View source for Pergamon

{{Short description|Ancient Greek city in Anatolia}}
{{For|the publisher|Pergamon Press}}
{{Infobox ancient site
| name = Pergamon
| native_name = Πέργαμον
| native_name_lang = grc
| alternate_name = Pergamum
| image = [[File:Acropolis - Bergama (Pergamon) - Turkey - 10 (5747249729).jpg|270px]]
| alt = 
| caption = Acropolis of Pergamon
| map_type = Turkey
| map_alt = 
| map_size = 270
| coordinates = {{Coord|39|07|57|N|27|11|03|E|type:landmark_region:TR-35|display=inline,title}}
| location = [[Bergama]], İzmir Province, Turkey
| region = [[Aeolis]]
| type = Settlement
| part_of = 
| length = 
| width = 
| area = {{convert|90|ha|abbr=on}}
| height = 
| builder = 
| material = 
| built = 
| abandoned = 
| epochs = <!-- actually displays as "Periods" -->
| cultures = [[Greeks|Greek]]
| dependency_of = 
| occupants = [[Epigonus]], [[Sosus of Pergamon]], [[Aelius Nicon]], [[Galen]]
| event = 
| excavations = 
| archaeologists = 
| condition = Ruined
| ownership = Public
| management = 
| public_access = Yes
| website = <!-- {{URL|example.com}} -->
| notes = {{Infobox UNESCO World Heritage Site
   |child = yes
   |Official_name = Pergamon and its Multi-Layered Cultural Landscape
   |Criteria = Cultural: i, ii, iii, iv, vi
   |ID = 1457
   |Year = 2014
   |Area = 332.5 ha
   |Buffer_zone = 476.9 ha 
  }}
}}

'''Pergamon''' or '''Pergamum''' ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|p|ɜr|ɡ|ə|m|ə|n}} or {{IPAc-en|ˈ|p|ɜr|ɡ|ə|m|ɒ|n}}; {{langx|grc|Πέργαμον}}), also referred to by its modern Greek form '''Pergamos''' ({{Lang|el|Πέργαμος}}),{{Efn|An ancient origin for "Pergamos" has often been assumed because of its appearing in the 17th-century King James Bible (Rev 2:12). This was however an erroneous reconstruction by the English translators, and does not appear in the Greek text, which uses either the original Πέργαμον (Rev 1:11) or the dative case Περγάμῳ (Rev 2:12).|name=|group=}}<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.philologus.gr/4/68-2010-01-01-01-22-30/116-2009-10-28-22-42-18|title=ΤΟ ΠΕΡΓΑΜΟΝ|website=www.philologus.gr|access-date=2020-02-26}}</ref> was a rich and powerful [[ancient Greece|ancient Greek]] city in [[Aeolis]]. It is located {{convert|26|km}} from the modern coastline of the [[Aegean Sea]] on a [[promontory]] on the north side of the river [[Caicus]] (modern-day [[Bakırçay]]) and northwest of the modern city of [[Bergama]], Turkey.

During the [[Hellenistic period]], it became the capital of the [[Kingdom of Pergamon]] in 281–133&nbsp;BC under the Attalid dynasty, who transformed it into one of the major cultural centres of the Greek world. The remains of many of its monuments are still visible today, most notably the masterpiece of the [[Pergamon Altar]].<ref>The Pergamon Altar, P. v Zaubern, Staatliche Museen zu Berlin, 1991</ref> Pergamon was the northernmost of the [[seven churches of Asia]] cited in the [[New Testament]] [[Book of Revelation]].<ref>{{bibleverse||Revelation|1:11|NKJV}}</ref>

The city is centered on a {{convert|335|m|ft|-2|adj=mid|-high}} [[mesa]] of [[andesite]], which formed its [[acropolis]]. This mesa falls away sharply on the north, west, and east sides, but three natural terraces on the south side provide a route up to the top. To the west of the acropolis, the Selinus River (modern Bergamaçay) flows through the city, while the [[Cetius]] river (modern Kestelçay) passes by to the east.

Pergamon was added to the [[List of World Heritage Sites in Turkey|UNESCO World Heritage]] List in 2014.

==Location==
[[File:Bergama - AKRAPOL - panoramio (4).jpg|thumb|left|Ruins of the ancient city of Pergamon]]
Pergamon lies on the north edge of the Caicus plain in the historic region of [[Mysia]] in the northwest of Turkey. The Caicus river breaks through the surrounding mountains and hills at this point and flows in a wide arc to the southwest. At the foot of the mountain range to the north, between the rivers Selinus and Cetius, there is the massif of Pergamon which rises {{convert|335|metres}} above sea level. The site is only 26&nbsp;km from the sea, but the Caicus plain is not open to the sea, since the way is blocked by the Karadağ massif. As a result, the area has a strongly inland character. In Hellenistic times, the town of [[Elaea (Aeolis)|Elaia]] at the mouth of the Caicus served as the port of Pergamon. The climate is Mediterranean with a dry period from May to August, as is common along the west coast of Asia Minor.<ref>''Altertümer von Pergamon''. 1.1, pp. 47–50.</ref>

The Caicus valley is mostly composed of volcanic rock, particularly andesite, and the Pergamon massif is also an intrusive [[Stock (geology)|stock]] of andesite. The massif is about one kilometre wide and around 5.5&nbsp;km long from north to south. It consists of a broad, elongated base and a relatively small peak - the upper city. The side facing the Cetius river is a sharp cliff, while the side facing the Selinus is a little rough. On the north side, the rock forms a {{convert|70|m}} wide spur of rock. To the southeast of this spur, which is known as the 'Garden of the Queen', the massif reaches its greatest height and breaks off suddenly immediately to the east. The upper city extends for another {{convert|250|m}} to the south, but it remains very narrow, with a width of only {{convert|150|m}}. At its south end the massif falls gradually to the east and south, widening to around {{convert|350|m}} and then descends to the plain towards the southwest.<ref>''Altertümer von Pergamon''. 1.2, pp. 148–152.</ref>

==History==

===Pre-Hellenistic period===
Earlier habitation in the [[Bronze Age]] cannot be demonstrated, although Bronze Age [[stone tool]]s are found in the surrounding area.<ref>[[Kurt Bittel]], "Zur ältesten Besiedlungsgeschichte der unteren Kaïkos-Ebene," in Kurt Bittel (ed.): ''Kleinasien und Byzanz. Gesammelte Aufsätze zur Altertumskunde und Kunstgeschichte. Martin Schede zu seinem sechzigsten Geburtstag am 20. Oktober 1943 im Manuskript überreicht.'' W. de Gruyter, Berlin 1950, pp. 17–29 (''Istanbuler Forschungen''. Vol. 17).</ref>

Settlement of Pergamon can be detected as far back as the [[Archaic Greece|Archaic period]], thanks to modest archaeological finds, especially fragments of pottery imported from the west, particularly eastern Greece and [[Corinth]], which date to the late 8th century BC.<ref>Jörg Schäfer: ''Hellenistische Keramik aus Pergamon''. de Gruyter, Berlin 1968, p. 14 (''Pergamenische Forschungen''. Vol. 2).</ref>

The earliest mention of Pergamon in literary sources comes from [[Xenophon]]'s ''[[Anabasis (Xenophon)|Anabasis]]'', since the march of the [[Ten Thousand]] under Xenophon's command ended at Pergamon in 400/399 BC.<ref>
[[Xenophon]], ''Anabasis'' [https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Xen.+Anab.+7.8.8 7.8.8]; ''[[Hellenica]]'' [https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Xen.+Hell.+3.1.6 3.1.6].</ref> Xenophon, who calls the city Pergamos, handed over the rest of his Greek troops (some 5,000 men according to [[Diodorus]]) to [[Thimbron (fl. 400–391 BC)|Thibron]], who was planning an expedition against the Persian [[satrap]]s [[Tissaphernes]] and [[Pharnabazus II|Pharnabazus]], at this location in March 399 BC. At this time Pergamon was in the possession of the family of [[Gongylos]] from [[Eretria]], a Greek favourable to the [[Achaemenid Empire]] who had taken refuge in Asia Minor and obtained the territory of Pergamon from [[Xerxes I]], and Xenophon was hosted by his widow Hellas.<ref>Xenophon, ''Anabasis'' 7.8.7–8.</ref>

In 362 BC, [[Orontes I|Orontes]], satrap of Mysia, used Pergamon as his base for an unsuccessful revolt against the Persian Empire.<ref>''Altertümer von Pergamon''. 8.2, pp. 578–581 No. 613.</ref> Only with [[Alexander the Great]] were Pergamon and the surrounding area removed from Persian control. There are few traces of the pre-Hellenistic city, since in the following period the terrain was profoundly changed and the construction of broad terraces involved the removal of almost all earlier structures. Parts of the temple of [[Athena]], as well as the walls and foundations of the altar in the sanctuary of [[Demeter]], go back to the fourth century.

<gallery mode="packed" widths="140px" heights="145px">
MYSIA, Pergamon. Mid 5th century BCE.jpg|Possible coinage of the Greek ruler [[Gongylos]], wearing the Persian cap on the reverse, as ruler of Pergamon for the [[Achaemenid Empire]]. Pergamon, [[Mysia]], circa 450 BC. The name of the city ΠΕΡΓ ("PERG"), appears for the first on this coinage, and is the first evidence for the name of the city.<ref name="RD">{{cite book |last1=Dreyfus |first1=Renée |title=Pergamon: The Telephos Friez from the Great Altar; [exhibition, The Metrolopitan Museum of Art, New York, N. Y., 16 January - 14 April 1996...] |date=1996 |publisher=University of Texas Press |isbn=9780884010890 |page=104 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HdiF2H5C2m0C&pg=PA104 |language=en}}</ref>
MYSIA, Adramyteion. Orontes, Satrap of Mysia. Circa 357-352 BC.jpg|Coin of [[Orontes I|Orontes]], Achaemenid Satrap of [[Mysia]] (including Pergamon), Adramyteion. Circa 357-352 BC
</gallery>

===Hellenistic period===
[[File:EmenesICoin.JPG|thumb|upright=0.75|Image of [[Philetaerus]] on a coin of [[Eumenes I]]]]
[[File:Pergamon188BCE.jpg|thumb|The ''[[Kingdom of Pergamon]]'', shown at its greatest extent in 188&nbsp;BC]]
[[File:AtaloPergamo.jpg|thumb|upright=0.75|Over-life-size portrait head, probably of [[Attalus I]]]]
[[Lysimachus]], King of [[Thrace]], took possession in 301&nbsp;BC, and the town was enlarged by his lieutenant [[Philetaerus]]. In 281 BC the kingdom of Thrace collapsed and Philetaerus became an independent ruler, founding the [[Attalid dynasty]]. His family ruled Pergamon from 281 until 133 BC: Philetaerus 281–263; [[Eumenes I]] 263–241; [[Attalus I]] 241–197; [[Eumenes II]] 197–159; [[Attalus II]] 159–138; and [[Attalus III]] 138–133. Philetaerus controlled only Pergamon and its immediate environs, but the city acquired much new territory under Eumenes I. In particular, after the Battle of [[Sardis]] in 261 BC against [[Antiochus I]], Eumenes was able to appropriate the area down to the coast and some way inland. Despite this increase of his domain, Eumenes did not take a royal title. In 238 his successor Attalus I defeated the [[Galatians (people)|Galatians]], to whom Pergamon had paid tribute under Eumenes I.<ref name="ReferenceA">{{Catholic|inline=1|wstitle=Pergamus}}</ref> Attalus thereafter declared himself leader of an entirely independent Pergamene kingdom.

