{sfn|Esdaile|2003|p=327}} Wellington manned the fortifications with "secondary troops"{{mdash}}25,000 Portuguese militia, 8,000 Spaniards and 2,500 British [[Royal Marines]] and [[Royal Artillery]]men—keeping his main field army of British and Portuguese regulars dispersed to meet a French assault on any point of the Lines.{{sfn|Weller|1962|p=144}}

Masséna's Army of Portugal concentrated around [[Sobral de Monte Agraço|Sobral]] in preparation to attack. After a fierce skirmish on 14 October in which the strength of the Lines became apparent, the French dug themselves in rather than launch a full-scale assault and Masséna's men began to suffer from the acute shortages in the region.{{sfn|Gates|2001|pp=32–33}} In late October, after holding his starving army before Lisbon for a month, Masséna fell back to a position between [[Santarém, Portugal|Santarém]] and [[Rio Maior]].{{sfn|Weller|1962|pp=145–146}}

==1811==
===Stalemate in the west===
During 1811, Victor's force was diminished because of requests for reinforcement from Soult to aid his siege of [[First Siege of Badajoz (1811)|Badajoz]].{{sfn|Southey (vol. V)|1828|p=165}} This brought the French numbers down to between 20,000 and 15,000 and encouraged the defenders of Cádiz to attempt a breakout,{{sfn|Southey (vol. V)|1828|p=165}} in conjunction with the arrival of an Anglo-Spanish relief army of around 12,000 infantry and 800 cavalry under the overall command of Spanish General [[Manuel La Peña]], with the British contingent being led by Lieutenant-General [[Thomas Graham, 1st Baron Lynedoch|Thomas Graham]].{{sfn|Southey (vol. V)|1828|pp=165, 170}} Marching towards Cádiz on 28 February, this force defeated two French divisions under Victor at [[Battle of Barrosa|Barrosa]]. However, the Allies failed to exploit their success and Victor soon renewed the blockade.{{sfn|Southey (vol. V)|1828|pp=172–180}} From January through March 1811, Soult with 20,000 men besieged and captured the fortress towns of [[First Siege of Badajoz (1811)|Badajoz]] and [[Siege of Olivenza|Olivenza]] in [[Extremadura]], capturing 16,000 prisoners, before returning to Andalusia with most of his army. Soult was relieved at the operation's speedy conclusion, for intelligence received on 8 March told him that [[Francisco Ballesteros]]' Spanish army was menacing Seville, that Victor had been defeated at Barrosa and that Masséna had retreated from Portugal. Soult redeployed his forces to deal with these threats.{{sfn|Gates|2001|p=248}}

In March 1811, with supplies exhausted, Masséna retreated from Portugal to Salamanca. Wellington went over to the offensive later that month. An Anglo-Portuguese army led by the British general [[William Carr Beresford, 1st Viscount Beresford|William Beresford]] and a Spanish army led by the Spanish generals [[Joaquín Blake y Joyes|Joaquín Blake]] and [[Francisco Javier Castaños, 1st Duke of Bailén|Francisco Castaños]], attempted to retake Badajoz by laying [[Second Siege of Badajoz (1811)|siege]] to the French garrison Soult had left behind. Soult regathered his army and marched to relieve the siege. Beresford lifted the siege and his army intercepted the marching French. At the [[Battle of Albuera]], Soult outmaneuvered Beresford but could not win the battle. He retired his army to Seville.{{sfn|Southey (vol. V)|1828|p=241}}

In April, Wellington besieged [[blockade of Almeida|Almeida]]. Masséna advanced to its relief, attacking Wellington at [[Battle of Fuentes de Oñoro|Fuentes de Oñoro]] (3–5 May). Both sides claimed victory but the British maintained the blockade and the French retired without being attacked. After this battle, the Almeida garrison escaped through the British lines in a night march.{{sfn|Southey (vol. V)|1828|p=160}} Masséna was forced to withdraw, having lost a total of 25,000 men in Portugal, and was replaced by [[Auguste Marmont]]. Wellington joined Beresford and renewed the siege of Badajoz. Marmont joined Soult with strong reinforcements and Wellington retired.{{sfn|Southey (vol. V)|1828|p=252}}

Wellington soon appeared before Ciudad Rodrigo. In September, Marmont repelled him and re-provisioned the fortress.{{sfn|Southey (vol. V)|1828|p=327}} Sorties continued to be made out of Cádiz from April to August 1811,{{sfn|Burke|1825|p=172}} and British naval gunboats destroyed French positions at St. Mary's.{{sfn|Burke|1825|p=174}} An attempt by Victor to crush the small Anglo-Spanish garrison at [[Siege of Tarifa (1812)|Tarifa]] over the winter of 1811–1812 was frustrated by torrential rains and an obstinate defence, marking an end to French operations against the city's outer works.

<gallery widths="200px" heights="160px">
File:Battle of Chiclana.jpg|The ''[[Battle of Chiclana]], 5th March 1811'' (1824) captures the fight between British redcoats and the French troops for Barrosa Ridge.{{sfn|Hindley|2010}}
File:El mariscal Beresford desarmando a un oficial polaco en La Albuera.jpg|Marshal Beresford disarming a Polish officer at La Albuera (16 May 1811)
</gallery>

===French conquest of Aragon and Catalonia===
After a two-week siege, the French [[Army of Aragon]] under its commander, [[General Suchet]], [[Siege of Tortosa (1810–1011)|captured]] the town of [[Tortosa]] from the Spanish in Catalonia on 2 January 1811. MacDonald's [[VII Corps (Grande Armée)|VII Corps]] was defeated in a [[vanguard]] skirmish at [[Battle of El Pla|El Pla]].

The Spanish commander [[Francesc Rovira i Sala|Francesc Rovira]] captured in a coup-de-main the key fortress of [[Sant Ferran Castle]] at [[Figueres]] with 2,000 [[Miquelet (militia)|''miquelets'']] on 10 April. The French [[Army of Catalonia (France)|Army of Catalonia]] under MacDonald [[Siege of Figueras (1811)|blockaded]] the city to starve the defenders into surrender. With the help of a relief operation on 3 May, the fortress held out until 17 August, when lack of food prompted a surrender after a last-ditch breakout attempt failed.{{sfn|Rousset|1892|p=211}}

On 5 May, Suchet besieged the vital city of [[Tarragona]], which functioned as a port, a fortress, and a resource base that sustained the Spanish field forces in Catalonia. Suchet was given a third of the Army of Catalonia and the city fell to a surprise attack on 29 June.{{sfn|Esdaile|2003|p=360}} Suchet's troops massacred 2,000 civilians. Napoleon rewarded Suchet with a Marshal's baton. On 25 July, Suchet [[Battle of Montserrat|drove]] the Spanish out of their positions on the [[Montserrat (mountain)|Montserrat]] mountain range. In October, the Spanish launched a [[Battle of Cervera (1811)|counterattack]] that recaptured Montserrat and took 1,000 prisoners from scattered French garrisons in the area. In September, Suchet launched an invasion of the province of Valencia. He besieged the castle of [[Sagunto]] and [[Battle of Saguntum|defeated]] Blake's relief attempt. The Spanish defenders capitulated on 25 October. Suchet [[Siege of Valencia (1812)|trapped]] Blake's entire army of 28,044 men in the city of Valencia on 26 December and forced it to surrender on 9 January 1812 after a brief siege. Blake lost 20,281 men dead or captured. Suchet advanced south, capturing the port town of [[Dénia]]. The redeployment of a substantial part of his troops for the invasion of Russia ground Suchet's operations to a halt. The victorious Marshal had established a secure base in Aragon and was ennobled by Napoleon as the Duke of Albufera, after a [[lagoon]] south of Valencia.

The war now fell into a temporary lull, with the superior French unable to find an advantage and coming under increasing pressure from Spanish guerrillas. The French had over 350,000 soldiers in {{lang|fr|L'Armée de l'Espagne}}, but over 200,000 were deployed to protect the French lines of supply, rather than as substantial fighting units.

