View source for Peru

{{Short description|Country in South America}}
{{About|the country}}
{{pp-semi-indef}}
{{pp-move|small=yes}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=October 2025}}
{{Infobox country
| conventional_long_name = Republic of Peru
| native_name            = {{nobold|{{native name|es|República del Perú}}}}
| common_name            = Peru
| name                   = {{collapsible list |titlestyle = background:transparent;line-height:normal;text-align:center;font-size:84%; |title = {{resize|1.0 em|Co-official names}}{{efn|name=a|In Peru, [[Languages of Peru|other languages]] have been officially recognized as legitimate [[Indigenous language|autochthonous languages]], which are co-official alongside [[Spanish language|Spanish]] in those areas where they predominate.
* [[Quechuan languages|Quechua]]: ''Piruw Ripuwlika''<!-- , {{IPA|qu|xx|}} -->
* {{langx|ay|Piruwxa Ripuwlika}}<!-- , {{IPA|ay|xx|}} -->}}
|{{Infobox
 |subbox=yes
 |bodystyle=font-size:80%;font-weight:normal;
 |rowclass1 = mergedrow
 |label1=[[Quechuan languages|Quechua]]:
 |data1={{lang|qu|Piruw Ripuwlika}}
 |rowclass2 = mergedrow
 |label2=[[Aymara language|Aymara]]:
 |data2={{lang|ay|Piruwxa Ripuwlika}}
}}
}}
| image_flag             = Flag of Peru.svg
| image_coat             = Escudo nacional del Perú.svg
| other_symbol           = <div style="padding:0.3em;">[[File:Gran Sello de la República del Perú.svg|100px]]</div>{{native phrase|es|[[Coat of arms of Peru#Variants|Gran Sello del Estado]]|nolink=on}}<br />Great Seal of the State
| other_symbol_type      = [[Seal (emblem)|National seal]]
| national_motto         = {{native name|es|{{noitalic|"}}[[Firm and Happy for the Union|Firme y feliz por la unión]]{{noitalic|"}}|nolink=on}}<br />"Firm and Happy for the Union"
| national_anthem        = {{native name|es|{{noitalic|"}}[[National Anthem of Peru|Himno Nacional del Perú]]{{noitalic|"}}|nolink=on}}<br />"National Anthem of Peru"<br /><div style="display:inline-block;margin-top:0.4em;">{{center|[[File:United States Navy Band - Marcha Nacional del Perú.ogg]]}}</div>
| march                  = <br />{{native name|es|{{noitalic|"}}[[Flag of Peru#The Marcha de Banderas|Marcha de Banderas]]{{noitalic|"}}|nolink=on}}<br />"March of Flags"<br /><div style="display:inline-block;margin-top:0.4em;">{{center|[[File:Marcha de banderas (José Sabas Libornio Ibarra, 1895).ogg]]}}</div>
| image_map              = PER orthographic.svg
| map_caption            = {{map caption|location_color=dark green}}
| image_map2             = 
| capital                = [[Lima]]
| coordinates            = {{Coord|12|2.6|S|77|1.7|W|region:PE-LIM_type:city(9,500,000)}}
| largest_city           = capital
| official_languages     = [[Peruvian Spanish|Spanish]]
| languages_type         = Co-official languages{{efn|name=b|In those areas where they predominate.}}
| languages              = {{Plainlist|
* [[Quechuan languages|Quechua]]
* [[Aymara language|Aymara]]
* [[Languages of Peru|Other Indigenous languages]] 
}}
| ethnic_groups          = {{unbulleted list
 |60.20% [[Mestizos|Mestizo]]
 |25.75% [[Indigenous peoples of Peru|Native]]
 |5.89% [[White Peruvians|White]]
 |3.57% [[Black Peruvians|Black]]
 |0.16% [[Asian Peruvians|East Asian]]
 |1.10% other
 |3.32% no answer
}}
| ethnic_groups_year     = 2017
| ethnic_groups_ref      = {{efn|name=c|The [[2017 Peru Census|2017 National Census]] included, for the first time, a question of [[Ethnic group|ethnic self-identification]] that was addressed to people aged 12 and over considering elements such as their ancestry, their customs and their family origin to visualize and better understand the cultural reality of the country.}}
| demonym                = [[Peruvians|Peruvian]]
| government_type        = Unitary [[semi-presidential republic]]<ref name="Draft" /><ref name="Dual" />
| leader_title1          = [[President of Peru|President]]
| leader_name1           = [[José Jerí]]
| leader_title2          = [[Vice President of Peru|First Vice President]]
| leader_name2           = ''Vacant''
| leader_title3          = [[Prime Minister of Peru|Prime Minister]]
| leader_name3           = [[Ernesto Álvarez Miranda]]
| leader_title4          = [[President of the Congress of the Republic of Peru|President of Congress]]
| leader_name4           = [[Fernando Rospigliosi]] (acting)
| legislature            = [[Congress of the Republic of Peru|Congress of the Republic]]
| sovereignty_type       = [[Peruvian War of Independence|Independence]]
| sovereignty_note       = from [[History of Spain (1814-1873)|Spain]]