The Attalids became some of the most loyal supporters of [[Roman Republic|Rome]] in the Hellenistic world. Attalus I allied with Rome against [[Philip V of Macedon]], during the [[First Macedonian War|first]] and [[Second Macedonian War|second]] [[Macedonian Wars]]. In the [[Roman–Seleucid War]], Pergamon joined the Romans' coalition against [[Antiochus III]], and was rewarded with almost all the former [[Seleucid]] domains in [[Asia Minor]] at the [[Peace of Apamea]] in 188 BC. The kingdom's territories thus reached their greatest extent. Eumenes II supported Rome again in the [[Third Macedonian War]], but the Romans heard rumours of his conducting secret negotiations with their opponent [[Perseus of Macedon]]. On this basis, Rome denied any reward to Pergamon and attempted to replace Eumenes with the future Attalus II, who refused to cooperate. These incidents cost Pergamon its privileged status with the Romans, who granted it no further territory.

Nevertheless, under the brothers Eumenes II and Attalus II, Pergamon reached its apex and was rebuilt on a monumental scale. It had retained the same dimensions for a long interval after its founding by Philetaerus, covering c. {{convert|21|ha}}. After 188&nbsp;BC a massive new city wall was constructed, {{convert|4|km}} long and enclosing an area of approximately {{convert|90|ha}}.<ref name=errington/> The Attalids' goal was to create a second [[Athens]], a cultural and artistic hub of the Greek world. They remodeled their Acropolis after the [[Acropolis]] in Athens, and the [[Library of Pergamum|Library of Pergamon]] was renowned as second only to the [[Library of Alexandria]]. Pergamon was also a flourishing center for the production of [[parchment]], whose name is a corruption of ''pergamenos'', meaning "from Pergamon". Despite this etymology, parchment had been used in Asia Minor long before the rise of the city; the story that it was invented by the Pergamenes, to circumvent the [[Ptolemies]]' monopoly on [[papyrus]] production, is not true.<ref>P. Green, ''Alexander to Actium. The historical evolution of the Hellenistic age'', p. 168.</ref> In fact, parchment had been in use in Anatolia and elsewhere long before the rise of Pergamon.<ref name=Green1990>{{cite book|last=Green|first=Peter|title=Alexander to Actium: the historical evolution of the Hellenistic age|url=https://archive.org/details/alexandertoactiu0000gree|url-access=registration|place=Berkeley|publisher=University of California Press|year=1990|isbn=0520056116|page=[https://archive.org/details/alexandertoactiu0000gree/page/168 168]}}</ref><ref name=Metzger2005>{{Cite book|last=Metzger|first=Bruce|title=The Text of the New Testament: Its Transmission, Corruption, and Restoration|year=2005|publisher=Oxford University Press|edition=4th|pages=8}}</ref>

Surviving epigraphic documents show how the Attalids supported the growth of towns by sending in skilled artisans and by remitting taxes. They allowed the Greek cities in their domains to maintain nominal independence, and sent gifts to Greek cultural sites like [[Delphi]], [[Delos]], and Athens. The two brothers Eumenes II and Attalus II displayed the most distinctive trait of the Attalids: a pronounced sense of family without rivalry or intrigue - rare amongst the Hellenistic dynasties.<ref>Elizabeth Kosmetatou, "The Attalids of Pergamon" in Andrew Erskine, ''Companion to the Hellenistic World''. Blackwell Publishing, 2003. pp.159-174.</ref> Attalus II bore the epithet 'Philadelphos', 'he who loves his brother', and his relations with Eumenes II were compared to the harmony between the mythical brothers [[Cleobis and Biton]].<ref>[[Polybius]] 22.20.</ref>

When Attalus III died without an heir in 133&nbsp;BC, he bequeathed the whole of Pergamon to Rome. This was challenged by [[Eumenes III|Aristonicus]], who claimed to be Attalus III's brother and led an [[Aristonicus uprising|armed uprising]] against the Romans with the help of [[Blossius]], a famous [[Stoicism|Stoic philosopher]]. For a period he enjoyed success, defeating and killing the Roman consul [[Publius Licinius Crassus Dives Mucianus|P. Licinius Crassus]] and his army, but he was defeated in 129 BC by the consul [[Marcus Perperna (consul 130 BC)|M. Perperna]]. The Attalid kingdom was divided between Rome, [[Pontus (kingdom)|Pontus]], and [[Cappadocia (kingdom)|Cappadocia]], with the bulk of its territory becoming the new [[Roman province]] of [[Asia (Roman province)|Asia]]. The city itself was declared free and served briefly as capital of the province, before this distinction was transferred to [[Ephesus]].

===Roman period===
[[File:Mithridates VI Louvre.jpg|thumb|left|upright|[[Mithridates VI Eupator|Mithridates VI]], portrait in the [[Louvre]]]]
In 88 BC, [[Mithridates VI Eupator]] made Pergamon his headquarters in his [[First Mithridatic War|first war]] against Rome, in which he was defeated. The victorious Romans deprived Pergamon of all its benefits and of its status as a free city. Henceforth the city was required to pay tribute and accommodate and supply Roman troops, and the property of many of the inhabitants was confiscated. Imported Pergamene goods were among the luxuries enjoyed by [[Lucullus]]. The members of the Pergamene aristocracy, especially [[Diodorus Pasparus]] in the 70s BC, used their own possessions to maintain good relationships with Rome, by acting as donors for the development of the city. Numerous honorific inscriptions indicate Pasparus' work and his exceptional position in Pergamon at this time.<ref>On Diodorus Pasparus, see ''Altertümer von Pergamon''. 15.1, pp. 114–117.</ref>

Pergamon still remained a famous city, and was the seat of a ''[[conventus]]'' (regional assembly). Its [[neocorate]], granted by [[Augustus]], was the first manifestation of the [[Imperial cult of ancient Rome|imperial cult]] in the province of Asia. [[Pliny the Elder]] refers to the city as the most important in the province<ref>Pliny, ''[[Natural History (Pliny)|Naturalis historia]]'' 5.126.</ref> and the local aristocracy continued to reach the highest circles of power in the 1st century AD, like [[Gaius Antius Aulus Julius Quadratus|Aulus Julius Quadratus]] who was [[consul]] in 94 and 105.

[[File:Kleinasien II.jpg|thumb|300px|Pergamon in the Roman province of [[Asia (Roman province)|Asia]], 90 BC]]
Yet it was only under [[Trajan]] and his successors that a comprehensive redesign and remodelling took place, with the construction of a Roman 'new city' at the base of the Acropolis. The city was the first in the province to receive a second neocorate, from Trajan in AD 113/4. [[Hadrian]] raised the city to the rank of [[metropolis]] in 123 and thereby elevated it above its local rivals, [[Ephesus]] and [[Smyrna]]. An ambitious building programme was carried out: massive temples, a stadium, a [[Roman theatre (structure)|theatre]], a huge forum and an [[Roman amphitheatre|amphitheatre]] were constructed. In addition, at the city limits the shrine to [[Asclepius]] (the god of healing) was expanded into a lavish spa. This sanctuary grew in fame and was considered one of the most famous healing centers of the Roman world.

[[File:Modell Pergamonmuseum.jpg|thumb|A model of the acropolis of Pergamon, showing the situation in the 2nd century CE]]
In the middle of the 2nd century Pergamon was one of the largest cities in the province, and had around 200,000 inhabitants. [[Galen]], the most famous physician of antiquity aside from [[Hippocrates]], was born at Pergamon and received his early training at the Asclepieion. At the beginning of the 3rd century [[Caracalla]] granted the city a third neocorate, but a decline had already set in. The economic strength of Pergamon collapsed during the [[crisis of the Third Century]], as the city was badly damaged in an earthquake in 262 and was sacked by the [[Goths]] shortly thereafter. In [[late antiquity]], it experienced a limited economic recovery.

===Byzantine period===
In AD 663/4, Pergamon was captured by raiding [[Rashidun caliphate|Arabs]] for the first time.<ref name="ODB">{{ODB|title=Pergamon|last=Foss|first=Clive|page=1628}}</ref> As a result of the ongoing Arab threat, the area of settlement retracted to the [[acropolis]], which the Emperor [[Constans II]] ({{reign|641|668}}) fortified<ref name="ODB"/> with a {{convert|6|m|ft|adj=mid|-thick|sp=us}} wall built of [[spolia]].

During the middle Byzantine period, the city was part of the [[Thracesian Theme]],<ref name="ODB"/> and from the time of [[Leo VI the Wise]] ({{reign|886|912}}) of the [[Theme of Samos]].<ref name="EI2"/> 7th-century sources attest an [[Armenians|Armenian]] community in Pergamon, probably formed of refugees from the [[Early Muslim conquests|Muslim conquests]]; this community produced the emperor [[Philippicus]] ({{reign|711|713}}).<ref name="ODB"/><ref name="EI2">{{EI2|title=Bergama|last=Parry|first=V. J.|volume=1|page=1187}}</ref> In 716, Pergamon was sacked again by the armies of [[Maslama ibn Abd al-Malik]]. It was again rebuilt and refortified after the Arabs abandoned their  [[Siege of Constantinople (717)|Siege of Constantinople]] in 717–718.<ref name="ODB"/><ref name="EI2"/>

Pergamon suffered from the [[Seljuk dynasty|Seljuk]] invasion of western Anatolia after the [[Battle of Manzikert]] in 1071. Attacks in 1109 and 1113 largely destroyed the city, which was only rebuilt, by Emperor [[Manuel I Komnenos]] ({{reign|1143|1180}}), around 1170. It likely became the capital of the new theme of [[Neokastra]], established by Manuel.<ref name="ODB"/><ref name="EI2"/> Under [[Isaac II Angelos]] ({{reign|1185|1195}}), the [[Metropolis of Pergamon|local see]] was promoted to a [[metropolitan bishopric]], having previously been a [[suffragan diocese]] of the [[Metropolis of Ephesus]].<ref name="EI2"/>

After the [[Sack of Constantinople]] in 1204 during the [[Fourth Crusade]], Pergamon became part of the [[Empire of Nicaea]].<ref name="EI2"/> When Emperor [[Theodore II Laskaris]] ({{reign|1254|1285}}) visited Pergamon in 1250, he was shown the house of Galen, but he saw that the theatre had been destroyed and, except for the walls which he paid some attention to, only the vaults over the Selinus seemed noteworthy to him. The monuments of the Attalids and the Romans were only plundered ruins by this time.

