View source for Persian gardens

{{short description|Type of garden originating from Iran}}
{{Infobox UNESCO World Heritage Site
| WHS           = The Persian Garden
| image       = Botanical Garden, Shiraz.jpg
| image_size  = <!-- optional -->
| caption     = [[Eram Garden]] in [[Shiraz]]
| location      = [[Iran]]
| includes      = {{flatlist|
#Ancient Garden of [[Pasargadae]]{{br}}
#[[Eram Garden|Bagh-e Eram]]{{br}}
#[[Chehel Sotoun|Bagh-e Chehel Sotun]]{{br}}
#[[Bagh-e Fin]]{{br}}
#[[Abbas Abad Complex|Bagh-e Abas Abad]]{{br}}
#[[Shazdeh Garden|Bagh-e Shahzadeh]]{{br}}
#[[Dowlatabad Garden|Bagh-e Dolat Abad]]{{br}}
#[[Bagh-e Pahlavanpur]]{{br}}
#[[Bagh-e Akbariyeh]]{{br}}
}}
| criteria      = {{UNESCO WHS type|(i), (ii), (iii), (iv), (vi)}}(i), (ii), (iii), (iv), (vi)
| ID            = 1372
| year          = 2011
| area          = {{convert|716.35|ha|sqmi|abbr=on}}
| buffer_zone   = {{convert|9,740.02|ha|sqmi|abbr=on}}
|Criteria=Cultural: (i), (ii), (iii), (iv), (vi)}}

In [[garden design]], '''Persian garden''' or '''Iranian garden''' ({{langx|fa|باغ ایرانی}}) is a style of "[[Landscape architecture|landscape]]" [[garden]] which emerged in the [[Achaemenid Empire]]. Nine historical gardens, all of them in [[Iran]], have been inscribed in [[UNESCO]]'s [[World Heritage Sites]] as ''The Persian Garden'' since 2011.

==Concept and etymology==
[[File:Persian garden plan.png|thumb|A schematic diagram of a Persian garden. Note the quadripartite structure with focal water feature, connecting aqueducts, and surrounding trees, as well as the placement of the palace.]]
From the time of the [[Achaemenid Empire]], the idea of an earthly paradise spread through [[Persian literature]] and example to other cultures, both the [[Hellenistic period|Hellenistic]] gardens of the [[Seleucid Empire]] and the [[Ptolemaic Kingdom#List of Ptolemaic rulers|Ptolemies]] in [[Alexandria]].

The [[Avestan]] word {{Lang|ave-Latn|pairidaēza-}}, [[Old Persian]] {{Lang|peo-Latn|*paridaida-}},<ref group="note">Although the genuine Old Persian form must have been *''paridaida-'', [[New Persian]] ''paliz'' 'garden' from Middle Persian ''palēz'' presupposes a variant *''pardaiza-'' (with [[Syncope (phonetics)|syncope]] of ''-i-''), which seems to be the [[cognate]] of *''paridaida-'' from a different Iranian language (Avestan, Median or Parthian) borrowed into Persian still in an early period. See Proto-Iranian [[wikt:Reconstruction/paridaiźa-|''*paridaiźa-'']].</ref> or [[Median language|Median]] *''paridaiza-'' "walled-around", (i.e., a [[walled garden]]), were borrowed into [[Elamite language|Elamite]] ({{Lang|elx-Latn|partetaš}}) and [[Akkadian language|Akkadian]], and later as {{langx|grc|παράδεισος|parádeisos}}. It was rendered as [[Latin]] {{Lang|la|paradīsus}}, and from there entered into European languages, e.g., [[French language|French]] {{Lang|fr|paradis}}, [[German language|German]] {{Lang|de|Paradies}}, and [[English language|English]] ''[[paradise]]''.<ref>Fakour M., ''Achaemenid Gardens'' [http://www.com/CAIS/Culture/achaemenid_gardens.htm]; CAIS-Online - accessed Jan 15, 2007</ref> In the Achaemenid Empire, the term is used for functional worksites as well, and it translated as "[[plantation]]s"; these sites contained not only orchards and [[tree plantation]]s, but also sometimes [[bitumen]] harvesting and mining. The same word was used to describe the Elamite custom of creating a [[sacred grove]] or ''husa'' surrounding a royal grave that was the site of [[veneration of the dead|worship of the deceased king]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Âlvarez-Mon |first1=Javier |editor1-last=Jacobs |editor1-first=Bruno |editor2-last=Rollinger |editor2-first=Robert |title=A Companion to the Achaemenid Persian Empire |date=2021 |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |location=Hoboken |isbn=9781119174288 |page=393 |chapter=Elamite Traditions}}</ref>