==1812==

===Allied campaign in Spain===
[[Arthur Wellesley, 1st Duke of Wellington|Wellington]] renewed the allied advance into Spain in early 1812, besieging and capturing the border fortress town of [[Siege of Ciudad Rodrigo (1812)|Ciudad Rodrigo]] by assault on 19 January and opening up the northern invasion corridor from Portugal into Spain. This also allowed Wellington to proceed to move to capture the southern fortress town of [[Battle of Badajoz (1812)|Badajoz]], which would prove to be one of the bloodiest siege assaults of the [[Napoleonic Wars]].{{sfn|Weller|1962|p=204}} The town was stormed on 6 April, after a constant artillery barrage had breached the curtain wall in three places. Tenaciously defended, the final assault and the earlier skirmishes left the allies with some 4,800 casualties. These losses appalled Wellington who said of his troops in a letter, "I greatly hope that I shall never again be the instrument of putting them to such a test as that to which they were put last night."{{sfn|Fletcher|2003|p=81}} The victorious troops massacred 200–300 Spanish civilians.<ref>[https://www.britannica.com/event/Siege-of-Badajoz-"1812 Siege of Badajoz."] ''Encyclopædia Britannica''.</ref>

The allied army subsequently took Salamanca on 17 June, just as Marshal Marmont approached. The two forces met on 22 July, after weeks of manoeuvre, when Wellington soundly defeated the French at the [[Battle of Salamanca]], during which Marmont was wounded. The battle established Wellington as an offensive general and it was said that he "defeated an army of 40,000 men in 40 minutes."{{sfn|Fitzwilliam|2007}} The Battle of Salamanca was a damaging defeat for the French in Spain, and while they regrouped, Anglo-Portuguese forces moved on Madrid, which surrendered on 14{{nbsp}}August; 20,000 muskets, 180 cannon and two [[French Imperial Eagle]]s were captured.{{sfn|Porter|1889|p=318}}

<gallery widths="200px" heights="145px">
File:Battle of Badajoz.jpg|British infantry attempt to scale the walls of [[Siege of Badajoz (1812)|Badajoz]], 1812
File:Battle of Salamanca.jpg|The [[Battle of Salamanca]]
</gallery>

===French autumn counterattack===
After the allied victory at Salamanca on 22 July 1812, King Joseph Bonaparte abandoned Madrid on 11 August.{{sfn|Glover|2001|pp=207–208}} Because Suchet had a secure base at Valencia, Joseph and Marshal [[Jean-Baptiste Jourdan]] retreated there. Soult, realising he would soon be cut off from his supplies, ordered a retreat from Cádiz set for 24 August; the French were forced to end the two-and-a-half-year-long siege.{{sfn|Hindley|2010}} After a long artillery barrage, the French placed together the muzzles of over 600 cannons to render them unusable to the Spanish and British. Although the cannons were useless, the Allied forces captured 30 gunboats and a large quantity of stores.{{sfn|Southey (vol. VI)|1828|p=68}} The French were forced to abandon Andalusia for fear of being cut off by the allied armies. Marshals Suchet and Soult joined Joseph and Jourdan at Valencia. Spanish armies defeated the French garrisons at [[Siege of Astorga (1812)|Astorga]] and [[Guadalajara, Castilla–La Mancha|Guadalajara]].

As the French regrouped, the allies advanced towards Burgos. Wellington besieged Burgos between 19 September and 21 October, but failed to capture it. Together, Joseph and the three marshals planned to recapture Madrid and drive Wellington from central Spain. The French counteroffensive caused Wellington to lift the [[siege of Burgos]] and retreat to Portugal in the autumn of 1812,{{sfn|Glover|2001|pp=210–212}} pursued by the French and losing several thousand men.{{sfn|Bodart|1908|p=441}}{{sfn|Southey (vol. VI)|1828|p=122}} Napier wrote that about 1,000 allied troops were killed, wounded and missing in action, and that Hill lost 400 between the Tagus and the Tormes, and another 100 in the defence of Alba de Tormes. 300 were killed and wounded at the Huebra where many stragglers died in woodland, and 3,520 allied prisoners were taken to Salamanca up to 20 November. Napier estimated that the double retreat cost the allies around 9,000, including the loss in the siege, and said French writers said 10,000 were taken between the Tormes and the Agueda. But Joseph's dispatches said the whole loss was 12,000, including the garrison of Chinchilla, whereas English authors mostly reduced the British loss to hundreds.{{sfn|Napier|1867|p=155}} As a consequence of the Salamanca campaign, the French were forced to evacuate the provinces of Andalusia and Asturias.

==1813==

===Defeat of King Joseph===
{{Campaignbox Peninsular War (1813-1814)}}
[[File:Sir Arthur Wellesley, 1st Duke of Wellington.png|thumb|right|alt=Arthur Wellesley, 1st Duke of Wellington.|''[[Arthur Wellesley, 1st Duke of Wellington]]'' by [[Thomas Lawrence]]]]

By the end of 1812, the large army that had invaded the [[Russian Empire]], the {{lang|fr|[[Grande Armée]]}}, had ceased to exist. Unable to resist the oncoming Russians, the French had to evacuate [[East Prussia]] and the [[Grand Duchy of Warsaw]]. With both the [[Austrian Empire]] and the Kingdom of Prussia joining his opponents, Napoleon withdrew more troops from Spain,{{sfn|Esdaile|2003|p=428}} including some foreign units and three battalions of sailors sent to assist with the siege of Cádiz. In total, 20,000 men were withdrawn; the numbers were not overwhelming, but the occupying forces were left in a difficult position. In much of the area under French control—the [[Basque Country (greater region)|Basque]] provinces, [[Navarre]], Aragon, Old Castile, [[La Mancha]], the [[Levante, Spain|Levante]], and parts of [[Catalonia]] and [[Province of León|León]]—the remaining presence was a few scattered garrisons. Trying to hold a front line in an arc from [[Bilbao]] to Valencia, they were still vulnerable to assault, and had abandoned hopes of victory. According to Esdaile, the best policy would have been to have fallen back to the Ebro, but the political situation in 1813 made this impossible; Napoleon wanted to avoid being seen as weak by the German princes, who were watching the advancing Russians and wondering whether they should change sides.{{sfn|Esdaile|2003|p=429}} French prestige suffered another blow when on 17 March ''el rey intruso'' (the ''Intruder King'', a nickname many Spanish had for King Joseph) left Madrid in the company of another vast caravan of refugees.{{sfn|Esdaile|2003|p=429}}

In 1813, Wellington marched 121,000 troops (53,749 British, 39,608 Spanish, and 27,569 Portuguese){{sfn|Gates|2001|p=521}} from northern Portugal across the mountains of northern Spain and the Esla River, skirting Jourdan's army of 68,000 strung out between the Douro and the Tagus. Wellington shortened his communications by shifting his base of operations to the northern Spanish coast, and the Anglo-Portuguese forces swept northwards in late May and seized Burgos, outflanking the French army and forcing Joseph Bonaparte into the Zadorra valley.

At the [[Battle of Vitoria]] on 21 June, Joseph's 65,000-man army was defeated decisively by Wellington's army of 57,000 British, 16,000 Portuguese and 8,000 Spanish.{{sfn|Gates|2001|p=521}} Wellington split his army into four attacking "columns" and attacked the French defensive position from south, west and north while the last column cut down across the French rear. The French were forced back from their prepared positions, and despite attempts to regroup and hold were driven into a rout. This led to the abandonment of all of the French artillery as well as King Joseph's extensive baggage train and personal belongings. The latter led to many Anglo-Allied soldiers abandoning the pursuit of the fleeing troops, to instead loot the wagons. This delay, along with the French managing to hold the east road out of Vitoria towards Salvatierra, allowed the French to partially recover. The Allies chased the retreating French, reaching the Pyrenees in early July, and began operations against [[San Sebastián|San Sebastian]] and [[Pamplona]]. On 11 July, Soult was given command of all French troops in Spain and in consequence Wellington decided to halt his army to regroup at the Pyrenees.

The war was not over. Although Bonapartist Spain had effectively collapsed, most of France's troops had retreated in order and fresh troops were soon gathering beyond the Pyrenees. By themselves, such forces were unlikely to score more than a few local victories, but French troop losses elsewhere in Europe could not be taken for granted. Napoleon might yet inflict defeats on Austria, Russia and Prussia, and with the divisions between the allies there was no guarantee that one power would not make a separate peace. It was a major victory and gave Britain more credibility on the continent, but the thought of Napoleon descending on the Pyrenees with the {{lang|fr|Grande Armée}} was not regarded with equanimity.{{sfn|Esdaile|2003|p=454}}

===End of the war in Spain===
====Campaign in the eastern Atlantic region====
[[File:Battle of the Pyrenees 1813 Map.JPG|thumb|[[Battle of the Pyrenees]], 25 July 1813]]
[[File:Battle of the Bidassoa - October 9th 1813 - Fonds Ancely - B315556101 A HEATH 032.jpg|thumb|The [[Battle of the Bidassoa]], 1813]]

In August 1813, British headquarters still had misgivings about the eastern powers moving into France. Austria had now joined the Allies, but the Allied armies had suffered a significant defeat at the [[Battle of Dresden]]. They had recovered somewhat, but the situation was still precarious. Wellington's brother-in-law [[Edward Pakenham]] wrote, "I should think that much must depend upon proceedings in the north: I begin to apprehend&nbsp;...&nbsp;that Boney may avail himself of the jealousy of the Allies to the material injury of the cause."{{sfn|Pakenham|Pakenham Longford|2009|p=221}} But the defeat or defection of Austria, Russia, and Prussia was not the only danger. It was also uncertain that Wellington could continue to count on Spanish support.{{sfn|Esdaile|2003|p=455}}