| established_event1     = [[Peruvian War of Independence|Declared]]
| established_date1      = 28 July 1821
| established_event2     = [[Battle of Ayacucho|Consolidated]]
| established_date2      = 9 December 1824
| established_event3     = Recognized
| established_date3      = 14 August 1879
| area_km2               = 1,285,216<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/peru/#geography|title=Peru|date=27 February 2023|publisher=Central Intelligence Agency|via=CIA.gov|access-date=24 February 2023|archive-date=10 January 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210110072816/https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/peru#geography|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="IfKRF" />
| area_rank              = 19th
| area_sq_mi             = 496,225 <!-- Do not remove per [[Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Dates and numbers]] -->
| percent_water          = 0.41 <!-- CIA World Factbook -->
| population_estimate    = {{IncreaseNeutral}} 34,352,720<ref name="IfKRF" />
| population_estimate_year = 2023
| population_estimate_rank = 43rd
| population_density_km2 = 23 <!--UN World Population Prospects-->
| population_density_sq_mi = 57 <!--Do not remove per [[Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Dates and numbers]]-->
| population_density_rank = 197th
| GDP_PPP                = {{increase}} $643.05 billion<ref name="IMFWEO.PE" />
| GDP_PPP_year           = 2025
| GDP_PPP_rank           = 47th
| GDP_PPP_per_capita     = {{increase}} $18,689<ref name="IMFWEO.PE" />
| GDP_PPP_per_capita_rank = 99th
| GDP_nominal            = {{increase}} $303.3 billion<ref name="IMFWEO.PE" />
| GDP_nominal_year       = 2025
| GDP_nominal_rank       = 47th
| GDP_nominal_per_capita = {{increase}} $8,814<ref name="IMFWEO.PE" />
| GDP_nominal_per_capita_rank = 86th
| Gini                   = 40.2 <!--number only-->
| Gini_year              = 2022
| Gini_change            = decrease <!--increase/decrease/steady-->
| Gini_ref               = <ref>{{cite web |url=https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SI.POV.GINI?locations=PE |title=Gini Index |publisher=[[World Bank]] |access-date=12 March 2024 |archive-date=3 March 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240303115916/https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SI.POV.GINI?locations=PE |url-status=live}}</ref>
| Gini_rank              = 
| HDI                    = 0.794
| HDI_year               = 2023<!-- Please use the year to which the data refers, not the publication year -->
| HDI_change             = increase<!-- increase/decrease/steady -->
| HDI_ref                = <ref>{{cite web|url=https://hdr.undp.org/data-center/specific-country-data#/countries/PER|title=Human Development Report 2023/24|language=en|publisher=[[United Nations Development Programme]]|date=13 March 2024|access-date=13 March 2024|archive-date=13 March 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240313164319/https://hdr.undp.org/system/files/documents/global-report-document/hdr2023-24reporten.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref>
| HDI_rank               = 79th
| currency               = [[Peruvian sol]]
| currency_code          = PEN
| time_zone              = [[Time in Peru|PET]]
| utc_offset             = −05:00
| date_format            = dd/mm/yyyy ([[Common Era|CE]])
| drives_on              = right
| calling_code           = [[Telephone numbers in Peru|+51]]
| iso3166code            = PE
| cctld                  = [[.pe]]
| religion               = {{unbulleted list
 |{{Tree list}}
*94.5% [[Religion in Peru#Christianity|Christianity]]
**76.0% [[Catholic Church in Peru|Catholicism]]
**18.5% other [[List of Christian denominations|Christian]]
{{Tree list/end}}
|5.1% [[Irreligion in Latin America|no religion]]|0.4% other}}
| religion_ref           = <ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.inei.gob.pe/media/MenuRecursivo/publicaciones_digitales/Est/Lib1539/libro.pdf |title=Perú: Perfil Sociodemográfico |page=231 |website=Instituto Nacional de Estadística e Informática |access-date=27 September 2018 |archive-date=11 February 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200211135110/https://www.inei.gob.pe/media/MenuRecursivo/publicaciones_digitales/Est/Lib1539/libro.pdf |url-status=live}}</ref>
| religion_year          = 2017{{efn|name=d| The question about religion included in the [[2017 Peru Census|2017 National Census]] was addressed to people aged 12 and over.}}
}}