As the word expresses, such [[garden]]s would have been enclosed. Gardens provided a place for protected relaxation, both [[spirituality|spiritual]] and [[leisure]]ly, and represented a paradise on earth. The [[Proto-Iranian language|Common Iranian]] word for "enclosed space" was *''pari-daiza-'' (Avestan {{Lang|ave-Latn|pairi-daēza-}}). This term was adopted to describe the [[garden of Eden]] a [[Paradise]] on earth.<ref>Persians: Masters of Empire, p 62, {{ISBN|0-8094-9104-4}}</ref>

The garden's construction may be [[Formal garden|formal]] (with an emphasis on structure) or casual (with a focus on nature), following several simple design rules. This allows the maximum possible use of the garden in terms of function and emotion.

==History==
[[File:Persepolis T Chipiez.jpg|thumb|left|Gardens outside of the Palace of [[Darius I of Persia]] in [[Persepolis]]]]
Persian gardens may originate as early as 4000&nbsp;BCE, but it is clear that this  tradition began with the Achaemenid dynasty around the 6th century BCE.<ref>{{Cite book|title = The Persian Garden: Echoes of Paradise|publisher = Mage Publishers|date = 2003-12-31|location = Washington, DC|isbn = 9780934211758|language = en|first1 = Mehdi|last1 = Khansari|first2 = M. R.|last2 = Moghtader|first3 = Minouch|last3 = Yavari}}</ref>{{Dubious|reason=Extraordinary claims require extraordinary evidence.|date=August 2016}}{{Verify source|date=August 2016}} Decorated pottery of that time displays the typical cross plan of the Persian garden.<!-- That sounds like extremely weak evidence. More detail is needed here. --> The outline of [[Pasargadae]], built around 500&nbsp;BCE, is still viewable today. Classical Iranians were seen by the Greeks as the 'great gardeners' of antiquity; Cyrus&nbsp;II (known also as Cyrus the Younger) is alleged to have told the Spartan commander [[Lysander]] that he gardened daily when not campaigning, and had himself laid out the park at Sardis, which he called his 'paradise' (a Greek corruption of the Old Persian word for garden'').'' <ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Kv0vHoP4XzIC&q=firdu+persian&pg=PT36|title=The Persian Expedition|last=Xenophon|date=1975-06-26|publisher=Penguin UK|isbn=9780141909387|language=en}}</ref>

During the suzerainty of the [[Sasanian Empire]], under the influence of [[Zoroastrianism]], [[water]] in [[art]] grew increasingly important. This trend manifested itself in garden design, with greater emphasis on [[fountain]]s and [[pond]]s in gardens.

During the Umayyad and Abbasid periods, the aesthetic aspect of the garden increased in importance, overtaking utility. During this time, aesthetic rules that govern the garden grew in importance. An example of this is the ''[[charbagh|chahār bāgh]]'' ({{lang|fa|چهارباغ}}), a form of garden that attempts to emulate the Abrahamic [[Garden of Eden|notion of a Garden of Eden]], with four rivers and four quadrants that represent the world. The design sometimes extends one axis longer than the cross-axis and may feature water channels that run through each of the four gardens and connect to a central pool.