The summer of 1813 in the [[Basque Country (greater region)|Basque]] provinces and [[Navarre]] was a wet one, with the army drenched by incessant rain, and the decision to strip the men of their greatcoats was looking unwise. Sickness was widespread—at one point a third of Wellington's British troops were ''[[hors de combat]]''—and fears about the army's discipline and general reliability grew. By 9 July, Wellington reported that 12,500 men were absent without leave, while plundering was rife. Major General [[Frederick Philipse Robinson|Frederick Robinson]] wrote, "We paint the conduct of the French in this country in very&nbsp;...&nbsp;harsh colours, but be assured we injure the people much more than they do&nbsp;...&nbsp;Wherever we move devastation marks our steps."{{sfn|Robinson|1956|p=165}} With the army poised on the borders of France, desertion had become a problem. The [[Chasseurs Britanniques]]—recruited mainly from French deserters—lost 150 men in a single night. Wellington wrote, "The desertion is terrible, and is unaccountable among the British troops. I am not astonished that the foreigners should go&nbsp;...&nbsp;but, unless they entice away the British soldiers, there is no accounting for their going away in such numbers as they do."{{sfn|Muir|2021}} Spain's "ragged and ill-fed soldiers" were also suffering with the onset of winter. The fear that they would likely "fall on the populace with the utmost savagery"{{sfn|Esdaile|2003|p=457}} in revenge attacks and looting was a growing concern to Wellington as the Allied forces pushed to the French border.

Marshal Soult began a counter-offensive (the [[Battle of the Pyrenees]]) and defeated the Allies at the [[Battle of Maya]] and the [[Battle of Roncesvalles (1813)|Battle of Roncesvalles]] (25 July). The Roncesvalles wing of Soult's army pushed on into Spain, and by 27 July was within ten miles of Pamplona. There its way was blocked by a substantial allied force posted on a high ridge in between the villages of Sorauren and Zabaldica. The French lost momentum and were repulsed by the Allies at the [[Battle of Sorauren]] (28 and 30 July){{sfn|Esdaile|2003|p=462}} Soult ordered [[General of Division]] [[Jean-Baptiste Drouet, Comte d'Erlon]] commanding one corps of 21,000 men to attack and secure the Maya Pass. General of Division [[Honoré Charles Reille|Honoré Reille]] was ordered by Soult to attack and seize the Roncesvalles Pass with his corps and the corps of General of Division [[Bertrand Clausel]] of 40,000 men. Reille's right wing suffered further losses at Yanzi (1 August); and Echallar and Ivantelly (2 August) during its retreat into France.{{sfn|Robinson|1911|p=95}}{{sfn|COS|2014}}{{better source needed|date=November 2014}}{{sfn|Napier|1879|pp=321–325}} Total losses during this counter-offensive were about 7,000 for the Allies and 10,000 for the French.{{sfn|Robinson|1911|p=95}}

With 18,000 British and Portuguese troops, Wellington [[Siege of San Sebastián|besieged the French-garrisoned city of San Sebastián]] under Brigadier-General [[Louis Emmanuel Rey]] from 7 to 25 July. Wellington interrupted the siege during Soult's counter-offensive, but left sufficient forces under [[Thomas Graham, 1st Baron Lynedoch|Graham]] to prevent sorties or any relief getting in. The siege was resumed on 22 August. On 31 August, the allies stormed the city with heavy losses. The attacking troops became drunk, and sacked and burned the entire city. Meanwhile, the French garrison retreated into the city's citadel. They held out until 8 September, and marched out the next day with full military honours.{{sfn|Napier|1879|pp=334–343}} on the day that San Sebastián fell, Soult attempted to relieve it, but in the battles of [[Battle of Vera|Vera]] and [[Battle of San Marcial|San Marcial]] was repulsed{{sfn|Robinson|1911|p=95}} by the Spanish Army of Galicia under General [[Manuel Freire de Andrade|Manuel Freire]].{{sfn|Glover|2001|pp=280–287}} The losses in the entire siege were about 4,000 alles, and 20,000 French. Wellington next determined to throw his left across the river [[Bidassoa]] to strengthen his own position, and secure the port of [[Fuenterrabia]].{{sfn|Robinson|1911|p=95}}

At daylight on 7 October 1813 Wellington crossed the Bidassoa in seven columns, and attacked the entire French position, which stretched in two heavily entrenched lines from north of the [[Irun]]–[[Bayonne]] road, along mountain spurs to the [[Rhune|Great Rhune]], {{convert|2800|ft|m}} high.{{sfn|Robinson|1911|pp=95–96}} The decisive movement was a passage in strength near Fuenterrabia to the astonishment of the French, who in view of the width of the river and the shifting sands, had thought the crossing impossible at that point. The French right was then rolled back, and Soult was unable to reinforce his right in time to retrieve the day. His works fell in succession after hard fighting, and he withdrew towards the river [[Nivelle]].{{sfn|Robinson|1911|p=96}} The losses were about—Allies, 800; French, 1,600.{{sfn|Oman|1930|pp=535, 536}} The [[Battle of the Bidassoa|passage of the Bidassoa]] "was a general's not a soldier's battle".{{sfn|Napier|1879|p=367}}{{sfn|Robinson|1911|p=96}}

On 31 October [[Siege of Pamplona (1813)|Pamplona surrendered]], and Wellington was now anxious to drive Suchet from Catalonia before invading France. The British government, however, in the interests of the continental powers, urged an immediate advance over the northern Pyrenees into south-eastern France.{{sfn|Robinson|1911|p=95}} Napoleon had just suffered a major defeat at the [[Battle of Leipzig]] on 19 October and was in retreat,{{citation needed|date=May 2015}} so Wellington left the clearance of Catalonia to others.{{sfn|Robinson|1911|p=95}}

====Campaign in the northern Mediterranean region====
[[File:Battle of Castalla 1813 Print.JPG|thumb|The [[Battle of Castalla]]]]

In the northern Mediterranean region of Spain ([[Catalonia]]) Suchet had defeated Elio's Murcians at [[Yecla]] and [[Villena]] (11 April 1813), but was subsequently routed by Lieutenant General [[Sir John Murray, 8th Baronet|John Murray]], Commander of a British expedition from the Mediterranean islands{{sfn|Robinson|1911|p=96}} at the [[battle of Castalla]] (13 April), who then [[siege of Tarragona (1813)|besieged Tarragona]]. The siege was abandoned after a time, but was later on renewed by Lieutenant General [[Lord William Bentinck]]. Suchet, after the [[Battle of Vitoria]], evacuated Tarragona (17 August) but defeated Bentinck in the [[battle of Ordal]] (13 September).{{sfn|Robinson|1911|p=96}}

The military historian [[Charles Oman]] wrote that because of "[Napoleon's]<!--not a broken link but replacement of "the Emperor"--> absurdly optimistic reliance on" the [[Treaty of Valençay]] (11 December 1813),{{sfn|Oman|1930|pp=310}} during the last month of 1813 and the early months of 1814 Suchet was ordered by the French War office to relinquish command of many of his infantry and cavalry regiments for use in the [[campaign in north-east France (1814)|campaign in north-east France]] where Napoleon was greatly outnumbered. This reduced Suchet's French Catalonian army from 87,000 to 60,000 of whom 10,000 were on garrison duty. By the end of January through redeployment and wastage (through disease and desertion) the number had fallen to 52,000 of whom only 28,000 were available for field operations; the others were either on garrison duties or guarding the lines of communication back into France.{{sfn|Oman|1930|pp=308–311, 402}}

Suchet thought that the armies under the command of the Spanish General [[Francisco Copons y Navia|Copons]] and the British General [[Henry Clinton (Napoleonic Wars)|Clinton]] amounted to 70,000 men (in fact they only had about as many as he did), so Suchet remained on the defensive.{{sfn|Oman|1930|p=406}}

On 10 January 1814 Suchet received orders from the French War Ministry that he withdraw his field force to the foothills of the Pyrenees and to make a phased withdraw from the outlying garrisons. On ratification of the Treaty of Valençay he was to move his force to the French city of [[Lyon]].{{sfn|Oman|1930|p=411}} On 14 January he received further orders that because the situation was so grave on the eastern front he was to immediately send further forces to the east, even though ratification of the Treaty of Valençay had not been received. This would reduce the size of Suchet's field army to 18,000 men.{{sfn|Oman|1930|p=412}}

The Allies heard that Suchet was hemorrhaging men and mistakenly thought that his army was smaller than it was, so on 16 January they attacked. Suchet had not yet started the process of sending more men back to France and was able to stop the Sicilians (and a small contingent of British artillery in support) at the [[Battle of Molins de Rei (1814)|Battle of Molins de Rey]] because he still had a local preponderance of men. The allies suffered 68 casualties; the French, 30 killed and about 150 wounded.{{sfn|Oman|1930|p=411}}