With the expansion of the [[Anatolian beyliks]], Pergamon was absorbed into the beylik of [[Karasids]] shortly after 1300, and then conquered by the [[Ottoman beylik]].<ref name="EI2"/> The [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman]] Sultan [[Murad III]] had two large [[alabaster]] urns transported from the ruins of Pergamon and placed on two sides of the nave in the [[Hagia Sophia]] in [[Istanbul]].<ref>E.J. Brill's first encyclopaedia of Islam, 1913–1936 - Page 526</ref>

==Pergamon in myth==
[[File:Pergamon Altar - Telephus frieze - panel 49+50.jpg|thumb|right|Founding of Pergamon: depiction from the Telephos frieze of the Pergamon altar]]
Pergamon, which traced its founding back to [[Telephus]], the son of [[Heracles]], is not mentioned in Greek myth or epic of the archaic or classical periods. However, in the [[Epic Cycle]] the Telephus myth is already connected with the area of Mysia. Searching for his mother, Telephus visits Mysia on the advice of an oracle. There he becomes [[Teuthras]]' son-in-law or foster-son and inherits his kingdom of [[Teuthrania]], encompassing the area between Pergamon and the mouth of the Caicus. Telephus refuses to participate in the [[Trojan War]], but his son [[Eurypylus (son of Telephus)|Eurypylus]] fights on the side of the [[Troy|Trojans]]. This material was dealt with in a number of tragedies, such as [[Aeschylus]]' ''Mysi'', [[Sophocles]]' ''Aleadae'', and [[Euripides]]' ''Telephus'' and ''Auge'', but Pergamon does not seem to have played any role in any of them.<ref>Johannes Schmidt: ''Telephos''. In: [[Wilhelm Heinrich Roscher]] (Hrsg.): ''[[Ausführliches Lexikon der griechischen und römischen Mythologie]]''. Band 5, Leipzig 1924, Sp.&nbsp;274–308 ([http://www.archive.org/stream/ausfhrlichesle05rosc#page/n142/mode/1up Digitalisat]).</ref> The adaptation of the myth is not entirely smooth.

Thus, on the one hand, Eurypylus who must have been part of the dynastic line as a result of the appropriation of the myth, was not mentioned in the hymn sung in honour of Telephus in the Asclepieion.  Otherwise he does not seem to have been paid any heed.<ref>Pausanias [http://www.theoi.com/Text/Pausanias3B.html 3.26.10].</ref> But the Pergamenes made offerings to Telephus<ref>Pausanias [http://www.theoi.com/Text/Pausanias5A.html 5.13.3].</ref> and the grave of his mother [[Auge]] was located in Pergamon near the Caicus.<ref>Pausanias [http://www.theoi.com/Text/Pausanias8A.html 8.4.9].</ref> Pergamon thus entered the Trojan epic cycle, with its ruler said to have been an [[Arcadia (ancient region)|Arcadia]]n who had fought with Telephus against [[Agamemnon]] when he landed at the Caicus, mistook it for Troy and began to ravage the land.

On the other hand, the story was linked to the foundation of the city with another myth – that of [[Pergamus]], the [[eponymous]] hero of the city. He also belonged to the broader cycle of myths related to the Trojan War as the grandson of [[Achilles]] through his father [[Neoptolemus]] and of [[Eetion]] of [[Cilician Thebe|Thebe]] through his mother [[Andromache]] (concubine to Neoptolemus after the death of [[Hector]] of [[Troy]]).<ref>Pausanias [http://www.theoi.com/Text/Pausanias3B.html 3.20.8].</ref> With his mother, he was said to have fled to Mysia where he killed the ruler of Teuthrania and gave the city his own name. There he built a [[heroon]] for his mother after her death.<ref>Pausanias [http://www.theoi.com/Text/Pausanias1A.html 1.11.2].</ref> In a less heroic version, Grynos the son of Eurypylus named a city after him in gratitude for a favour.<ref>[[Maurus Servius Honoratius|Servius]], ''Commentarius in [[Vergil]]ii [[Eclogae|eclogas]]'' 6.72.</ref> These mythic connections seem to be late and are not attested before the 3rd century BC. Pergamus' role remained subordinate, although he did receive some cult worship. Beginning in the Roman period, his image appears on civic coinage and he is said to have had a heroon in the city.<ref>Elizabeth Kosmetatou: ''The Attalids of Pergamon''. in Andrew Erskine, ''A Companion to the Hellenistic World''. Blackwell Pub., Oxford – Malden (MA) 2003, {{ISBN|0-631-22537-4}} p. 168.</ref> Even so, he provided a further, deliberately crafted link to the world of [[Homer]]ic epic. Mithridates VI was celebrated in the city as a new Pergamus.<ref>Christopher Prestige Jones: ''New heroes in antiquity: from Achilles to Antinoos''. Harvard University Press, Cambridge (MA) 2010, {{ISBN|0-674-03586-0}}, p. 36.</ref>

However, for the Attalids, it was apparently the genealogical connection to Heracles that was crucial, since all the other Hellenistic dynasties had long established such links:<ref>[[Ulrich Huttner]]: ''Die politische Rolle der Heraklesgestalt im griechischen Herrschertum''. F. Steiner, Stuttgart 1997, {{ISBN|3-515-07039-7}}, pp.&nbsp;175–190.</ref> the [[Ptolemies]] derived themselves directly from Heracles,<ref>[[Ulrich Huttner]]: ''Die politische Rolle der Heraklesgestalt im griechischen Herrschertum''. F. Steiner, Stuttgart 1997, {{ISBN|3-515-07039-7}}, pp.&nbsp;124-128.</ref> the [[Antigonids]] inserted Heracles into their family tree in the reign of [[Philip V of Macedon|Philip V]] at the end of the 3rd century BC at the latest,<ref>Ulrich Huttner: ''Die politische Rolle der Heraklesgestalt im griechischen Herrschertum.'' p.&nbsp;164.</ref> and the [[Seleucids]] claimed descent from [[Apollo]].<ref>Ulrich Huttner: ''Die politische Rolle der Heraklesgestalt im griechischen Herrschertum.'' p. 240.</ref> All of these claims derive their significance from [[Alexander the Great]], who claimed descent from Heracles, through his father [[Philip II of Macedon|Philip II]].<ref>Ulrich Huttner: ''Die politische Rolle der Heraklesgestalt im griechischen Herrschertum.'' pp.&nbsp;86–124.</ref>

In their constructive adaptation of the myth, the Attalids stood within the tradition of the other, older Hellenistic dynasties, who legitimized themselves through divine descent, and sought to increase their own prestige.<ref>Sabine Müller, "Genealogie und Legitimation in den hellenistischen Reichen," in Hartwin Brandt, Katrin Köhler, Ulrike Siewert (ed.), ''Inter- und intragenerationelle Auseinandersetzungen sowie die Bedeutung von Verwandtschaft bei Amtswechseln''. University of Bamberg Press, Bamberg 2009, {{ISBN|978-3-923507-59-7}}, pp.&nbsp;61–82; [[Ulrich-Walter Gans]]: ''Attalidische Herrscherbildnisse. Studien zur hellenistischen Porträtplastik Pergamons''. Harrassowitz, Wiesbaden 2006, {{ISBN|3-447-05430-1}}, pp.&nbsp;108.</ref> The inhabitants of Pergamon enthusiastically followed their lead and took to calling themselves ''Telephidai'' ({{lang|grc|Τηλεφίδαι}}) and referring to Pergamon itself in poetic registers as the 'Telephian city' ({{lang|grc|Τήλεφις πόλις}}).

==History of research and excavation==
[[File:Ruins of Pergamon by Christian Wilberg in 1879 (2).jpg|thumb|right|[[Christian Wilberg]]: ''Excavation area of the Pergamon Altar''. 1879 sketch.]]
The first mention of Pergamon in written records after ancient times comes from the 13th century. Beginning with [[Ciriaco de' Pizzicolli]] in the 15th century, ever more travellers visited the place and published their accounts of it. The key description is that of Thomas Smith, who visited the Levant in 1668 and transmitted a detailed description of Pergamon, to which the great 17th century travellers [[Jacob Spon]] and [[George Wheler (clergyman and scholar)|George Wheler]] were able to add nothing significant in their own accounts.<ref>''Altertümer von Pergamon''. I 1, pp. 3–4.</ref>

In the late 18th century, these visits were reinforced by a scholarly (especially ancient historical) desire for research, epitomised by [[Marie-Gabriel-Florent-Auguste de Choiseul-Gouffier]], a traveller in Asia Minor and French ambassador to the [[Sublime Porte]] in [[Istanbul]] from 1784 to 1791. At the beginning of the 19th century, [[Charles Robert Cockerell]] produced a detailed account and [[Otto Magnus von Stackelberg (archaeologist)|Otto Magnus von Stackelberg]] made important sketches.<ref>''Altertümer von Pergamon''. I 1, pp. 5–11.</ref> A proper, multi-page description with plans, elevations, and views of the city and its ruins was first produced by [[Charles Texier]] when he published the second volume of his ''Description de l'Asie mineure''.<ref>Charles Texier, ''Description de l'Asie Mineure: faite par ordre du gouvernement français en 1833–1837; beaux-arts, monuments historiques, plans et topographie des cités antiques''. Volume 2, Paris 1849, pp. 217–237, tbl. 116–127.</ref>

In 1864–5, the German engineer [[Carl Humann]] visited Pergamon for the first time. For the construction of the road from Pergamon to [[Dikili]] for which he had undertaken planning work and topographical studies, he returned in 1869 and began to focus intensively on the legacy of the city. In 1871, he organised a small expedition there under the leadership of [[Ernst Curtius]]. As a result of this short but intensive investigation, two fragments of a great frieze were discovered and transported to [[Berlin]] for detailed analysis, where they received some interest, but not a lot. It is not clear who connected these fragments with the Great Altar in Pergamon mentioned by [[Lucius Ampelius]].<ref>Lucius Ampelius, ''Liber memorialis'' 8: ''„Pergamo ara marmorea magna, alta pedes quadraginta, cum maximis sculpturis; continet autem gigantomachiam.“''</ref> However, when the archaeologist [[Alexander Conze]] took over direction of the department of ancient sculpture at the [[Berlin State Museums|Royal Museums of Berlin]], he quickly initiated a programme for the excavation and protection of the monuments connected to the sculpture, which were widely suspected to include the Great Altar.<ref>''Altertümer von Pergamon''. I 1, pp. 13–16.</ref>

[[File:Pergamon Agora 1902.jpg|thumb|right|The lower agora in 1902, during excavations]]
As a result of these efforts, Carl Humann, who had been carrying out low-level excavations at Pergamon for the previous few years and had discovered for example the architrave inscription of the Temple of Demeter in 1875, was entrusted with carry out work in the area of the altar of Zeus in 1878, where he continued to work until 1886. With the approval of the [[Ottoman Empire]], the reliefs discovered there were transported to Berlin, where the [[Pergamon Museum]] was opened for them in 1907. The work was continued by Conze, who aimed for the most complete possible exposure and investigation of the historic city and citadel that was possible. He was followed by the architectural historian [[Wilhelm Dörpfeld]] from 1900 to 1911, who was responsible for the most important discoveries. Under his leadership the Lower Agora, the House of Attalos, the Gymnasion, and the Sanctuary of Demeter were brought to light.