<blockquote>Under the Abbasid dynasty (8th century AD), this type of garden became an integral part of representational architecture.</blockquote>
<blockquote>The Persian garden is a landscape garden, designed individually and created intentionally as a space embedded in the aesthetic and spiritual context of its past and contemporary cultural, political, and social environment. Hallmarks of these formal gardens are a geometric layout following geometric and visual principles, implemented to nature by water channels and basins which divide the enclosed space into clearly defined quarters, a principle that has become known as Chahar Bagh (four gardens), waterworks with channels, basins, fountains and cascades, pavilions, prominent central axes with a vista, and a plantation with a variety of carefully chosen trees, herbs. and flowers. The old-Iranian word for such gardens "pari-daizi' expresses the notion of an earthly paradise that is inherent to them. As such, they are a metaphor for the divine order and the unification and protection of the ones who do good. Their counterparts on earth fulfill a similar function. These principles are brought to perfection in the gardens of the emperor as the "good gardener".</blockquote>
<blockquote>Notwithstanding a formal standardization, the landscape gardens also reflect diversity and development, bound to function, regional and chronological characteristics, as well as technological, know how personal preferences, ambitions, and demands. Persian gardens are multi-functional: they not only serve contemplation and relaxation, but are also a representation and manifestation of power. Designing and implementing a garden demonstrates the occupation of land, holding audiences and celebrating victories or marriages in these gardens signal superiority, or social and political bonds. Starting from the 12th to 13th century, tombs for members of the royal family or important personalities were placed into such formal gardens, providing believers a chance to benefit from the spirituality of a venerated person and the particular aura of the garden.<ref name="Centre">{{Cite web|url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/tentativelists/5469/|title=Bagh-e Babur|website=UNESCO World Heritage Centre|language=en|access-date=2019-01-16}}</ref></blockquote>

The invasion of Persia by the [[Mongols]] in the thirteenth century led to a new emphasis on highly ornate [[structure]] in the garden. Examples of this include [[Tree peony|tree peonies]] and [[chrysanthemum]]s.{{clarify|in what way are chrysanthemums structure?|date=September 2012}} The Mongols then carried a Persian garden tradition to other parts of their empire (notably [[India]]).

[[File:Babur Gardens.jpg|thumb|[[Bagh-e Babur]] in Kabul, Afghanistan]]

The [[Mughal emperor]] [[Babur]] introduced the Persian garden to India, attempting to replicate the cool, refreshing aura of his homeland in the Ferghana Valley through the construction of Persian-style gardens, like those at other Timurid cities like Samarkand and Herat. Babur was a zealous gardener and personally designed and supervised at least ten gardens in his capital of [[Kabul]] in modern Afghanistan, such as the [[Gardens of Babur|Bagh-e Babur]], where he recorded the allure of the pomegranate, cherry and orange trees he had planted.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://depts.washington.edu/silkroad/texts/babur/babur1.html|title=THE MEMOIRS OF BABUR|website=depts.washington.edu|access-date=2019-01-16}}</ref> Though his empire soon expanded as far as north-central India, he abhorred the stagnant heat and drab environment of the hot, dusty plains of India; he was thus interred at Bagh-e Babur in Kabul by his widow in 1544.<ref name="Centre"/>