After Suchet sent many men to Lyon, he left an isolated garrison in Barcelona and concentrated his forces on the town of Gerona calling in [[flying column]]s and evacuating some minor outposts. However his field army was now down to 15,000 cavalry and infantry (and excluding the garrisons in northern Catalonia).{{sfn|Oman|1930|p=415}}

The last actions in this theatre happened at the [[Siege of Barcelona (1808)|siege of Barcelona]] on 23 February; the French sallied out of Barcelona to test the besiegers' lines, as they thought (wrongly) that the Anglo-Sicilian forces had departed. They failed to break through the lines, and forces under the command of the Spanish General [[Pedro Sarsfield]] stopped them. The French General [[Pierre-Joseph Habert]] tried another sortie on 16 April and the French were again stopped with about 300 of them killed.{{sfn|Oman|1930|p=431}} Habert eventually surrendered on 25 April.{{sfn|Gates|2001|p=459}}

On 1 March Suchet received orders to send 10,000 more men to Lyon. On 7 March Beurmann's division of 9,661 men left for Lyon. With the exception of [[Figueras]], Suchet abandoned all the remaining fortresses in Catalonia that the French garrisoned (and that were not closely besieged by Allied forces), and in doing so was able to create a new field force of about 14,000 men, which were concentrated in front of Figueras in early April.{{sfn|Oman|1930|pp=424–425, 431}}{{efn|There were a further 13,000 French troops besieged in Barcelona, Tortosa, Saguntun and other fortresses, who were under siege and not able to extract themselves to join Suchet at Figueras {{harv|Oman|1930|p=425}}.}}

In the meantime, because the Allies underestimated the size of Suchet's force and believed that 3,000 more men had left for Lyon and that Suchet, with the remnant of his army, was crossing the Pyrenees to join Soult in the Atlantic theatre, the Allies began to redeploy their forces. The best of the British forces in Catalonia were ordered to join Wellington's army on the river [[Garonne]] in France.{{efn|The Anglo-Italian battalions, the Calabrians and the Sicilian "Estero" regiment were sent to Sicily {{harv|Oman|1930|p=429}}.}} They left to do so on 31 March, leaving the Spanish to mop up the remaining French garrisons in Catalonia.{{sfn|Oman|1930|p=431}}

In fact, Suchet remained in Figueras with his army until after the amnesty signed by Wellington and Soult. He spent his time arguing with Soult that he had only 4,000 troops available to march (although his army numbered around 14,000) and that they could not march with artillery, so he could not assist Soult in his battles with Wellington.{{sfn|Oman|1930|pp=431–432}} The military historian [[Charles Oman]] puts this refusal to help Soult down to Suchet's personal animosity rather than strong strategic reasons.{{sfn|Oman|1930|pp=432, 500}}

===Invasion of France===
{{Main|Campaign in south-west France (1814)}}
{{See also |Campaign in north-east France (1814)}}
{{Multiple image
 |perrow=1
 |header=Battles in the invasion of France
 |image1=Bataille de la Nivelle.jpg
 |caption1=The [[Battle of Nivelle]]
 |image2=Battle of St Jean de Luz - December 10th 1813 - Fonds Ancely - B315556101 A HEATH 023 (cropped).jpg
 |caption2=The [[Battle of St Jean de Luz]], 10 December 1813 by [[Thomas Sutherland (artist)|Thomas Sutherland]]
}}

====Battles of the Nivelle and the Nive====
On the night of 9 November 1813 Wellington brought up his right from the Pyrenean passes to the northward of [[Maya, Baztan|Maya]] and towards the [[Nivelle (river)|Nivelle]]. [[Marshal Soult]]'s army (about 79,000), in three entrenched lines, stretched from the sea in front of [[Saint-Jean-de-Luz]] along commanding ground to [[Amotz]] and thence, behind the river, to [[Mondarrain|Mont Mondarrain]] near the [[Nive]].{{sfn|Robinson|1911|p=96}} Wellington on 10 November 1813 attacked and drove the French to [[Bayonne]]. The allied loss during the [[Battle of Nivelle]] was about 2,700; that of the French, 4,000, 51 guns, and all their magazines. The next day Wellington closed in upon Bayonne from the sea to the left bank of the [[Nive]].{{sfn|Robinson|1911|p=96}}

After this there was a period of comparative inaction, though during it the French were driven from the bridges at Urdains{{efn|The bridge crosses the Urdains brook (a tributary of the Nive) just north of the [[Château d'Urdain]].}} and [[Cambo-les-Bains]]. [[George Bell (British Army officer)|George Bell]], a junior British officer in the [[34th Foot]] during this period of inaction, told in his biography of an "Irish sentry who was found with a French and an English musket on his two shoulders, guarding a bridge over a brook on behalf of both armies. For he explained to the officer going the rounds that his French neighbour had gone off on his behalf, with his last precious half-dollar, to buy brandy for both, and had left his musket in pledge till his return. The French officer going his rounds on the other side of the brook then turned up, and explained that he had caught his sentry, without arms and carrying two bottles, a long way to the rear. If either of them reported what had happened to their colonels, both sentries would be court-martialled and shot. Wherefore both subalterns agreed to hush up the matter".{{sfn|Oman|1930|p=295}} The weather had become bad, and the Nive unfordable; but there were additional and serious causes of delay. The Portuguese and Spanish authorities were neglecting the payment and supply of their troops. Wellington had also difficulties of a similar kind with his own government, and also the Spanish soldiers, in revenge for many French outrages, had become guilty of grave excesses in France, so that Wellington took the extreme step of sending 25,000 of them back to Spain and resigning the command of their army (though his resignation was subsequently withdrawn). So great was the tension at this crisis that a rupture with Spain seemed possible, but this did not happen.{{sfn|Robinson|1911|p=96}}{{efn|On 11 December, Napoleon, beleaguered and desperate, agreed to a separate peace with Spain under the [[Treaty of Valençay]], under which he would release and recognize Ferdinand in exchange for a complete cessation of hostilities. But the Spanish had no intention of trusting Napoleon and the fighting continued.{{citation needed|date=December 2014}}}}

Wellington occupied the right as well as the left bank of the Nive on 9 December 1813 with a portion of his force only under [[Rowland Hill, 1st Viscount Hill|Rowland Hill]] and [[William Beresford, 1st Viscount Beresford|Beresford]], [[Ustaritz]] and Cambo-les-Bains, his loss being slight, and thence pushed down the river towards [[Villefranque, Pyrénées-Atlantiques|Villefranque]], where Soult barred his way across the road to Bayonne. The allied army was now divided into two portions by the Nive; and Soult from Bayonne at once took advantage of his central position to attack it with all his available force, first on the left bank and then on the right.{{sfn|Robinson|1911|p=96}} Desperate fighting now ensued, but owing to the intersected ground, Soult was compelled to advance slowly, and Wellington coming up with Beresford from the right bank, the French retired baffled.{{sfn|Robinson|1911|p=96}} Renewed French attacks on 13 December were also stopped. The losses in the four days' fighting in the battles before Bayonne (or [[battles of the Nive]]) were-Allies about 5,000, French about 7,000.{{sfn|Robinson|1911|p=96}}{{efn|On the evening of 10 December, some 1,400 troops from three German battalions deserted in response to a secret message from the [[Duke of Nassau]]—one of the many German rulers who had surrendered following the [[Battle of Leipzig]]—ordering them to surrender to the Allies. In addition, Soult and Suchet lost the rest of their German units—another 3,000 men—as it was felt that they became unreliable. This left the [[Adour]]'s defenders much depleted and incapable of further offensive action.{{sfn|Esdaile|2003|p=481}}}}

==1814==
[[File:The Sortie from Bayonne, at 3 in the Morning, on the 14th April 1814 - Fonds Ancely - B315556101 A HEATH 012 (cropped).jpg|thumb|The sortie from the besieged city of Bayonne, on 14 April 1814]]