The excavations were interrupted by the [[First World War]] and were only resumed in 1927 under the leadership of [[Theodor Wiegand]], who remained in this post until 1939. He concentrated on further excavation of the upper city, the Asklepieion, and the [[Red Basilica]]. The [[Second World War]] also caused a break in work at Pergamon, which lasted until 1957. From 1957 to 1968, [[Erich Boehringer]] worked on the Asklepieion in particular, but also carried out important work on the lower city as a whole and performed survey work, which increased knowledge of the countryside surrounding the city. In 1971, after a short pause, [[Wolfgang Radt]] succeeded him as leader of excavations and directed the focus of research on the residential buildings of Pergamon, but also on technical issues, like the water management system of the city which supported a population of 200,000 at its height. He also carried out conservation projects which were of vital importance for maintaining the material remains of Pergamon. Since 2006, the excavations have been led by [[Felix Pirson]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.dainst.org/index_650_de.html |title=Darstellung der Forschungsgeschichte seit Carl Humann auf der Website des DAI |access-date=2010-11-10 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101110072419/http://www.dainst.org/index_650_de.html |archive-date=November 10, 2010 }}</ref>

Most of the finds from the Pergamon excavations before the First World War were taken to the Pergamon Museum in Berlin, with a smaller portion going to the [[İstanbul Archaeology Museums|İstanbul Archaeological Museum]] after it was opened in 1891. After the First World War the [[Bergama Museum]] was opened, which has received all finds discovered since then.

In May 2022, archaeologists announced the discovery of a 1,800-year-old well-preserved geometric patterned floor [[mosaic]] around the Red Basilica.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Agency |first=Anadolu |date=2022-05-30 |title=1,800-year-old geometric patterned mosaic found in Turkey's Pergamon |url=https://www.dailysabah.com/life/history/1800-year-old-geometric-patterned-mosaic-found-in-turkeys-pergamon |access-date=2022-08-12 |website=Daily Sabah |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2022-06-02 |title=1,800-year-old Geometric Patterned Mosaic Found In The Ancient Greek City Pergamon Now Modern Turkey – Greek City Times |url=https://greekcitytimes.com/2022/06/02/1800-year-old-geometric-patterned-mosaic-found-in-the-ancient-greek-city-pergamon-now-modern-turkey/ |access-date=2022-08-12 |language=en-US}}</ref>

==Main sights==

===Upper Acropolis===

====Pergamon Altar====
{{Main|Pergamon Altar}}
[[File:Pergamonmuseum Pergamonaltar.jpg|right|thumb|The Great Altar of Pergamon, on display in the [[Pergamon Museum]] in [[Berlin]], Germany]]
The most famous structure from the city is the monumental altar, sometimes called the Great Altar, which was probably dedicated to Zeus and Athena. The foundations are still located in the Upper city, but the remains of the Pergamon frieze, which originally decorated it, are displayed in the Pergamon museum in Berlin, where the parts of the frieze taken to Germany have been installed in a partial reconstruction.

[[File:PergamonAltar2000.jpg|right|thumb|Foundations of the Pergamon altar]]

For the altar's construction, the required flat area was skillfully created through terracing, in order to allow it to be oriented in relation to the neighbouring Temple of Athena. The base of the altar measured around 36 x 33 metres and was decorated on the outside with a detailed depiction in [[high relief]] of the [[Gigantomachy]], the battle between the Olympian gods and the Giants. The frieze is 2.30 metres high and has a total length of 113 metres, making it the second longest frieze surviving from antiquity, after the [[Parthenon Frieze]] in Athens. A {{convert|20|m|ft|adj=mid|-wide}} staircase cut into the base on the western side leads up to the upper structure, which is surrounded by a colonnade, and consists of a colonnaded courtyard, separated from the staircase by a colonnade. The interior walls of this colonnade had a further frieze, depicting the life of [[Telephus]], the son of Heracles and mythical founder of Pergamon. This frieze is around 1.60 metres high and thus is clearly smaller than the outer frieze.<ref>On the Pergamon altar, see [[Wolf-Dieter Heilmeyer]] (ed.), ''Der Pergamonaltar. Die neue Präsentation nach Restaurierung des Telephosfrieses''. Wasmuth, Tübingen 1997, {{ISBN|3-8030-1045-4}}; [[Huberta Heres]] & Volker Kästner: ''Der Pergamonaltar''. Zabern, Mainz 2004 {{ISBN|3-8053-3307-2}}</ref><ref>Tucker, pp. 28&ndash;29.</ref>

In the [[New Testament]] [[Book of Revelation]], the faith of the Pergamon believers, who "dwell where Satan's throne is" is commended by [[John of Patmos|the author]].<ref>{{bibleverse||Revelation|2:13|NKJV}}</ref> Many scholars believe that the "[[throne|seat]] of [[Satan]]" refers to the Pergamon Altar, due to its resemblance to a gigantic [[throne]].<ref>Yeomans, S., [https://www.biblicalarchaeology.org/daily/biblical-sites-places/biblical-archaeology-sites/pergamon-2/ ''Ancient Pergamon''], ''Bible History Daily'' article published in 2013, accessed 10 October 2018</ref>

====Theatre====
[[File:Theatre of Pergamon.jpg|thumb|left|Theatre of Pergamon, one of the steepest theatres in the world, has a capacity of 10,000 people and was constructed in the 3rd century BC.]]
The well-preserved {{ill|Theatre of Pergamon|de|Theater von Pergamon}} dates from the Hellenistic period and had space for around 10,000 people, in 78 rows of seats. At a height of 36 metres, it is the steepest of all ancient theatres. The seating area (''koilon'') is divided horizontally by two walkways, called ''diazomata'', and vertically by {{convert|0.75|m|ft|adj=mid|-wide}} stairways into seven sections in the lowest part of the theatre and six in the middle and upper sections. Below the theatre is a {{convert|247|m|ft|adj=mid|-long}} and up to {{convert|17.4|m|ft|adj=mid|-wide}} terrace, which rested on a high retaining wall and was framed on the long side by a [[stoa]]. Coming from the Upper market, one could enter this from a tower-building at the south end. This terrace had no space for the circular [[Theatre of ancient Greece#Orchestra|orchestra]], which was normal in a Greek theatre, so only a wooden stage building was built which could be taken down when there was no performance taking place. Thus, the view along the terrace to the Temple of Dionysos at the northern end was unimpeded. A marble stage building was only built in the 1st century BC. Additional theatres were built in the Roman period, one in the Roman new city and the other in the sanctuary of Asclepius.<ref>''Altertümer von Pergamon''. IV; Gottfried Gruben: ''Die Tempel der Griechen''. 3rd edition. Hirmer, München 1980, pp. 439–440.</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.whitman.edu/theatre/theatretour/pergamum/commentary/pergamum.commentary.htm |title= The Acropolis Theater at Pergamum, Turkey |website=www.whitman.edu |access-date=September 24, 2007}}</ref>

====Temple of Trajan (Traianeum)====
[[File:Pergamum.jpg|thumb|right|The Traianeum]]
On the highest point of the citadel is the Temple of [[Trajan]], the Traianeum or Trajaneum. The Temple is also called the Temple of [[Zeus#Roles and epithets|Zeus Philios]], as both Zeus and Trajan were worshiped in the Temple, the former sharing it with the latter.<ref>{{
Cite journal
| access-date=2023-09-17
| date=1996
| doi=10.34780/BF9A-21F6
| first=C. P.
| journal=Chiron
| last=Jones
| page=33
| publisher=Deutsches Archäologisches Institut
| quote=The temple could actually have been for the worship of both Zeus and Hadrian with the latter as ''synnaos'' with the former, as Trajan shared the temple of Zeus Philios at Pergamon
| title=The Panhellenion
| url=https://publications.dainst.org/journals/chiron/article/view/1021
| volume=26
}}</ref> The temple sits on a {{convert|2.9|m|ft|adj=mid|-high}} podium on top of a vaulted terrace. The temple itself was a [[Corinthian order|Corinthian]] [[peripteros]] temple, about 18 metres wide with six columns on the short sides and nine columns on the long sides, and two rows of columns [[in antis]]. To the north, the area was closed off by a high stoa, while on the west and east sides it was surrounded by simple ashlar walls, until further stoas were inserted in Hadrian's reign.