The [[Aram Bagh, Agra|Aram Bagh of Agra]] was the first of many Persian gardens he created in India itself. [[Mughal garden]]s have four basic requirements, symbolizing four allegorical essentials for the afterlife: shade, fruit, fragrance, and running water. This pattern was used to build many Persian gardens throughout the Indian subcontinent, such as the [[Shalimar Gardens, Lahore|Shalimar Gardens]] of Lahore, the [[Shalimar Bagh, Srinagar|Shalimar Bagh]] and [[Nishat Bagh]] of Kashmir, and the [[Taj Mahal|Taj Mahal gardens]]. The Taj Mahal gardens embody the Persian concept of an ideal [[paradise garden]], and were built with irrigation channels and canals from the [[Yamuna]] River. These gardens have recently been restored to their former beauty after decades of pollution by the Indian authorities, who cut down the fruit- and shade-bearing vegetation of the garden.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.smithsonianmag.com/smart-news/restored-mugal-gardens-bloom-along-agras-riverfront-180971258/|title=Restored Mughal Gardens Bloom Once More Along Agra's Riverfront|last=Daley|first=Jason|website=Smithsonian|language=en|access-date=2019-01-16}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.wmf.org/blog/magazine-agra-again-bloom-0|title=From the Magazine: Agra, Again in Bloom|website=World Monuments Fund|language=en|access-date=2019-01-16}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.smithsonianmag.com/history/how-to-save-the-taj-mahal-49355859/|title=How to Save the Taj Mahal?|website=Smithsonian|language=en|access-date=2019-01-16}}</ref>
[[File:چشمه بلقیس.png|thumb|[[Cheshme Belghais Garden]] is an example of modern persian garden design.]]
The [[Safavid dynasty]] (seventeenth to eighteenth century) built and developed grand and epic layouts that went beyond a simple extension to a palace and became an integral aesthetic and functional part of it. In the following centuries, European [[garden design]] began to influence Persia, particularly the designs of [[France]], and secondarily that of [[Russia]] and the [[United Kingdom]]. Western influences led to changes in the use of water and the species used in bedding.

Traditional forms and style are still applied in modern Iranian gardens. They also appear in historic sites, museums, and affixed to the houses of the rich.

==Elements of the Persian garden==
[[Image:Chehel Sotun Garden, Isfahan, Iran 2005.jpg|thumb|left|[[Chehel Sotoun]] pavilion and garden in [[Isfahan]]]]
[[Sunlight]] and its effects were an important factor of structural design in Persian gardens. Textures and shapes were specifically chosen by [[architect]]s to harness the light.<ref>{{Cite web|title = Pasargadae: The Persian Gardens {{!}} Kaveh Farrokh|url = http://kavehfarrokh.com/iranica/achaemenid-era/pasargardae-the-persian-gardens/|website = kavehfarrokh.com|access-date = 2016-02-09}}</ref>

[[Iran]]'s dry heat makes shade important in gardens, which would be nearly unusable without it. Trees and [[Trellis (architecture)|trellises]] largely feature as [[Biotic component|biotic]] shade; [[pavilions]] and [[wall]]s are also structurally prominent in blocking the sun.

The heat also makes water important, both in the design and maintenance of the garden. Irrigation may be required, and may be provided via a form of tunnel called a ''[[qanat]]'', that transports water from a local [[aquifer]]. [[Water well|Well]]-like structures then connect to the qanat, enabling the drawing of water. Alternatively, an animal-driven [[Persian well]] would draw water to the surface. Such wheel systems also moved water around surface water systems, such as those in the ''chahar bāgh'' style. Trees were often planted in a ditch called a ''juy'', which prevented water [[evaporation]] and allowed the water quick access to the tree [[root]]s.

The Persian style often attempts to integrate indoors with outdoors through the connection of a surrounding garden with an inner [[courtyard]]. Designers often place architectural elements such as [[vaulted arches]] between the outer and interior areas to open up the divide between them.

==Descriptions==
[[Image:باغ شاهزاده-ماهان-کرمان.jpg|thumb|left|[[Shazdeh Garden]] is one of the largest gardens of [[Kerman Province]].]]
An early description (from the first half of the fourth century BCE) of a Persian garden is found in [[Xenophon]]'s ''[[Oeconomicus]]'' in which he has [[Socrates]] relate the story of the Spartan general [[Lysander]]'s visit to the Persian prince [[Cyrus the Younger]], who shows the Greek his "paradise at Sardis". In this story Lysander is "astonished at the beauty of the trees within, all planted at equal intervals, the long straight rows of waving branches, the perfect regularity, the rectangular symmetry of the whole, and the many sweet scents which hung about them as they paced the park".<ref>{{cite web|last1=Xenephon|title=Oeconomicus|url=http://www.gutenberg.org/files/1173/1173-h/1173-h.htm|website=Gutenberg Press|access-date=11 June 2015}}</ref>