Operations resumed on French soil in February 1814 and Wellington went quickly over to the offensive. Hill on 14 and 15 February, after a [[battle of Garris]], drove the French posts beyond the Joyeuse; and Wellington then pressed these troops back over the Bidouze and [[Gave de Mauleon]] to the [[Gave d'Oloron]].{{efn|"Gave" in the Pyrenees means a mountain stream or torrent.{{sfn|Robinson|1911|p=96}}}} An amphibious landing with 8,000 troops at the mouth of the Adour secured a crossing over the river as a preliminary to the siege of Bayonne.{{sfn|Robinson|1911|pp=96–97}} On 27 February, Wellington attacked Soult at [[Battle of Orthez|Orthez]] and forced him to retreat towards Saint-Sever, which he reached on 28 February. The allied loss was about 2,000; the French 4,000 and 6 guns.{{sfn|Robinson|1911|p=97}} Beresford, with 12,000 men, was now sent to [[Bordeaux]], which opened its gates as promised to the Allies. Driven by Hill from Aire-sur-l'Adour on 2 March 1814, Soult retired by [[Vic-en-Bigorre]], where there was a combat (19 March), and [[Tarbes]], where there was a severe action (20 March), to [[Toulouse]] behind the Garonne. He endeavored also to rouse the French peasantry against the Allies, but in vain, for Wellington's justice and moderation afforded them no grievances.{{sfn|Robinson|1911|p=97}}{{sfn|Simmons|Verner|2012|p=340}}

===Battle of Toulouse===
On 8 April, Wellington crossed the [[Garonne]] and the [[Hers-Mort]],{{efn|Contemporary British military sources and some secondary sources call this river the "Ers" {{harv|Robinson|1911|p=97}}.}} and [[Battle of Toulouse (1814)|attacked]] Soult at Toulouse on 10 April. Spanish attacks on Soult's heavily fortified positions were repulsed but Beresford's assault compelled the French to fall back.{{sfn|Robinson|1911|p=97}} On 12 April Wellington entered the city, Soult having retreated the previous day. The Allied loss was about 5,000, the French 3,000.{{sfn|Robinson|1911|p=97}}

===Abdication of Napoleon===
On 13 April 1814 officers arrived with the announcement to both armies of the capture of Paris, the [[abdication of Napoleon, 1814|abdication of Napoleon]], and the practical conclusion of peace; and on 18 April a convention, which included Suchet's force, was entered into between Wellington and Soult.{{sfn|Robinson|1911|p=97}} After Toulouse had fallen, the Allies and French, in a [[Battle of Bayonne|sortie from Bayonne]] on 14 April, each lost about 1,000 men, so that some 10,000 men fell after peace had virtually been made.{{sfn|Robinson|1911|p=97}} The [[Treaty of Paris (1814)|Peace of Paris]] was formally signed at Paris on 30 May 1814.{{sfn|Robinson|1911|p=97}}

==Aftermath==
{{see also|History of Spain (1808–1874)}}
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[[File:Napoleon Bonaparte auf Elba.jpg|thumb|right|upright=0.9|alt=Napoleon on the island of Elba.|''Horace Vernet: Napoleon on the Island of Elba Awaiting the brig'' Inconstant. (1863)]]

[[Ferdinand VII]] remained King of Spain having been acknowledged on 11 December 1813 by Napoleon in the [[Treaty of Valençay]]. The remaining ''[[afrancesados]]'' were exiled to France. The whole country had been pillaged by Napoleon's troops. The Catholic Church had been ruined by its losses and society subjected to destabilizing change.{{sfn|Esdaile|2003|p=505}}{{sfn|Esdaile|2003|p=508}}

With Napoleon exiled to the island of [[Elba]], [[Louis XVIII]] was restored to the French throne.

British troops were partly sent to England, and partly embarked at Bordeaux for America for service in the final months of the [[American War of 1812]].

After the Peninsular War, the pro-independence traditionalists and liberals clashed in the [[Carlist War]]s, as King [[Ferdinand VII]] ("the Desired One"; later "the Traitor King") revoked all the changes made by the independent [[Cortes Generales]] in Cádiz, the [[Spanish Constitution of 1812|Constitution of 1812]] on 4 May 1814. Military officers forced Ferdinand to accept the Cádiz Constitution again in 1820, and was in effect until April 1823, during what is known as the [[Trienio Liberal]].

The experience in self-government led the later ''[[Libertadores]]'' (Liberators) to promote the independence of [[Spanish America]].

Portugal's position was more favorable than Spain's. Revolt had not spread to Brazil, there was no colonial struggle and there had been no attempt at political revolution.{{sfn|Esdaile|2003|p=507}} The Portuguese Court's transfer to Rio de Janeiro initiated the [[independence of Brazil]] in 1822.

The war against Napoleon remains as one of the bloodiest events in Spain's modern history.{{sfn|Prados de la Escosura|2018|pp=18, 31}}

==In popular culture==
* The 82 prints of Goya, called ''[[The Disasters of War]]'' (1810-1820), visualize the efforts and horror of the reality of the Spanish people's war as part of the Peninsular War.{{sfn|Goya|1967}}
* On 29 July 1836 the [[Arc de Triomphe]] was inaugurated in Paris with the French victories of the Peninsular War inscribed on it.
* A sculpture was erected for [[Juana Galán]] (1787–1812), nicknamed '''La Galana''', who became a guerrilla fighter, when she smashed her [[cast-iron cookware|cast-iron stew pan]] in the heads of the French soldiers during the [[Battle of Valdepeñas]].
* The 1828 painting ''[[The Defence of Saragossa]]'' was created by [[David Wilkie (artist)|David Wilkie]] because, with the French troops only a few yards away, [[Agustina de Aragón]] loaded a cannon at the [[first siege of Zaragoza]], and lit the fuse, shredding a wave of attackers at point-blank range.

<gallery widths="200px" heights="200px">
File:View from Casa da Música (3897790329) (cropped).jpg|The [[:pt:Monumento aos Heróis da Guerra Peninsular (Porto)|Monument to the Heroes of the Peninsular War]] in [[Porto]]
File:Goya War2.jpg|''[[The Disasters of War]]'' by [[Francisco Goya]], 1810–1820
File:Arc de Triomphe mg 6835.jpg|Despite losing the war at a heavy price, French battle victories of the Peninsular War were inscribed on the Arc de Triomphe
Image:Estatua La Galana.jpg|Statue of Juana Galán in [[Valdepeñas]], by sculptor Francisco Javier Galán
File:La defensa de Zaragoza, por David Wilkie.jpg|''[[The Defence of Saragossa]]'' by [[David Wilkie (artist)|David Wilkie]], 1828. [[Agustina de Aragón|Agustina, maid of Aragón]], fires a gun on the French invaders
</gallery>

==Notes==
{{notelist|1|refs=
{{efn|name="Other names"|Other names:
* {{langx|eu|Iberiar Penintsulako Gerra}} ("Iberian Peninsular War") or ''Espainiako Independentzia Gerra'' ("Spanish War of Independence")
* {{langx|ca|Guerra del Francès}} ("War of the Frenchman")
* {{langx|fr|Guerre d'Espagne et du Portugal}} ("War in Spain and in Portugal") or ''Campagne d'Espagne'' ("Spanish campaign")
* {{Langx|gl|Guerra da Independencia española}} ("War of Spanish Independence")
* {{langx|pt|Invasões Francesas}} ("French Invasions") or ''Guerra Peninsular'' ("Peninsular War")
* [[Spanish language|Spanish]]: Many names, including the ''Guerra de la Independencia'' ("Independence War"), ''la Francesada'', ''Guerra Peninsular'' ("Peninsular War"), ''Guerra de España'' ("War of Spain"), ''Guerra del Francés'' ("War of the French"), ''Guerra de los Seis Años'' ("Six Years' War"), ''Levantamiento y revolución de los españoles'' ("Rising and Revolution of the Spaniards")}}
}}