{{Multiple image
| align=center
| background color=#FFFFFF
| footer=[[Roman provincial currency|Provincial coins]] minted in Pergamon depicting Trajan sharing a temple with Zeus Philios
| height=200
| image_style=background-color: #FFFFFF; border: none;
| image1=Monnaie - Bronze, Pergame, Mysie, Trajan - btv1b8505296f (1 of 2).jpg
| image2=Reverse face of coin of Traianus from Pergamum (number 19 of RPC III, 1717).jpg
| image3=Reverse face of coin of Traianus from Pergamum (number 22 of RPC III, 1717).jpg
| image4=Reverse face of coin of Traianus from Pergamum (number 23 of RPC III, 1717).jpg
}}

During the excavations fragments of statues of Trajan and Hadrian were found in the rubble of the [[cella]], including their [[Roman portraiture|portrait heads]], as well as fragments of the cult statue of Zeus Philios.<ref>On the Trajaneum: Jens Rohmann: ''Die Kapitellproduktion der römischen Kaiserzeit in Pergamon''. W. de Gruyter, Berlin – New York 1998, {{ISBN|3-11-015555-9}}, pp. 8–38 (''Pergamenische Forschungen''. Vol. 10); ''Altertümer von Pergamon''. Vol. 2; earlier research in Gottfried Gruben: ''Die Tempel der Griechen''. 3rd edition. Hirmer, München 1980, pp. 434–435.</ref>

[[File:The Temple of Dionysus on its raised plinth below the Hellenistic theatre, Acropolis, built in the 2nd century BC, Pergamon, Turkey (8417206434).jpg|thumb|right|Sanctuary of Dionysus at the north end of the theatre terrace]]

====Temple of Dionysus====
At Pergamon, Dionysus had the epithet ''Kathegemon'', 'the guide',<ref>On Dionysus Kathegemon, see Erwin Ohlemutz: ''Die Kulte und Heiligtümer der Götter in Pergamon''. Würzburg 1940, pp. 99–122.</ref> and was already worshiped in the last third of the 3rd century BC, when the Attalids made him the chief god of their dynasty.<ref>[[Helmut Müller]], "Ein neues hellenistisches Weihepigramm aus Pergamon," ''[[Chiron (journal)|Chiron]]'' 1989, pp. 539–553.</ref> In the 2nd century BC, Eumenes II (probably) built a temple for Dionysus at the northern end of the theatre terrace. The marble temple sits on a podium, 4.5 metres above the level of the theatre terrace and was an [[Ionic order|Ionic]] [[prostyle]] temple. The [[pronaos]] was four columns wide and two columns deep and was accessed by a staircase of twenty-five steps.<ref>Wolfgang Radt, ''Pergamon: Geschichte und Bauten einer antiken Metropole''. Darmstadt 1999, p. 189.</ref> Only a few traces of the Hellenistic structure survive. The majority of the surviving structure derives from a reconstruction of the temple which probably took place under [[Caracalla]], or perhaps under [[Hadrian]].<ref>Wolfgang Radt, ''Pergamon: Geschichte und Bauten einer antiken Metropole''. Darmstadt 2005, p. 190.</ref>

====Temple of Athena====
[[File:PergamonAthene1.jpg|left|thumb|Temple of Athena]]
Pergamon's oldest temple is a sanctuary of Athena from the 4th century BC. It was a north-facing [[Doric order|Doric]] [[peripteros]] temple with six columns on the short side and ten on the long side and a [[cella]] divided into two rooms. The foundations, measuring around 12.70 x 21.80 metres, are still visible today. The columns were around 5.25 metres high, 0.75 metres in diameter, and the distance between the columns was 1.62 metres, so the colonnade was very light for a temple of this period. This is matched by the shape of the [[triglyph]]s, which usually consist of a sequence of two triglyphs and two [[metope]]s, but are instead composed of three of triglyphs and three metopes. The columns of the temple are unfluted and retained [[bossage]], but it is not clear whether this was a result of carelessness or incompleteness.

A two-story stoa surrounding the temple on three sides was added under Eumenes II, along with the [[propylon]] in the southeast corner, which is now found, largely reconstructed, in the [[Pergamon Museum]] in Berlin. The balustrade of the upper level of the north and east stoas was decorated with reliefs depicting weapons which commemorated Eumenes II's military victory. The construction mixed Ionic columns and Doric triglyphs (of which five triglyphs and metopes survive). In the area of the sanctuary, Attalos I and Eumenes II constructed victory monuments, most notably the Gallic dedications. The northern stoa seems to have been the site of the Library of Pergamon.<ref>''Altertümer von Pergamon''. II; [[Gottfried Gruben]]: ''Die Tempel der Griechen''. 3. Auflage. Hirmer, München 1980, pp. 425–429.</ref>

====Library====
{{main|Library of Pergamum}}
The Library of Pergamon was the second largest in the ancient Greek world after the [[Library of Alexandria]], containing at least 200,000 scrolls. The location of the library building is not certain. Since the 19th century excavations, it has generally been identified with an annex of the northern stoa of the sanctuary of Athena in the Upper Citadel, which was built by Eumenes II.<ref>''Altertümer von Pergamon''. II, p. 56–88.</ref> Inscriptions in the gymnasium which mention a library might indicate, however, that the building was located in that area.<ref>[[Harald Mielsch]], "Die Bibliothek und die Kunstsammlung der Könige von Pergamon," ''Archäologischer Anzeiger''. 1995, pp. 765–779.</ref><ref>Kekeç 1989, p. 40.</ref>

====Other structures====
[[File:Acropolis of Pergamon - Friedrich Thierch - 1882.jpg|thumb|right|Reconstructed view of the Pergamon Acropolis, [[Friedrich Thierch]], 1882]]
Other notable structures still in existence on the upper part of the Acropolis include:
*The Royal palaces
*The Heroön – a shrine where the kings of Pergamon, particularly Attalus I and Eumenes II, were worshipped.<ref>[http://www.turkishodyssey.com/places/aegean/aegean1.htm Bergama (Pergamum)-Akhisar (Thyatira)] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070928072838/http://www.turkishodyssey.com/places/aegean/aegean1.htm |date=2007-09-28 }} accessed September 24, 2007</ref>
*The Upper Agora
*The Roman baths complex
*Diodorus Pasporos heroon
*Arsenals

The site is today easily accessible by the [[Bergama Acropolis Gondola]] from the base station in northeastern Bergama.

===Lower Acropolis===

====Gymnasium====
[[File:Pergamon_Gymnasium_area_086.jpg|thumb|left|Gymnasium area near Upper Terrace]]

A large [[Gymnasium (ancient Greece)|gymnasium]] area was built in the 2nd century BC on the south side of the Acropolis. It consisted of three terraces, with the main entrance at the southeast corner of the lowest terrace. The lowest and southernmost terrace is small and almost free of buildings. It is known as the Lower Gymnasium and has been identified as the boys' gymnasium.<ref>On the Lower Terrace: ''Altertümer von Pergamon''. VI, pp. 5–6, 19–27.</ref> The middle terrace was around 250 metres long and 70 metres wide at the centre. On its north side there was a two-story hall. In the east part of the terrace there was a small [[prostyle]] temple in the [[Corinthian order]].<ref>''Altertümer von Pergamon''. VI, pp. 40–43.</ref> A roofed [[stadium]], known as the Basement Stadium is located between the middle terrace and the upper terrace.<ref>On the Middle gymnasium: ''Altertümer von Pergamon''. VI, pp. 5, 28–43.</ref>

The upper terrace measured 150 x 70 metres square, making it the largest of the three terraces. It consisted of a courtyard surrounded by stoas and other structures, measuring roughly 36 x 74 metres. This complex is identified as a [[palaestra]] and had a theatre-shaped lecture hall beyond the northern stoa, which is probably of Roman date and a large banquet hall in the centre. Further rooms of uncertain function were accessible from the stoas. In the west was a south-facing [[Ionic order|Ionic]] [[antae temple]], the central sanctuary of the gymnasium. The eastern area was replaced with a [[Roman bath|bath complex]] in Roman times. Further Roman baths were constructed to the west of the Ionic temple.<ref>On the upper terrace: ''Altertümer von Pergamon''. VI, pp. 4, 43–79.</ref>

====Sanctuary of Hera====
[[File:Pergamon Tempel der Hera.JPG|thumb|left|Temple and sanctuary of Hera from the west]]
The sanctuary of Hera Basileia ('the Queen') lay north of the upper terrace of the gymnasium. Its structure sits on two parallel terraces, the south one about 107.4 metres above sea level and the north one about 109.8 metres above sea level. The Temple of Hera sat in the middle of the upper terrace, facing to the south, with a {{convert|6|m|ft|adj=mid|-wide}} [[exedra]] to the west and a building whose function is very unclear to the east. The two terraces were linked by a staircase of eleven steps around 7.5 metres wide, descending from the front of the temple.

The temple was about 7 metres wide by 12 metres long, and sat on a three-stepped foundation. It was a [[Doric order|Doric]] tetrastyle [[prostyle]] temple, with three [[triglyph]]s and [[metope]]s for each span in the entablature. All the other buildings in the sanctuary were made out of [[trachyte]], but the visible part of the temple was made of marble, or at least had a marble cladding. The base of the cult image inside the cella supported three cult statues.

The surviving remains of the inscription on the architrave indicate that the building was the temple of Hera Basileia and that it was erected by Attalus II.<ref>On the Sanctuary of Hera: ''Altertümer von Pergamon''. VI, pp. 102–110, Tables I-II, IV–V, VI–VII, VIII, X–XI, XVIII, XXXII, XXXIII, XXXIV, XXXV.</ref>

====Sanctuary of Demeter====
[[File:Pergamon Demeter sanctuary 0098.jpg|thumb|right|Sanctuary of Demeter from the east]]
The Sanctuary of Demeter occupied an area of 50 x 110 metres on the middle level of the south slope of the citadel. The sanctuary was old; its activity can be traced back to the fourth century BC.

The sanctuary was entered through a Propylon from the east, which led to a courtyard surrounded by stoas on three sides. In the centre of the western half of this courtyard, stood the [[Ionic order|Ionic]] temple of [[Demeter]], a straightforward [[Antae temple]], measuring 6.45 x 12.7 metres, with a porch in the [[Corinthian order]] which was added in the time of [[Antoninus Pius]]. The rest of the structure was of Hellenistic date, built in local marble and had a marble frieze decorated with [[bucranium|bucrania]]. About 9.5 metres in front of the east-facing building, there was an altar, which was 7 metres long and 2.3 metres wide. The temple and the altar were built for Demeter by Philetaerus, his brother Eumenes, and their mother Boa.