[[File:Kashan 2017 (34179953426).jpg|thumb|[[Fin Garden]] in [[Kashan]]]]
The oldest representational descriptions and illustrations of Persian gardens come from travelers who reached Iran from the west. These accounts include [[Ibn Battuta]] in the fourteenth century, [[Ruy González de Clavijo]] in the fifteenth century and [[Engelbert Kaempfer]] in the seventeenth century. Battuta and Clavijo made only passing references to gardens and did not describe their design,<!--then better sources should be used--> but Kaempfer made careful drawings and converted them into detailed engravings after his return to Europe. They show [[charbagh]]-type gardens that featured an enclosing wall, rectangular pools, an internal network of canals, garden pavilions and lush planting. There are surviving examples of this garden type at [[Yazd]] (Dowlatabad) and at [[Kashan]] ([[Fin Garden]]). The location of the gardens Kaempfer illustrated in [[Isfahan]] can be identified.

==Styles==
The six primary styles of the Persian garden may be seen in the following table, which puts them in the context of their function and style. Gardens are not limited to a particular style, but often integrate different styles, or have areas with different functions and styles.

{|align=center
|
|'''Classical'''
|'''Formal'''
|'''Casual'''
|-
|'''Public'''
|Hayāt
|[[Meidan|Meidān]]
|[[Park]]
|-
|'''Private'''
|Hayāt
|[[charbagh|Chahār Bāgh]]
|[[Bagh (garden)|Bāgh]]
|}

===Hayāt===
[[File:Naghshe Jahan Square Isfahan modified.jpg|thumb|[[Naghsh-i Jahan square]], the charbagh Royal Square (Maidan) in [[Isfahan]], constructed between 1598 and 1629]]
[[File:India - Srinagar - 032 - sunset at Nishat Bagh Mughal Gardens HDR.jpg|thumb|Sunset at [[Nishat Bagh]] Gardens]]
[[File:2006 Park-e Laleh Tehran 162316871.jpg|thumb|[[Laleh Park]], [[Tehran]]]]
Publicly, it is a classical Persian layout with heavy emphasis on [[aesthetics]] over function. Man-made structures in the garden are particularly important, with [[arch]]es and [[swimming pool|pools]] (which may be used to bathe). The ground is often covered in [[gravel]] flagged with stone. Plantings are typically very simple - such as a line of trees, which also provide shade.

Privately, these gardens are often pool-centred and, again, structural. The pool serves as a focus and source of humidity for the surrounding atmosphere. There are few plants, often due to the limited water available in [[urban area]]s.

===Meidān===
This is a public, [[Formality|formal]] garden that puts more emphasis on the [[Biotic component|biotic]] element than the ''hayāt'' and that minimises structure. Plants range from [[tree]]s, to [[shrub]]s, to [[bedding plant]]s, to [[grass]]es. Again, there are elements such as a pool and gravel pathways which divide the [[lawn]]. When structures are used, they are often built, as in the case of pavilions, to provide shade.

===Chahar Bāgh===
{{Main|Charbagh}}
These gardens are private and formal. The basic structure consists of four quadrants divided by waterways or pathways. Traditionally, the rich used such gardens in work-related functions (such as entertaining [[ambassador]]s). These gardens balance structure with greenery, with the plants often around the periphery of a pool and path based structure.

===Boostān===
Much like many other [[park]]s, the Persian park serves a casual public function with emphasis on plant life. They provide pathways and seating, but are otherwise usually limited in terms of structural elements. The purpose of such places is relaxation and socialisation.