==Citations==
{{Reflist}}

==References==
{{refbegin|indent=yes|30em}}
* {{Cite book |last=Argüelles |first=A. |url=https://archive.org/details/BRes080742 |title=Examen Histórico de la Reforma Constitucional que Hicieron las Cortes Generates y Extraordinarias Desde que se Instalaron en la Isla de León el Dia 24 de Septiembre de 1810 Hasta que Cerraron en Cadiz sus Sesiones en 14 del Propio Mes de 1813 |date=1970 |publisher=En la imprenta de Carlos Wood e Hijos [Charles Wood & Sons?] |editor-last=J. Longares |location=London |language=es |access-date=1 May 2021}}
* {{Cite web |last=Bell |first=David A. |date=2009 |title=Napoleon's Total War |url=http://www.historynet.com/wars_conflicts/napoleonic_wars/6361907.html?page=2&c=y |archive-url=http://arquivo.pt/wayback/20091006185459/http://www.historynet.com/wars_conflicts/napoleonic_wars/6361907.html?page=2&c=y |archive-date=6 October 2009 |access-date=1 May 2021}}
* {{Cite book |last=Bodart |first=Gaston |url=https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_A0kNAAAAYAAJ |title=Militär-historisches Kriegs-Lexikon (1618–1905) |date=1908 |access-date=10 April 2021}}
* {{Cite book |last=Brandt |first=Heinrich von |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wudnAAAAMAAJ |title=In the legions of Napoleon: the memoirs of a Polish officer in Spain and Russia, 1808–1813 |date=1999 |publisher=Greenhill Books |isbn=978-1-8536-7380-1 |editor-last=North |editor-first=Jonathan |access-date=1 May 2021}}
* {{Cite book |last=Burke |first=Edmund |author-link=Edmund Burke |url=https://archive.org/details/annualregister33unkngoog |title=The Annual Register, for the year 1810 |date=1825 |publisher=Rivingtons |edition=2nd |location=London |access-date=1 May 2021}}
* {{Cite book |last=Chandler |first=David G. |author-link=David G. Chandler |url=https://archive.org/details/campaignsofnapol00chan |title=The Campaigns of Napoleon |date=1995 |publisher=Simon & Schuster |isbn=0-0252-3660-1 |access-date=1 May 2021}}
* {{Cite book |last=Chartrand |first=Rene |title=Spanish Army of the Napoleonic Wars : 1812–1815 |date=1999 |publisher=Osprey Publishing |others=illustrated by Bill Younghusband |isbn=1-8553-2763-5}}
* {{Cite book |last=Chartrand |first=Rene |author-mask=2 |title=The Portuguese Army of the Napoleonic Wars |date=2000 |others=illustrated by Bill Younghusband}}
* {{Cite book |last=Clodfelter |first=Micheal |url=https://archive.org/details/warfarearmedconf0000clod |title=Warfare and armed conflicts: a statistical encyclopedia of casualty and other figures, 1494–2007 |date=2008 |publisher=McFarland |isbn=978-0-7864-3319-3 |access-date=30 April 2021}}
* {{Cite book |last=Connelly |first=Owen |title=The Wars of the French Revolution and Napoleon, 1792–1815 |date=2006 |publisher=Routledge}}
* {{Cite web |last=COS |date=2014 |title=Battle Name:Yanzi |url=http://www.clash-of-steel.com/conflicts/details.php?entry=YANZI01}}{{better source needed|date=November 2014}}
* {{Cite book |last=Ellis |first=Geoffrey |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8lnJAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA100 |title=Napoleon |date=2014 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-3178-7470-6 |access-date=1 May 2021}}
* {{Cite book |last=Esdaile |first=Charles |url=https://archive.org/details/peninsularwarnew00esda |title=The Peninsular War |date=2003 |publisher=[[Palgrave Macmillan]] |isbn=1-4039-6231-6 |access-date=1 May 2021}}
* {{Cite web |last=etymology |date=2021 |title=guerrilla |url=https://www.etymonline.com/word/guerrilla |access-date=2 May 2021}}
* {{Cite web |last=Fitzwilliam |date=2007 |title=Military General Service Medal |url=http://www.fitzmuseum.cam.ac.uk/dept/coins/collection/watson/page230.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080607155822/http://www.fitzmuseum.cam.ac.uk/dept/coins/collection/watson/page230.html |archive-date=7 June 2008 |access-date=1 May 2021}}
* {{Cite book |last=Fletcher |first=Ian |title=Galloping at Everything: The British Cavalry in the Peninsula and at Waterloo 1808–15 |date=1999 |publisher=Spellmount |isbn=1-8622-7016-3 |location=Staplehurst}}
* {{Cite book |last=Fletcher |first=Ian |author-mask=2 |title=The Lines of Torres Vedras 1809–11 |date=2003 |publisher=Osprey Publishing}}
* {{Cite book |last=Fraser |first=Ronald |title=Napoleon's Cursed War: Popular Resistance in the Spanish Peninsular War |date=2008 |publisher=Verso}}
* {{Cite book |last=Fremont-Barnes |first=Gregory |url=https://archive.org/details/napoleonicwars00greg |title=The Napoleonic Wars: The Peninsular War 1807–1814 |date=2002 |publisher=Osprey |isbn=1-8417-6370-5 |access-date=1 May 2021}}
* {{Cite book |last=Gates |first=David |title=The Spanish Ulcer: A History of the Peninsular War |date=2001 |publisher=[[Da Capo Press]] |isbn=978-0-7867-4732-0}}
* {{Cite book |last=Gay |first=Susan E. |url=https://archive.org/details/oldfalmouth00gays |title=Old Falmouth |date=1903 |publisher=Headley Brothers |location=London |access-date=1 May 2021}}
* {{Cite book |last=Glover |first=Michael |title=The Peninsular War 1807–1814: A Concise Military History |date=2001 |publisher=Penguin Classic Military History |isbn=0-1413-9041-7 |orig-date=1974}}
* {{Cite book |last=Goya |first=Francisco |url=https://archive.org/details/disastersofwar00goya |title=The Disasters of War |date=1967 |publisher=Dover Publications |isbn=0-4862-1872-4 |access-date=2 May 2021 |url-access=registration}} 82 prints
* {{Cite book |last=Grehan |first=John |title=The Lines of Torres Vedras: The Cornerstone of Wellington's Strategy in the Peninsular War 1809–1812 |date=2015 |publisher=Pen & Sword Books Limited |isbn=978-1-4738-5274-7}}
* {{Cite book |last=Guedalla |first=Philip |url=https://archive.org/details/duke0000gued |title=The Duke |date=2005 |publisher=Hodder & Stoughton |isbn=0-3401-7817-5 |access-date=1 May 2021 |orig-date=1931}}
* {{Cite journal |last=Hindley |first=Meredith |date=2010 |title=The Spanish Ulcer: Napoleon, Britain, and the Siege of Cádiz |url=https://www.neh.gov/humanities/2010/januaryfebruary/feature/the-spanish-ulcer |journal=Humanities |publisher=[[National Endowment for the Humanities]] |volume=31 |issue=January/February 2010 Number 1 |access-date=2 May 2021}}
* {{Cite book |last=Martínez |first=Ángel de Velasco |title=Historia de España: La España de Fernando VII |date=1999 |publisher=[[Enciclopedia universal ilustrada europeo-americana|Espasa]] |isbn=8-4239-9723-5 |location=Barcelona}}
* {{Cite book |last=McLynn |first=Frank |author-link=Frank McLynn |url=https://archive.org/details/napoleonbiograph00mcly |title=Napoleon: A Biography |date=1997 |publisher=Pimlico |isbn=978-1-5597-0631-5 |location=London |access-date=2 May 2021}}
* {{cite book |last=Muir |first=Rory |url=https://archive.org/details/wellington-1-rory-muir-wellington-the-path-to-victory-1769-1814-1-2015-yale-univ/mode/2up?view=theater |title=Wellington: The Path to Victory 1769–1814 |publisher=Yale University Press |date=2013 |isbn=978-0-300-18665-9 |volume=1}}