In the east part of the courtyard, there were more than ten rows of seating laid out in front of the northern stoa for participants in the mysteries of Demeter. Roughly 800 initiates could fit in these seats.<ref>On the sanctuary of Demeter, see: ''Altertümer von Pergamon''. XIII; earlier research in Gottfried Gruben, ''Die Tempel der Griechen''. 3rd edition. Hirmer, München 1980, pp. 437–440.</ref>

====Other structures ====
The lower part of the Acropolis also contains the following structures:

*the House of Attalus
*the Lower Agora and
*the Gate of Eumenes

===At the foot of the Acropolis===

====Sanctuary of Asclepius (Asclepieion)====
{{Main|Asclepieion of Pergamon}}

[[File:Pergamon Acropolis.jpg|thumb|right|View of Acropolis from the Sanctuary of Asclepius]]
{{convert | 3 | km | abbr=off | spell=In}} south of the Acropolis (at 39° 7′ 9″ N, 27° 9′ 56″ E), down in the valley, is the Sanctuary of [[Asclepius]], the god of healing. The Sanctuary of Asclepius, more commonly left untranslated [[Asclepieion]] (from Greek), or sometimes Asclepium (from Latin), was approached along an {{Convert | 1=820 | 2=m | adj=on}} colonnaded sacred way. In this place people with health problems could bathe in the water of the sacred spring, and in the patients' dreams Asclepius would appear in a vision to tell them how to cure their illness. Archeology has found many gifts and dedications that people would make afterwards, such as small terracotta body parts, no doubt representing what had been healed. [[Galen]], the most famous doctor in the ancient Roman Empire and personal physician of Emperor [[Marcus Aurelius]], worked in the Asclepieion for many years.<ref>Tucker, p. 36.</ref> 

Notable extant structures in the Asclepieion include:
* the Roman theater
* the North Stoa
* the South Stoa
* the Temple of Asclepius
** in some sources, referred to as the Temple of Zeus Asclepius, or the Temple of Zeus Asclepius Soter ([[Soter|"Soter" being an epithet meaning "savior"]]), since there is evidence that {{Ill|L. Cuspius Pactumeius Rufinus|de}}, who constructed the temple, dedicated it to this new syncretic god<ref>{{
Cite thesis
| access-date=2023-09-17
| date=April 2016
| degree=PhD
| first=Ghislaine E. [Elisabeth] van der
| institution=[[University of Warwick]]
| last=Ploeg
| page=142
| quote=It would seem that Hadrian had a definite impact upon the Pergamene sanctuary and this is best articulated in the creation of a new god here, the syncretic universal deity Zeus-Asclepius to whom a temple was built on site
| title=The Impact of the Roman Empire on the Cult of Asclepius
| url=http://wrap.warwick.ac.uk/79956
}}</ref><ref>{{
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| author3=Deutsches Archäologisches Institut
| first1=Christian
| first2=Michael
| isbn=9783110011975
| issn=1868-9876
| language=de
| last1=Habicht
| last2=Wörrle
| number=3
| oclc=2517016
| page=13
| publication-place=Berlin
| publisher=Walter de Gruyter & Co.
| series=Altertümer von Pergamon
| title=Die Inschriften des Asklepieions
| url=https://archive.org/details/dieinschriftende0000habi/page/12/mode/2up
| volume=8
| year=1969
}}</ref><ref>{{
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| access-date=2023-09-17
| chapter=Rebuilding the Myth of Asklepios at the Sanctuary of Epidauros in the Roman Period
| date=2010
| editor1-first=A. D.
| editor1-last=Rizakēs
| editor2-first=Cl. E.
| editor2-last=Lepenioti
| first1=Milena
| isbn=9789607905543
| last1=Melfi
| location=Athēna
| oclc=50169190
| pages=329–340
| publisher=Kentron Hellēnikēs kai Rōmaikēs Archaiotētos
| series=Roman Peloponnese
| title=Economy and Culture under the Roman Empire: Continuity and Innovation
| url=https://www.academia.edu/1397676
| volume=3
}}</ref>
* a circular treatment center (sometimes known as the Temple of Telesphorus)
* a healing spring
* an underground passageway
* a library
* the Via Tecta (or the Sacred Way, which is a colonnaded street leading to the sanctuary)
* a [[Propylaea|propylon]]

====Serapis Temple====
[[File:Red basilica west view.jpg|thumb|The [[Red Basilica]]]]
Pergamon's other notable structure is the great temple of the Egyptian gods [[Isis]] and/or [[Serapis]], known today as the [[Red Basilica]] (or ''Kızıl Avlu'' in Turkish), about {{convert|1|km|spell=in|abbr=off}} south of the Acropolis at (39 7' 19" N, 27 11' 1" E). It consists of a main building and two round towers within an enormous ''temenos'' or sacred area. The temple towers flanking the main building had courtyards with pools used for ablutions at each end, flanked by stoas on three sides. The forecourt of the Temple of Isis/Sarapis is still supported by the {{convert|193|m|ft|adj=mid|abbr=off|-wide}} [[Pergamon Bridge]], the largest bridge substruction of antiquity.{{sfn|Grewe|Özis|1994|pp=350, 352}}

According to [[Christian tradition]], in the year 92 [[Saint Antipas]], the first [[bishop of Pergamum]] ordained by [[John the Apostle]], was a victim of an early clash between Serapis worshippers and [[Christians]]. An angry mob is said to have [[Death by burning|burned Saint Antipas alive]] in front of the Temple inside a [[brazen bull]]-like [[incense]] [[censer|burner]], which represented the [[Sacred Bull|bull]] [[Deity|god]] [[Apis (deity)|Apis]].<ref>Tucker, p. 34.</ref> His [[martyrdom]] is one of the first recorded in [[History of Christianity|Christian history]], highlighted by the [[New Testament|Christian Scripture]] itself through the [https://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=revelation+2%3A13&version=KJV message] sent to the [[Seven Churches|Pergamon Church]] in the [[Book of Revelation]].

{{wide image|Pergamon 10.jpg|890px|align-cap=center| Panoramic view of Pergamon and the modern city of [[Bergama]].}}

==Infrastructure and housing==
Pergamon is a good example of a city that expanded in a planned and controlled manner.

Philetairos transformed Pergamon from an archaic settlement into a fortified city. He or his successor Attalos I built a wall around the whole upper city, including the plateau to the south, the upper agora and some of the housing – further housing must have been found outside these walls. Because of the growth of  the city, the streets were expanded and the city was monumentalised.<ref>Wolfgang Radt: ''Pergamon: Geschichte und Bauten einer antiken Metropole''. Darmstadt 1999, p. 27.</ref> Under Attalos I some minor changes were made to the city of Philetairos.<ref>Wolfgang Radt: ''Pergamon: Geschichte und Bauten einer antiken Metropole''. Darmstadt 1999, p. 30.</ref>

During the reign of Eumenes II and Attalos II, there was a substantial expansion of the city.<ref>Wolfgang Radt: ''Pergamon: Geschichte und Bauten einer antiken Metropole''. Darmstadt 1999, p. 33.</ref> A new street network was created and a new city wall, with a monumental gatehouse called the Gate of Eumenes, was built south of the Acropolis. The wall, with numerous gates, now surrounded the entire hill, not just the upper city and the flat area to the southwest, all the way to the Selinus river. Numerous public buildings were constructed, as well as a new marketplace south of the acropolis and a new gymnasion in the east. The southeast slope and the whole western slope of the hill were now settled and opened up by streets.

The plan of Pergamon was affected by the extreme steepness of the site. As a result of this, the streets had to turn hairpin corners, so that the hill could be climbed as comfortably and quickly as possible. For the construction of buildings and laying out of the agoras, extensive work on the cliff-face and terracing had to be carried out. A consequence of the city's growth was the construction of new buildings over old ones, since there was not sufficient space.

Separate from this, a new area was laid out in Roman times, consisting of a whole new city west of the Selinus river, with all necessary infrastructure, including baths, theatres, stadiums, and sanctuaries. This Roman new city was able to expand without any city walls constraining it because of the absence of external threats.

===Housing===
Generally, most of the Hellenistic houses at Pergamon were laid out with a small, centrally-located and roughly square courtyard, with rooms on one or two sides of it. The main rooms are often stacked in two levels on the north side of the courtyard. A wide passage or colonnade on the north side of the courtyard often opened onto foyers, which enabled access to other rooms. An exact north–south arrangement of the city blocks was not possible because of the topographical situation and earlier construction. Thus the size and arrangement of the rooms differed from house to house. From the time of Philetairos, at the latest, this kind of courtyard house was common and it was ever more widespread as time went on, but not universal. Some complexes were designed as [[Prostas house]]s, similar to designs seen at [[Priene]]. Others had wide columned halls in front of main rooms to the north. Especially in this latter type there is often a second story accessed by stairways. In the courtyards there were often cisterns, which captured rain water from the sloping roofs above. For the construction under Eumenes II, a city block of 35 x 45 m can be reconstructed, subject to significant variation as a result of the terrain.<ref>''Altertümer von Pergamon''. XV 3.</ref>

===Open spaces===
From the beginning of the reign of Philetairos, civic events in Pergamon were concentrated on the Acropolis. Over time the so-called 'Upper agora' was developed at the south end of this. In the reign of Attalos I, a Temple of Zeus was built there.<ref>Wolfgang Radt: ''Pergamon: Geschichte und Bauten einer antiken Metropole''. Darmstadt 1999, p. 93.</ref> To the north of this structure there was a multi-story building, which propbably had a function connected to the marketplace.<ref>Wolfgang Radt: ''Pergamon: Geschichte und Bauten einer antiken Metropole''. Darmstadt 1999, p. 90.</ref> With progressive development of the open space, these buildings were demolished, while the Upper Agora itself took on a more strongly commercial function, while still a special space as a result of the temple of Zeus. In the course of the expansion of the city under Eumenes, the commercial character of the Upper Agora was further developed. The key signs of this development are primarily the halls built under Eumenes II, whose back chambers were probably used for trade.<ref>Klaus Rheidt, "Die Obere Agora. Zur Entwicklung des hellenistischen Stadtzentrums von Pergamon." ''Istanbuler Mitteilungen.'' Vol. 42 (1992) p. 263.</ref> In the west, the 'West Chamber' was built which might have served as a market administration building.<ref>Klaus Rheidt, "Die Obere Agora. Zur Entwicklung des hellenistischen Stadtzentrums von Pergamon." ''Istanbuler Mitteilungen.'' Vol. 42 (1992) p. 264.</ref> After these renovations, the Upper Agora thus served as a centre for trade and spectacle in the city.<ref>[[Ruth Bielfeldt]], "Wo nur sind die Bürger von Pergamon? Eine Phänomenologie bürgerlicher Unscheinbarkeit im städtischen Raum der Königsresidenz." ''Istanbuler Mitteilungen.'' Vol. 60 (2010) pp. 117–201.</ref>

Because of significant new construction in the immediate vicinity – the renovation of the Sanctuary of Athena and the Pergamon altar and the redesign of the neighbouring area - the design and organisational principle of the Upper Agora underwent a further change.<ref>Klaus Rheidt, "Die Obere Agora. Zur Entwicklung des hellenistischen Stadtzentrums von Pergamon." ''Istanbuler Mitteilungen.'' Vol. 42 (1992) p. 266-7.</ref> Its character became much more spectacular and focussed on the two new structures looming over it, especially the altar which was visible on its terrace from below since the usual [[stoa]] surrounding it was omitted from the design.<ref>Klaus Rheidt, "Die Obere Agora. Zur Entwicklung des hellenistischen Stadtzentrums von Pergamon." ''Istanbuler Mitteilungen.'' Vol. 42 (1992) p. 267.</ref>