===Bāgh===
Like the other casual garden, the park, ''bāgh'' emphasizes the natural and green aspect of the garden. Unlike the park it is a private area often affixed to houses and often consisting of lawns, trees, and ground plants. The waterways and pathways stand out less than in the more formal counterparts and are largely functional. The primary function of such areas is familial relaxation.
{{Clear}}

==World Heritage Sites==

#Pasargad Garden at [[Pasargadae]], [[Iran]] (WHS 1372-001)<ref name=WHS1372>[https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1372 The Persian Garden (1372)] at [[World Heritage Site]] website</ref>
#[[Eram Garden]], [[Shiraz]], Iran (WHS 1372-002)<ref name=WHS1372 />
#[[Chehel Sotoun]], [[Isfahan]], Iran (WHS 1372-003)<ref name=WHS1372 />
#[[Fin Garden]], [[Kashan]], Iran (WHS 1372-004)<ref name=WHS1372 />
#[[Abbas Abad Complex|Abbasabad Garden]], [[Abbasabad, Mazandaran]], Iran (WHS 1372-005)<ref name=WHS1372 />
#[[Shazdeh Garden]], [[Mahan, Iran|Mahan]], [[Kerman Province]], Iran (WHS 1372-006)<ref name=WHS1372 />
#[[Dowlatabad Garden|Dolatabad Garden]], [[Yazd]], Iran (WHS 1372-007)<ref name=WHS1372 />
#[[Pahlevanpour Garden]], Iran (WHS 1372-008)<ref name=WHS1372 />
#[[Akbarieh Garden]], [[South Khorasan Province]], Iran (WHS 1372-009)<ref name=WHS1372 />
#[[Taj Mahal]], [[Agra]], [[India]] (WHS 252)
#[[Humayun's Tomb]], [[New Delhi]], India (WHS 232bis)
#[[Shalimar Gardens, Lahore]], [[Pakistan]] (WHS 171-002)

{{location map many |Asia Southwest |float=right |width=260 |caption=Location of Persian Garden World Heritage Sites
|lat1 =30.168431|long1 =53.165761|label1 =[[Pasargad Persian Garden|1]]|position1=right
|lat2 =29.635833|long2 =52.525270|label2 =[[Eram Garden|2]]|position2=bottom
|lat3 =32.657532|long3 =51.672413|label3 =[[Chehel Sotoun|3]]|position3=left
|lat4 =33.946377|long4 =51.372585|label4 =[[Fin Garden|4]]|position4=right
|lat5 =36.663548|long5 =53.594227|label5 =[[Abbas Abad Complex|5]]|position5=right
|lat6 =30.023880|long6 =57.282090|label6 =[[Shazdeh Garden|6]]|position6=right
|lat7 =31.903720|long7 =54.351425|label7 =[[Dolatabad Garden|7]]|position7=left
|lat8 =31.559851|long8 =54.440947|label8 =[[Pahlevanpour Garden|8]]|position8=right
|lat9 =32.852949|long9 =59.228132|label9 =[[Akbarieh Garden|9]]|position9=bottom
|lat10=27.174799|long10=78.042111|label10=[[Taj Mahal|10]]|position10=right
|lat11=28.593264|long11=77.250602|label11=[[Humayun's Tomb|11]]|position11=right
|lat12=31.585833|long12=74.381944|label12=[[Shalimar Gardens, Lahore|12]]|position12=right
}}

==See also==
{{portal|Gardening|Gardens}}{{div col|colwidth=30em}}
* [[Delgosha Garden]] 
* [[El-Gölü]]
* [[Firdaws-i Bareen]]
* [[Mellat Park]]
* [[Nazar Garden]]
* [[Paradise garden]]
* [[Iranian architecture|Persian architecture]]
* [[Persian Inscriptions on Indian Monuments]]
* [[List of Persian gardens in Iran]]{{div col end}}