* {{Cite web |last=Muir |first=Rory |author-mask=2 |date=2021 |title=Wellington |url=https://www.lifeofwellington.co.uk/commentary/chapter-32-the-pyrenees-july-september-1813 |access-date=1 May 2021 |volume=WD VI p 690}}
* {{Cite book |last=Napier |first=William Francis Patrick |author-link=William Francis Patrick Napier |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lDUYAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA155 |title=History of the War in the Peninsula, and in the South of France: From the Year 1807 to the Year 1814 |date=1867 |publisher=[T. and W.] Boone |access-date=1 May 2021}}
* {{Cite book |last=Napier |first=William Francis Patrick |author-mask=2 |author-link=William Francis Patrick Napier |url=https://archive.org/details/englishbattlessi00napi |title=English Battles and Sieges in the Peninsula |date=1879 |publisher=J. Murray |location=London |access-date=2 May 2021}}
* {{Cite book |last=Oman |first=Charles William Chadwick |author-link=Charles Oman |url=https://archive.org/details/historyofpeninsu01oman |title=A History of the Peninsular War: 1807–1809 |date=1902 |publisher=[[Oxford University Press|Clarendon Press]] |volume=I |location=Oxford |access-date=1 May 2021}}
* {{Cite book |last=Oman |first=Charles William Chadwick |author-mask=2 |author-link=Charles Oman |title=[[A History of the Peninsular War]]: Sep. 1809 – Dec. 1810 |date=1908 |publisher=Clarendon Press |volume=III |location=Oxford}}
* {{Cite book |last=Oman |first=Charles William Chadwick |author-mask=2 |author-link=Charles Oman |url=https://archive.org/details/historyofpeninsu07oman |title=A History of the Peninsular War: August 1813 – April 14, 1814. |date=1930 |publisher=Clarendon Press |volume=VII |location=Oxford |access-date=2 May 2021}}
* {{Cite book |last=Pakenham |first=Edward Michael |author-link=Edward Pakenham |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WSEEfAEACAAJ |title=Pakenham Letters: 1800–1815 |last2=Pakenham Longford |first2=Thomas |author-link2=Thomas Pakenham (historian) |date=2009 |publisher=Ken Trotman Publishing |isbn=978-1-9050-7496-9 |access-date=1 May 2021}}
* {{Cite book |last=Payne |first=Stanley G. |author-link=Stanley G. Payne |url=https://archive.org/details/historyofspainpo00payn |title=A History of Spain and Portugal: Eighteenth Century to Franco |date=1973 |publisher=[[University of Wisconsin Press]] |isbn=978-0-2990-6270-5 |volume=2 |location=Madison |access-date=2 May 2021}}
* {{Cite book |last=Porter |first=Whitworth |url=https://archive.org/details/cihm_55096 |title=History of the Corps of Royal Engineers |date=1889 |publisher=The Institution of Royal Engineers |volume=I |location=Chatham |ol=21695305M |access-date=2 May 2021}}
* {{Cite journal |last=Prados de la Escosura |first=Leandro |last2=Santiago-Caballero |first2=Carlos |date=2018 |title=The Napoleonic Wars: A Watershed in Spanish History? |url=http://www.ehes.org/EHES_130.pdf |url-status=dead |journal=Working Papers on Economic History |publisher=[[European Historical Economics Society]] |volume=130 |pages=18, 31 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180429222635/http://www.ehes.org/EHES_130.pdf |archive-date=29 April 2018 |access-date=1 May 2021 |ref=CITEREFPrados_de_la_Escosura2018}}
* {{Cite book |last=Richardson |first=Hubert N. B. |url=https://archive.org/details/dictionaryofnapo01rich |title=A dictionary of Napoleon and his times |date=1921 |publisher=[[Funk & Wagnalls]] |location=New York |oclc=154001 |access-date=2 May 2021}}
* {{Cite book |last=Robinson |first=F. P. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nQ4EaAEACAAJ |title=A Peninsular brigadier: letters of Major General Sir F. P. Robinson, K.C.B., dealing with the campaign of 1813 |date=1956 |publisher=Army Historical Research |editor-last=Atkinson |editor-first=Christopher Thomas |location=London |page=165 |oclc=725885384 |access-date=2 May 2021}}
* {{Cite book |last1=Rocca |first1=Albert Jean Michel |url=https://archive.org/details/memoirswarfrenc01callgoog |title=Memoirs of the War of the French in Spain |last2=Rocca |first2=M. de |date=1815 |publisher=J. Murray |editor-last=Callcott |editor-first=Lady Maria}}
* {{Cite book |last=Rousset |first=Camille |url=https://archive.org/details/recollectionsofm00macd |title=Recollections of Marshal Macdonald, Duke of Tarentum |date=1892 |publisher=Nabu Press |edition=New and Revised |volume=II |location=London |access-date=2 May 2021}}
* {{Cite web |last=Scott |first=Walter |date=1811 |title=The Edinburgh Annual Register: Volume 1; Volume 2, Part 1 |url=https://play.google.com/store/books/details?id=ImIJAAAAQAAJ&rdid=book-ImIJAAAAQAAJ&rdot=1 |access-date=1 May 2021 |publisher=[[John Ballantyne (publisher)|John Ballantyne]]}}
* {{Cite book |last1=Simmons |first1=George |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HNa0tmKKMPwC&pg=PA340 |title=A British Rifle Man: The Journals and Correspondence of Major George Simmons, Rifle Brigade, During the Peninsular War and the Campaign of Waterloo |last2=Verner |first2=William Willoughby Cole |date=2012 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-1080-5409-6}}
* {{Cite book |last=Smith |first=Digby |author-link=Digby Smith |title=The Napoleonic Wars Data Book |date=1998 |publisher=Greenhill |isbn=1-8536-7276-9 |location=London}}
* {{Cite book |last=Southey |first=Robert |author-link=Robert Southey |url=https://archive.org/details/historyofpeninsu03sout |title=History of the Peninsular War |date=1828 |publisher=John Murray |edition=New, in 6 volumes |volume=III |location=London |access-date=2 May 2021 |ref={{SfnRef|Southey (vol. III)|1828}}}}
* {{Cite book |last=Southey |first=Robert |author-link=Robert Southey |author-mask=2 |url=https://archive.org/details/historyofpeninsu04sout |title=History of the Peninsular War |date=1828 |publisher=John Murray |edition=New, in 6 volumes |volume=IV |location=London |access-date=2 May 2021 |ref={{SfnRef|Southey (vol. IV)|1828}}}}
* {{Cite book |last=Southey |first=Robert |author-link=Robert Southey |author-mask=2 |url=https://archive.org/details/historyofpeninsu05sout |title=History of the Peninsular War |date=1828 |publisher=John Murray |edition=New, in 6 volumes |volume=V |location=London |access-date=2 May 2021 |ref={{SfnRef|Southey (vol. V)|1828}}}}
* {{Cite book |last=Southey |first=Robert |author-link=Robert Southey |author-mask=2 |url=https://archive.org/details/historyofpeninsu06sout |title=History of the Peninsular War |date=1828 |publisher=John Murray |edition=New, in 6 volumes |volume=VI |location=London |access-date=2 May 2021 |ref={{SfnRef|Southey (vol. VI)|1828}}}}
* {{Cite book |last=Urlanis |first=Boris |url=https://archive.org/details/warspopulationurlanis |title=Wars and Population |date=1971 |publisher=Progress |location=Moscow |ol=18529747M}}
* {{Cite book |last=Weller |first=Jac |title=Wellington in the Peninsula |date=1962 |publisher=Nicholas Vane}}
{{refend}}