The 80 m long and 55 m wide 'Lower Agora' was built under Eumenes II and was not significantly altered until Late Antiquity.<ref>Wolfgang Radt: ''Pergamon: Geschichte und Bauten einer antiken Metropole''. Darmstadt 1999, p. 87.</ref> As with the Upper Agora, the rectangular form of the agora was adapted to the steep terrain. The construction consisted in total of three levels. Of these the Upper Level and the 'Main Level' opened onto a central courtyard. On the lower level there were rooms only on the south and east sides because of the slope of the land, which led through a colonnade to the exterior of the space.<ref>W. Dörpfeld, "Die Arbeiten zu Pergamon 1901–1902. Die Bauwerke," ''Athenische Mitteilungen'' 1902.</ref> The whole market area extended over two levels with a large columned hall in the centre, which contained small shop spaces and miscellaneous rooms.<ref>Wolfgang Radt: ''Pergamon: Geschichte und Bauten einer antiken Metropole''. Darmstadt 1999, p. 89.</ref>

===Streets and bridges===
The course of the main street, which winds up the hill to the Acropolis with a series of hairpin turns, is typical of the street system of Pergamon. On this street were shops and warehouses.<ref>Wolfgang Radt, ''Pergamon: Geschichte und Bauten einer antiken Metropole''. Darmstadt (1999) p. 84.</ref> The surface of the street consisted of andesite blocks up to 5 metres wide, 1 metre long and 30&nbsp;cm deep. The street included a drainage system, which carried the water down the slope. Since it was the most important street of the city, the quality of the material used in its construction was very high.<ref>Wolfgang Radt, ''Pergamon: Geschichte und Bauten einer antiken Metropole''. Darmstadt 1999, pp. 84–85.</ref>

[[File:Pergamon bridge.jpg|thumb|right|Roman bridge of Pergamon]]

Philetairos' design of the city was shaped above all by circumstantial considerations. Only under Eumenes II was this approach discarded and the city plan begins to show signs of an overall plan.<ref>Ulrike Wulf, "Der Stadtplan von Pergamon. Zu Entwicklung und Stadtstruktur von der Neugründung unter Philetairos bis in spätantike Zeit," ''Istanbuler Mitteilungen''. Vol. 44 (1994) p. 142–3.</ref> Contrary to earlier attempts at an orthogonal street system, a fan-shaped design seems to have been adopted for the area around the gymnasium, with streets up to four metres wide, apparently intended to enable effective traffic flow. In contrast to it, Philetairos' system of alleys was created unsystematically, although the topic is still under investigation.<ref>Ulrike Wulf, "Der Stadtplan von Pergamon. Zu Entwicklung und Stadtstruktur von der Neugründung unter Philetairos bis in spätantike Zeit," ''Istanbuler Mitteilungen''. Vol. 44 (1994) pp. 136–137.</ref><ref>Wolfgang Radt, "Pergamon 1998," ''[[Archäologischer Anzeiger]]'' (1999) pp. 309–312.</ref> Where the lay of the land prevented the laying of a street, small alleys were installed as connections instead. In general, therefore, there are large, broad streets (''plateiai'') and small, narrow connecting streets (''stenopoi'').

The nearly 200 metre wide [[Pergamon Bridge]] under the forecourt of the [[Red Basilica]] in the centre of Bergama is the largest bridge substruction from antiquity.{{sfn|Grewe|Özis|1994|pp=350, 352}}

===Water supply===
The inhabitants of Pergamon were supplied with water by an effective system. In addition to cisterns, there was a system of nine pipes (seven Hellenistic ceramic pipes and two open Roman channels. The system provided around 30,000–35,000 cubic metres of water per day.

The Madradağ aqueduct was a ceramic pipe with a diameter of 18&nbsp;cm which already brought water to the citadel from a source over 40 kilometres away in the Madradağ mountains at 1174 m above sea level in the Hellenistic period. Their significance for architectural history lies in the form of the last kilometres from the mountains through a {{convert|200|m|ft|adj=mid|-deep}} valley to the Akropolis. The pipe consisted of three channels, which ended 3&nbsp;km north of the citadel, before reaching the valley, and emptied into a pool, which included a double [[sedimentation tank]]. This pool was 35 metres higher than the summit of the citadel. The pipe from the pool to the Acropolis consisted of only a single channel – a lead pipe pressurised to 200 [[Centimetre of water|mH2O]]. The water was able to cross the valley between the pool and the citadel with the help of this pressurised conduit. It functioned as a [[communicating vessels|communicating vessel]], such that the water rose to the height of the citadel on its own as a result of the pressurised pipe.<ref>Boris Ilakovac, "Unbekannte Herstellungsmethode römischer Bleirohre." ''Vorträge der Tagung Wasser im Antiken Hellas in Athen, 4./5. Juni 1981''. Leichtweiss-Institut für Wasserbau, Braunschweig 1981, pp. 275–290 (''Leichtweiss-Institut für Wasserbau der Technischen Universität Braunschweig – Mitteilungen'' 71, {{ISSN|0343-1223}}).</ref>

==Inscriptions==
Greek inscriptions discovered at Pergamon include the rules of the town clerks,<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Klaffenbach|first1=G.|title=Die Astynomeninschrift von Pergamon|journal=Deutsche Akademie der Wissenschaften. Abhandlungen. Klasse für Sprachen, Literatur und Kunst.|date=1954|volume=6}}</ref> the so-called Astynomoi inscription, which has added to understanding of Greek municipal laws and regulations, including how roads were kept in repair, regulations regarding the public and private water supply and lavatories.

==Notable people==
*[[Epigonus]] (3rd century BC), Greek sculptor.
*[[Andronicus of Pergamum]] (2nd century BC), Attalid ambassador to [[Rome]].
*[[Biton of Pergamon]] (2nd or 3rd century BC), Greek writer and engineer.
*[[Hegesinus of Pergamon]] (c. 160 BC), Academic philosopher.
*[[Sosus of Pergamon]] (2nd century BC), Greek mosaic artist.
*[[Apollodorus of Pergamon|Apollodorus]] (1st century BC), rhetor and teacher to [[Augustus]].
*[[Cratippus of Pergamon]] (1st century BC), Peripatetic philosopher.
*[[Antipas of Pergamum]] (1st century AD), Christian martyr and saint.
*Aristocles (1st century AD), a Greek sophist<ref>{{cite web| url = https://topostext.org/work/240#al.3918| title = Suda,al.3918}}</ref>
*[[Aelius Nicon]] (2nd century AD), Greek architect and builder.
*[[Aeschrion of Pergamon]] (2nd century AD), physician and tutor to [[Galen]].
*[[Galen]] (c. 129–200/216&nbsp;AD), Greek physician.
*[[Oribasius]] (c. 320-403 AD), Greek physician
*[[Aedesius]] (4th century), Neoplatonic philosopher
*[[Sosipatra]] (4th century), Neoplatonic philosopher
*Telephus, a Greek grammarian<ref>{{cite web| url = https://topostext.org/work/240#tau.495| title = Suda, § tau.495}}</ref>

==See also==
*[[Allianoi]]
*[[List of ancient Greek cities]]

==Notes==
{{Notelist}}

== References ==
{{Reflist|refs=
<ref name="errington">{{Cite book|last=Errington|first=R. Malcolm|title=A History of the Hellenistic World: 323–30 BC|year=2008|publisher=Blackwell Publishing|location=Oxford|isbn=9781444359596|series=Blackwell History of the Ancient World|volume=13|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yel_nMd_KgkC&pg=PT255}}</ref>
}}

==Bibliography==
* {{Cite journal|last1=Grewe|first1=Klaus|last2=Özis|first2=Ünal|title=Die antiken Flußüberbauungen von Pergamon und Nysa (Türkei)|journal=Antike Welt|volume=25|issue=4|year=1994|pages=348–352|language=de}}
* {{cite book |last=Kekeç |first=Tevhit |year=1989 |title=Pergamon |location=Istanbul |publisher=Hitit Color |isbn=9789757487012}}
* {{cite book |last=Kosmetatou |first=Elizabeth |year=2003 |chapter=The Attalids of Pergamon |editor-first=Andrew |editor-last=Erskine |title=A Companion to the Hellenistic World |location=Oxford |publisher=Blackwell |pages=159–174 |isbn=1-4051-3278-7}}
* {{cite book |last=McEvedy |first=Colin |year=2012 |title=Cities of the Classical World |publisher=Penguin Global |isbn=9781846144288}}
* {{cite book|last=Tucker|first=Jack|title=Innocents Return Abroad: Exploring Ancient Sites in Western Turkey|year=2012|publisher=Jack Tucker |isbn=9781478343585}}{{self-published source|date=March 2024}}
* {{cite book |author=[[Xenophon]] |title=Xenophon in Seven Volumes |translator-first=Carleton L. |translator-last=Brownson |publisher=Harvard University Press |location=Cambridge, MA}} vol. 1 (1918), vol. 2 (1921), vol. 3 (1922).

==Further reading==
* {{cite book|editor-last1=Grüßinger|editor-first1=Ralf|editor-last2=Kästner|editor-first2=Volker|editor-last3=Scholl|editor-first3=Andreas|title=Pergamon. Panorama der antiken Metropole|trans-title=Pergamon. Panorama of the ancient metropolis|publisher=Imhof|location=Petersberg|year=2011|isbn=978-3-86568-693-0}}
* {{cite book |last=Hansen |first=Esther Violet |year=1971 |title=The Attalids of Pergamon |edition=2nd revised and expanded |location=Ithaca |publisher=Cornell University Press}}
* {{cite book |last=Nagy |first=Gregory |year=1998 |chapter=The Library of Pergamon as a Classical Model |editor-first=Helmut |editor-last=Koester |title=Pergamon: Citadel of the Gods |location=Harrisburg, PA |publisher=Trinity Press International |pages=185–232}}
* {{cite web |last=Nagy |first=Gregory |year=2007 |title=The Idea of the Library as a Classical Model for European Culture |website=[[Center for Hellenic Studies]] |url=https://chs.harvard.edu/curated-article/gregory-nagy-the-idea-of-the-library-as-a-classical-model-for-european-culture-2/}}
* {{cite book |last=Radt |first=Wolfgang |year=1984 |title=Pergamon, Archeological Guide |edition=3rd |location=Istanbul |publisher=Türkiye Turing Ve Otomobil Kurumu}}
* {{cite book |last=Shipley |first=Graham |year=2000 |title=The Greek world after Alexander 323–30 BC |location=London |publisher=Routledge}}
* {{cite book |last=Walbank |first=Frank W. |year=1993 |title=The Hellenistic world |edition=Revised |location=Cambridge, MA |publisher=Harvard University Press}}

===''Altertümer von Pergamon''===
The archaeological reports from Pergamon are published in German as ''Altertümer von Pergamon'' (de Gruyter, Berlin).