==Notes==
{{Reflist|group=note}}

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==Further reading==
* Dariush Borbor, "The Influence of Persian Gardens on Islamic Decoration", in ''Architecture Formes Fonctions / Architektur Form Funktion / Architecture Forms Functions / Arquitectura Formas Functiones'' vol. 14, Editions Anthony Krafft, Lausanne, 1968, pp.&nbsp;84–91.
* ۳۳-۵۰ داریوش بوربور، «تاثیر باغ‌های ایرانی بر تزئینات ساختمانی اسلامی»، ''پل فیروزه'' (ویژه میراث فرهنگی معنوی)، سال ششم، شماره ۱۸، تهران، تابستان ۱۳۸۸، صص 
* Rostami, Raheleh., Hasanuddin, Lamit., Khoshnava, S. Meysam., Rostami, Rasoul (2014). "The Role of Historical Persian Gardens on the Health Status of Contemporary Urban Residents". Journal of EcoHealth, 11 (3), 308-321.
* Rostami, Raheleh., Hasanuddin, Lamit., Khoshnava, S. Meysam., Rostami, Rasoul (2015).Sustainable Cities and the Contribution of Historical Urban Green Spaces: A Case Study of Historical Persian Gardens, Journal of Sustainability, 7, 13290-13316.
* Rostami, Raheleh., Hasanuddin, Lamit., Khoshnava, S. Meysam., Rostami, Rasoul (2015). Successful Public Places, A case Study of Historical Persian Gardens, Journal of Urban Forestry & Urban Greening, In Press, doi:10.1016/j.ufug.2015.08.011 
* Rostami, Raheleh., Hasanuddin, Lamit., Khoshnava, S. Meysam., Rostami, Rasoul (2011). "Contribution of Historical Persian Gardens for Sustainable Urban and Environment: Lessons from Hot Arid Region of IRAN". American Transaction on Engineering and Applied Sciences 1(3), 281-294.
* Khonsari, Mehdi; Moghtader, M. Reza; Yavari, Minouch (1998). ''The Persian Garden: Echoes of Paradise''. Mage Publishers. {{ISBN|0-934211-46-9}}.
* {{cite encyclopedia |encyclopedia= [[Encyclopædia Iranica]] |year= 2010 |title=Garden |author=Multiple authors |url = http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/garden-index}}
* Newton Wilber, D (1979). ''Persian Gardens and Garden Pavilions''. Washington.
* Michel Conan, Dumbarton Oaks (2007). ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=U-NDmuj9I8cC&pg=PT76 Middle East Garden Traditions: Unity and Diversity]''.

==External links==
{{Commons|Gardens in Iran}}
*[https://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/b09p5qd8 Monty Don's Paradise Gardens] (BBC documentary)
* [http://www.isfahan.org.uk/persgard/index2.htm Isfahan "Persian Garden Design" website]. Retrieved 3 January 2012.
* [http://afghanistan.asiasociety.org/timeline/53/CE/1505 Babur's Garden] - video from the Asia Society, US
* [https://vimeo.com/814808 Animated film inspired by the Persian Architecture]
* Farnoush Tehrāni, ''[http://www.jadidonline.com/story/12112009/frnk/persian_garden_history The Meaning of the Persian Garden]'', in Persian, Jadid Online, 12 November 2009.
:* Audio slideshow: [http://www.jadidonline.com/images/stories/flash_multimedia/Persian_garden_history_test/his_high.html] (5 min 58 sec).
* Farnoush Tehrāni, ''[http://www.jadidonline.com/story/13112009/frnk/persian_garden_design The Face of the Persian Garden]'', in Persian, 13 November 2009.
:* Audio slideshow: [http://www.jadidonline.com/images/stories/flash_multimedia/Persian_garden_design_test/des_high.html] (6 min 16 sec).

{{Iranian Architecture}}
{{World Heritage Sites in Iran}}
{{Horticulture and gardening}}

[[Category:Persian gardens| ]]
[[Category:Persian art|Gardens]]
[[Category:Architecture in Iran]]
[[Category:Iranian architectural elements]]