===Attribution===
* {{EB1911 |last=Robinson |first=Charles Walker |wstitle=Peninsular War |volume=21 |pages=90–98}}

==Further reading==
* {{Commons category-inline|Spanish War of Independence}}
{{refbegin|indent=yes|30em}}
* {{Cite book |last=Bigarré |first=Auguste Julien |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=CGfRmAEACAAJ |title=Mémoires du General Bigarré, aide de camp du roi Joseph: 1775–1813 |date=1893 |page=277}}
* {{Cite book |last=Blaze |first=Elzéar |title=Life in Napoleon's army: the memoirs of Captain Elzéar Blaze |date=1995 |publisher=Greenhill Books |isbn=1853671967 |editor-last=Haythornthwaite |editor-first=Philip J. |page=102}}
* {{Cite book |last=Chandler |first=David G. |url=https://archive.org/details/artofwarfareonla0000chan |title=The Art of Warfare on Land |date=1974 |publisher=Hamlyn |isbn=978-0-6003-0137-0 |access-date=1 May 2021}}
* {{Cite book |last=Churchill |first=Winston |author-link=Winston Churchill |title=[[A History of the English-Speaking Peoples]] |date=1958 |publisher=Dodd, Mead |volume=3: The age of revolution |page=257}}
* {{Cite book |last=de Palafox |first=J. |title=Memorias |date=1994 |publisher=Zaragoza |editor-last=Lafoz |editor-first=H. |page=54}}
* {{Cite book |last=Esdaile |first=Charles J. |title=The Spanish Army in the Peninsular War |date=1988 |publisher=[[Manchester University Press]] |isbn=0719025389}}
* {{Cite book |last=Esdaile |first=Charles J. |title=Fighting Napoleon: Guerrillas, Bandits & Adventurers in Spain, 1808–1814 |date=2004 |publisher=[[Yale University Press]] |isbn=0300101120 |author-mask=2}}
* {{Cite book |last=Fletcher |first=Ian |title=Peninsular War; Aspects of the Struggle for the Iberian Peninsula |date=2003 |publisher=Spellmount |isbn=1873376820 |ref=none}}
* {{Cite book |title=The Campaigns of Wellington |date=2007 |publisher=The Folio Society |editor-last=Fletcher |editor-first=Ian |editor-mask=2 |volume=(3 vols) Vol 1. The Peninsular War 1808–1811; Vol. 2. The Peninsular War 1812–1814}}
* {{Cite book |last=Fortescue |first=J. W. |url=https://archive.org/details/britisharmy06fortuoft |title=A History of The British Army |date=1915 |publisher=MacMillan |volume=IV 1807–1809 |oclc=312880647 |access-date=1 May 2021}}
* {{Cite book |last=Galiano |first=Antonio Alcalá |url=https://archive.org/details/memoriasdedanton01alca |title=Memorias de D, Antonio Alcalá Galiano |date=2009 |publisher=Editorial Visión Libros |isbn=978-8499835037 |volume=I |page=292 |access-date=1 May 2021}}
* {{Cite book |last=Grant |first=Reg |url=https://archive.org/details/battlevisualjour0000gran_e3z7 |title=Battle: A Visual Journey Through 5,000 Years of Combat |date=2005 |publisher=Dorling Kindersley |isbn=0756613604 |access-date=1 May 2021}}
* {{cite book |last=Griffith |first=Paddy |title=A History of the Peninsular War: Modern Studies of the War in Spain and Portugal, 1808–14 |date=1999 |publisher=Greenhill Books |isbn=185367348X |volume=9}}
* {{Cite book |url=https://archive.org/details/dispatchesoffiel10welluoft |title=The Dispatches of Field Marshal the Duke of Wellington, K. G. During His Various Campaigns in India, Denmark, Portugal, Spain, the Low Countries, and France: France and the Low Countries, 1814–1815 |date=1852 |publisher=J. Murray |editor-last=Gurwood |editor-first=J. |volume=III |location=London |page=583 |chapter=Wellington to Liverpool, 14 November 1809}}
* {{Cite book |title=The Dispatches of Field Marshal the Duke of Wellington during his various Campaigns in India, Denmark, Portugal, Spain, the Low Countries and France from 1789 to 1815 |date=1852 |publisher=J. Murray |editor-last=Gurwood |editor-first=J. |volume=VII |location=London |page=54 |chapter=Wellington to Liverpool, 21 December 1810}}
* {{Cite book |last=Haythornthwaite |first=Philip |title=Corunna 1809: Sir John Moore's Fighting Retreat |date=2001 |publisher=Osprey |isbn=9781472801982 |series=Campaign 83}}
* {{Cite book |last=Henty |first=G. A. |title=With Moore at Corunna: A Tale of the Peninsular War |date=2013 |publisher=Independently Published |isbn=978-1-4219-8751-4 |orig-date=1898}} – historical fiction
* {{Cite book |last=James |first=William |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Am7WCEX4KekC&q=cochrane+rosas&pg=PA132 |title=The Naval History of Great Britain |date=1826 |publisher=Harding, Lepard and Co |volume=V |access-date=2 May 2021}}
* {{Cite journal |last=Laqueur |first=Walter |date=1975 |title=The Origins of Guerrilla Doctrine |journal=Journal of Contemporary History |publisher=Society for Military History |volume=10 |issue=3 |pages=341–382 |doi=10.1177/002200947501000301 |s2cid=153541441}}
* {{Cite book |last=Lillie |first=John Scott |author-link=John Scott Lillie |title=The [[Loyal Lusitanian Legion]] during the Peninsular War: The Campaign of Wellington's Portuguese Troops, 1809–11 |last2=Mayne, William |date=2014 |publisher=Leonaur |isbn=978-1-7828-2367-4}}
* {{Cite book |last=Lovett |first=Gabriel H. |url=https://archive.org/details/napoleonbirthof02love_0 |title=Napoleon and the Birth of Modern Spain |date=1965 |publisher=New York University Press |isbn=0814702678 |access-date=3 May 2021}}
* {{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VT7fAQAAQBAJ&pg=PA417 |title=Reader's Guide to Military History |date=2013 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1135959708 |editor-last=Messenger |editor-first=Charles |edition=reprint |pages=417–420 |access-date=3 May 2021 |orig-date=2001}}; evaluation of the major books
* {{Cite journal |last=Morgan |first=John |date=2009 |title=War Feeding War? The Impact of Logistics on the Napoleonic Occupation of Catalonia |journal=Journal of Military History |volume=73 |issue=1 |pages=83–116 |doi=10.1353/jmh.0.0183 |s2cid=159770864}}
* {{Cite book |last=Muir |first=Rory |title=Britain and the Defeat of Napoleon, 1807–1815 |date=1996 |publisher=Yale University Press |isbn=978-0300064438}}
* {{Cite book |last=Napier |first=William Francis Patrick |author-link=William Francis Patrick Napier |url=https://archive.org/details/historyofwarinpe0000napi |title=The War in the Peninsula (6 vols) |date=1862 |publisher=John Murray (Vol 1), and private (Vols 2–6) |location=London |access-date=3 May 2021}}
* {{Cite book |last=Neale |first=Adam |url=https://archive.org/details/lettersfromport00nealgoog |title=Letters from Portugal and Spain: An Account of the Operations of the Armies ... |date=1809 |publisher=Richard Philips |location=London |chapter=Appendix |access-date=2 May 2021}}
* {{Cite book |last=Neale |first=Adam |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IKZjAAAAMAAJ |title=Memorials of the Late War |last2=Hopetoun (Earl of) |first2=John Hope |last3=Malcolm |first3=John |last4=Rocca |first4=Albert Jean Michel |date=1828 |publisher=Constable & Company |volume=I |location=Edinburgh |oclc=9981233 |author-mask=2 |access-date=2 May 2021}}
* {{Cite book |last=Oman |first=Charles William Chadwick |author-link=Charles Oman |url=https://archive.org/details/historyofpeninsu02oman |title=A History of the Peninsular War: Jan. – Sep. 1809 |date=1903 |publisher=Clarendon Press |volume=II |location=Oxford |access-date=3 May 2021}}
* {{Cite book |last=Oman |first=Charles William Chadwick |author-link=Charles Oman |url=https://archive.org/details/historyofpeninsu04oman |title=A History of the Peninsular War: Dec. 1810 – Dec. 1811 |date=1911 |publisher=Clarendon Press |volume=IV |location=Oxford |author-mask=2 |access-date=2 May 2021}}
* {{Cite book |last=Oman |first=Charles William Chadwick |author-link=Charles Oman |url=https://archive.org/details/historyofpeninsu05oman |title=A History of the Peninsular War: Oct. 1811 – Aug. 31 1812 |date=1914 |publisher=Clarendon Press |volume=V |location=Oxford |access-date=3 May 2021}}
* {{Cite book |last=Oman |first=Charles William Chadwick |author-link=Charles Oman |url=https://archive.org/details/historyofpeninsu06oman |title=A History of the Peninsular War: Sep. 1 1812 – 5 Aug. 1813 |date=1922 |publisher=Clarendon Press |volume=VI |location=Oxford |author-mask=2 |access-date=3 May 2021}}
** {{Cite book |last=Parkinson |first=Roger |title=The Peninsular War |date=1973 |publisher=Hart-Davis MacGibbon |isbn=978-0-24664-096-3}}
* {{Cite book |last=Rathbone |first=Julian |title=Wellington's War |date=1984 |publisher=Michael Joseph |isbn=0718123964}}
* {{Cite book |last=Rawson |first=Andrew |title=The Peninsular War. A Battlefield Guide |date=2009 |publisher=Pen & Sword Military |isbn=978-1844159215}}
* {{Cite book |last=Read |first=Jan |title=War in the Peninsula |date=1977 |publisher=Faber & Faber |isbn=978-0-57110-645-5}}
* {{Cite book |last=Rodríguez |first=Alicia Lastra |title=Archivum |date=1956 |publisher=Universidad de Oviedo |language=es |chapter=Buscando a mi general: el periplo asturiano de Andrew Leith Hay en 1808 |id=GGKEY:T6X2X3HZ2PQ |access-date=3 May 2021 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VxwqgevOECUC&pg=PA219}}
* {{Cite book |last=Southey |first=Robert |author-link=Robert Southey |url=https://archive.org/details/historyofpeninsu01sout |title=History of the Peninsular War |date=1828 |publisher=John Murray |edition=New, in 6 volumes |volume=I |location=London |access-date=2 May 2021}}
* {{Cite book |last=Southey |first=Robert |author-link=Robert Southey |url=https://archive.org/details/historyofpeninsu02sout |title=History of the Peninsular War |date=1828 |publisher=John Murray |edition=New, in 6 volumes |volume=II |location=London |author-mask=2 |access-date=2 May 2021}}
* {{Cite book |last=Suchet |first=Duke D'Albufera |title=Memoirs of the War in Spain (2 volumes) |date=2007 |publisher=Pete Kautz |isbn=978-1858184777}}
* {{Cite book |last=Tranié |first=Jean |title=Napoleon's War in Spain: The French Peninsular Campaigns, 1807–1814 |last2=Carmigniani |first2=Juan Carlos |date=1994 |publisher=Arms and Armour Press |others=based on the notes and documents of the late Commandant Henry Lachouque (1883–1971) |isbn=978-1854092199 |edition=reprint |translator-last=Mallender |translator-first=Janet S. |orig-date=1982 |translator-last2=Clements |translator-first2=John R.}}
* {{Cite book |last=Urban |first=Mark |url=https://archive.org/details/rifles00mark |title=Rifles: Six years with Wellington's legendary sharpshooters |date=2003 |publisher=Faber & Faber |isbn=0571216811 |location=London}}
* {{Cite book |last=Urban |first=Mark |title=The Man who Broke Napoleon's Codes |date=2001 |publisher=Faber and Faber |isbn=0571205135 |location=London |author-mask=2}}
{{refend}}

===Other media===
* {{cite AV media |title=[[The Pride and the Passion]] |date=1957 |medium=film |publisher=[[United Artists]] |location=Spain |people=[[Frank Sinatra]], [[Sophia Loren]], [[Cary Grant]]}} Retrieval of fictional cannon during Peninsular Campaign.

{{Napoleonic Wars}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Peninsular War| ]]
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