* {{cite journal |journal=Altertümer von Pergamon |publisher=de Gruyter |location=Berlin |volume=I |issue=1 |author-link=Alexander Conze |first=Alexander |last=Conze |title=Stadt und Landschaft |trans-title=City and Landscape |year=1912 |url=http://digi.ub.uni-heidelberg.de/diglit/pergamon1912}}
* Volume I 2: Alexander Conze: ''Stadt und Landschaft'' [City and Landscape] (1913) [http://digi.ub.uni-heidelberg.de/diglit/pergamon1913 Digitisation]
* Volume I 3: Alexander Conze (ed.): ''Stadt und Landschaft'' [City and Landscape] 3: [[Friedrich Graeber]]: ''Die Wasserleitungen'' [The Aqueducts] (1913) [http://digi.ub.uni-heidelberg.de/diglit/pergamon1913a Digitisation] [http://digi.ub.uni-heidelberg.de/diglit/conze1913 Digitisation of the tables for I, 1–3]
* Volume I 4: [[Günther Garbrecht]]: ''Die Wasserversorgung von Pergamon'' [The Water Supply System of Pergamon] (2001)
* Volume II: [[Richard Bohn]]: ''Das Heiligtum der Athena Polias Nikephoros'' [The Sanctuary of Athena Polias Nikephoros] (1885) [http://digi.ub.uni-heidelberg.de/diglit/pergamon1885?sid=e32e0c9ca687e13f22cc9fbcdbe12820  Digitisation] [http://digi.ub.uni-heidelberg.de/diglit/pergamon1885a?sid=e32e0c9ca687e13f22cc9fbcdbe12820  Digitisation of the tables]
* Volume III 1: [[Jakob Schrammen]]: ''Der grosse Altar – der obere Markt'' [The Great Altar - The Upper Agora] (1906) [http://digi.ub.uni-heidelberg.de/diglit/pergamon1906 Digitisation] [http://digi.ub.uni-heidelberg.de/diglit/pergamon1906a Digitisation of the tables]
* Volume III 2: [[Hermann Winnefeld]]: ''Die Friese des groszen Altars'' [The Frieze of the Great Altar] (1910) [http://digi.ub.uni-heidelberg.de/diglit/pergamon1910 Digitisation] [http://digi.ub.uni-heidelberg.de/diglit/pergamon1910a Digitisation of the tables]
* Volume IV: Richard Bohn: ''Die Theater-Terrasse'' [The Theatre Terrace] (1896) [http://digi.ub.uni-heidelberg.de/diglit/pergamon1896 Digitisation] [http://digi.ub.uni-heidelberg.de/diglit/pergamon1896a Digitisation of the tables]
* Volume V 1: [[Georg Kawerau]] – [[Theodor Wiegand]]: ''Die Paläste der Hochburg'' [The Palace of the Citadel] (1930) [http://digi.ub.uni-heidelberg.de/diglit/pergamon1930 Digitisation] [http://digi.ub.uni-heidelberg.de/diglit/pergamon1930a Digitisation of the tables]
* Volume V 2: [[Hermann Stiller]]: ''Das Traianeum'' [The Trajaneum]. Berlin 1895 [http://digi.ub.uni-heidelberg.de/diglit/pergamon1895a Digitisation] [http://digi.ub.uni-heidelberg.de/diglit/pergamon1895b Digitisation of the tables]
* Volume VI: Paul Schazmann: ''Das Gymnasion. Der Tempelbezirk der Hera Basileia'' [The Gymnasium. The Temple Area of Hera Basileia] (1923) [http://digi.ub.uni-heidelberg.de/diglit/pergamon1923a Digitisation] [http://digi.ub.uni-heidelberg.de/diglit/pergamon1923b Digitisation of the tables]
* Volume VII 1: [[Franz Winter]]: ''Die Skulpturen mit Ausnahme der Altarreliefs'' [The Sculpture, aside from the Altar Reliefs] (1908) [http://digi.ub.uni-heidelberg.de/diglit/pergamon1908 Digitisation]
* Volume VII 2: Franz Winter: ''Die Skulpturen mit Ausnahme der Altarreliefs'' [The Sculpture, aside from the Altar Reliefs] (1908) [http://digi.ub.uni-heidelberg.de/diglit/pergamon1908b Digitisation] [http://digi.ub.uni-heidelberg.de/diglit/pergamon1908a Digitisation of the tables]
* Volume VIII 1: [[Max Fränkel]] (ed.): ''Die Inschriften von Pergamon'' [The Inscriptions of Pergamon] (1890) [http://digi.ub.uni-heidelberg.de/diglit/pergamon1890 Digitisation]
* Volume VIII 2: Max Fränkel (ed.): ''Die Inschriften von Pergamon '' [The Inscriptions of Pergamon] (1895) [http://digi.ub.uni-heidelberg.de/diglit/pergamon1895 Digitisation]
* Volume VIII 3: [[Christian Habicht (historian)|Christian Habicht]], [[Michael Wörrle]]: ''Die Inschriften des Asklepieions'' [The Inscriptions of the Asclepium] (1969)
* Volume IX: [[Erich Boehringer]] – [[Friedrich Krauss]]: ''Das Temenos für den Herrscherkult'' [The Temenos for the Ruler Cult] (1937)
* Volume X: Ákos von Szalay – Erich Boehringer et al.: ''Die hellenistischen Arsenale. Garten der Königin'' [The Hellenistic Arsenal. Garden of the Queen] (1937)
* Volume XI 1: [[Oskar Ziegenaus]], Gioia de Luca: ''Das Asklepieion. Der südliche Temenosbezirk in hellenistischer und frührömischer Zeit'' [The Asclepium. The North Temple Area and Surrounding Complex in the Hellenistic and Early Roman Periods] (1968)
* Volume XI 2: Oskar Ziegenaus, Gioia de Luca: ''Das Asklepieion. Der nördliche Temenosbezirk und angrenzende Anlagen in hellenistischer und frührömischer Zeit'' [The Asclepium. The North Temple Area and Surrounding Complex in the Hellenistic and Early Roman Periods] (1975)
* Volume XI 3: Oskar Ziegenaus: ''Das Asklepieion. Die Kultbauten aus römischer Zeit an der Ostseite des Heiligen Bezirks'' [The Asclepium. The Cult Buildings of the Roman Period on the East Side of the Sacred Area] (1981)
* Volume XI 4: Gioia de Luca: ''Das Asklepieion. Via Tecta und Hallenstraße. Die Funde'' [The Asclepium. Via Tecta and Stoas] (1984)
* Volume XI 5: [[Adolf Hoffmann]], Gioia de Luca: ''Das Asklepieion. Die Platzhallen und die zugehörigen Annexbauten in römischer Zeit'' [The Asclepium. The Halls and Associated Annexes in the Roman Period] (2011)
* Volume XII: [[Klaus Nohlen]], Wolfgang Radt: ''Kapıkaya. Ein Felsheiligtum bei Pergamon'' [Kapıkaya. A Cliff-Sanctuary near Pergamon] (1978)
* Volume XIII: Carl Helmut Bohtz: ''Das Demeter-Heiligtum'' [The Sanctuary of Demeter] (1981)
* Volume XIV: Doris Pinkwart, Wolf Stammnitz, ''Peristylhäuser westlich der Unteren Agora'' [Peristyle Houses west of the Lower Agora] (1984)
* Volume XV 1: Meinrad N. Filges, Wolfgang Radt: ''Die Stadtgrabung. Das Heroon'' [The City Excavation. The Heroon] (1986)
* Volume XV 2: [[Klaus Rheidt]]: ''Die Stadtgrabung. Die byzantinische Wohnstadt'' [The City Excavation. The Byzantine Residential City] (1991)
* Volume XV 3: [[Ulrike Wulf-Rheidt|Ulrike Wulf]]: ''Die Stadtgrabung. Die hellenistischen und römischen Wohnhäuser von Pergamon. Unter Berücksichtigung der Anlagen zwischen der Mittel- und der Ostgasse'' [The City Excavation. The Hellenistic and Roman Residential Housing of Pergamon. In Light of Investigation of the Areas between Central and East Streets] (1999)
* Volume XV 4: Holger Schwarzer: ''Das Gebäude mit dem Podiensaal in der Stadtgrabung von Pergamon. Studien zu sakralen Banketträumen mit Liegepodien in der Antike'' [The building with the Podium-hall in the City Excavation of Pergamon. Studies of Sacral Banqueting Halls with Raised Platforms in Antiquity] (2008)
* Volume XVI 1: [[Manfred Klinkott]]: ''Die byzantinischen Befestigungsanlagen von Pergamon mit ihrer Wehr- und Baugeschichte'' [The Byzantine Fortifications of Pergamon with their Military and Architectural History] (2001)

==External links==
{{Commons category}}
{{EB1911 poster|Pergamum}}
{{Library resources box |by=no |onlinebooks=yes |others=yes |about=yes |label=Pergamon}}
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20060813111253/http://www.usd.edu/~clehmann/pir/asiamysi.htm Rosa Valderrama, "Pergamum"]: brief history
* [http://www.pbase.com/dosseman/bergama_turkey Photographic tour of old and new Pergamon, including the museum]
* [http://www.whitman.edu/theatre/theatretour/pergamum/pergamum.htm The Theatre at Pergamon. The Ancient Theatre Archive. Theatre specifications and virtual reality tour of theatre]
* [http://www.pergamon.secondpage.de/index_en.html 3D-visualization and photos of Pergamon]
* {{Cite web|url=https://hiddencause.wordpress.com/2016/07/08/the-seductive-elegance-and-startling-cruelty-of-greeces-baroque-age/|last=DK Fennell|title=The Seductive Elegance and Startling Cruelty of Greece's Baroque Age: Power, Pathos and Prestige in Pergamon and Other Hellenistic Kingdoms|work=Hidden Cause, Visible Effects|date=July 8, 2016}}

{{Ancient Greece topics}}
{{Seven churches of Asia}}
{{Ancient kingdoms in Anatolia}}
{{Ancient settlements in Turkey}}
{{History of Turkey timeline}}
{{World Heritage Sites in Turkey}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Pergamon| ]]<!-- Please leave the empty space as standard -->
[[Category:Ancient Greek archaeological sites in Turkey]]
[[Category:Archaeological sites in the Aegean region]]
[[Category:Buildings and structures in İzmir Province]]
[[Category:Former populated places in Turkey]]
[[Category:History of İzmir Province]]
[[Category:New Testament cities]]
[[Category:Tourist attractions in İzmir Province]]
[[Category:Asia (Roman province)]]
[[Category:Populated places in ancient Aeolis]]
[[Category:Populated places in ancient Mysia]]
[[Category:Bergama District]]
[[Category:Former kingdoms]]