'''Peru''',{{efn|{{IPAc-en|audio=en-us-Peru.ogg|p|ə|ˈ|r|uː}} {{respell|pə|ROO}}; {{langx|es|link=no|Perú}} {{IPA|es|peˈɾu|}}; {{langx|qu|Piruw}} {{IPA|qu|pɪɾʊw|}};<ref>Quechua name used by government of Peru is ''Perú'' (see Quechua-language version of Peru Parliament [http://www.congreso.gob.pe/_quechua/index.htm website] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100730230845/http://www.congreso.gob.pe/_quechua/index.htm |date=30 July 2010}} and Quechua-language version of Peru Constitution [https://web.archive.org/web/20110205010758/http://www.congreso.gob.pe/_quechua/Constitucion.pdf but common Quechua name is ''Piruw'']</ref> {{langx|ay|Piruw}} {{IPA|ay|pɪɾʊw|}}}} officially the '''Republic of Peru''',{{efn|{{langx|es|{{audio|ES-pe - República del Perú.ogg|República del Perú}}}}<!-- {{IPA|es|reˈpuβlika ðel peˈɾu|}} -->}} is a country in western [[South America]]. It is bordered to the north by [[Ecuador]] and [[Colombia]], to the east by [[Brazil]], to the southeast by [[Bolivia]], to the south by [[Chile]], and to the south and west by the Pacific Ocean. Peru is a [[Megadiverse countries|megadiverse country]], with habitats ranging from the arid plains of the Pacific coastal region in the west, to the peaks of the [[Andes]] mountains extending from the north to the southeast of the country, to the tropical [[Amazon basin]] rainforest in the east with the [[Amazon River]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.sernanp.gob.pe/sernanp/archivos/imagenes/vida/Peru-%20Pais%20Megadiverso.pdf |title=Perú: País megadiverso |trans-title=Peru: Megadiverse country |publisher=Servicio Nacional de Áreas Naturales Protegidas |language=es |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140622152015/http://www.sernanp.gob.pe/sernanp/archivos/imagenes/vida/Peru-%20Pais%20Megadiverso.pdf |archive-date=22 June 2014}}</ref> Peru has [[Demographics of Peru|a population]] of over 32 million, and its capital and largest city is [[Lima]]. At {{convert|1,285,216|km2|sqmi|abbr=on}}, Peru is the [[List of countries and dependencies by area|19th largest country in the world]], and the [[List of South American countries by area|third largest in South America]].

[[Pre-Columbian Peru|Peruvian territory]] was home to [[Andean civilizations|several cultures]] during the ancient and medieval periods, and has one of the longest histories of civilization of any country, tracing its heritage back to the 10th millennium BCE [[Caral–Supe civilization]], the earliest civilization in the Americas and considered one of the [[Cradle of civilization|cradles of civilization]]. Notable succeeding cultures and civilizations include the [[Nazca culture]], the [[Moche culture|Moche]], [[Wari Empire|Wari]] and [[Tiwanaku Empire|Tiwanaku]] empires, the [[Kingdom of Cusco]], and the [[Inca Empire]], the largest known state in the [[Pre-Columbian era|pre-Columbian]] Americas. The [[Spanish Empire]] conquered the region in the 16th century and [[Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor|Charles V]] [[Viceroyalty of Peru|established a viceroyalty]] with the official name of the Kingdom of Peru that encompassed most of its South American territories, with its capital in [[Lima]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Wilmer Angel |first1=Aguilar Pereda |title=Establecimiento y organización del virreinato del Perú |journal=[[Universidad Nacional de Trujillo]] |date=2019 |url=https://dspace.unitru.edu.pe/server/api/core/bitstreams/b4664398-8f69-4d88-b426-c04edaa8cc8d/content |access-date=19 March 2024 |archive-date=19 March 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240319041111/https://dspace.unitru.edu.pe/server/api/core/bitstreams/b4664398-8f69-4d88-b426-c04edaa8cc8d/content |url-status=live}}</ref> Higher education started in the Americas with the official establishment of the [[National University of San Marcos]] in Lima in 1551.

Peru formally proclaimed independence from Spain in 1821, and following the military campaigns of [[Bernardo O'Higgins]], [[José de San Martín]], and [[Simón Bolívar]], as well as the decisive [[battle of Ayacucho]], it [[Peruvian War of Independence|completed its independence in 1824]]. In the ensuing years, the country first suffered from political instability until a period of relative [[Guano Era|economic and political stability]] began due to the exploitation of [[guano]] that ended with the [[War of the Pacific]] (1879–1884). Throughout the 20th century, Peru grappled with political and social instability, including the [[Internal conflict in Peru|internal conflict]] between the state and guerrilla groups, interspersed with periods of economic growth. Implementation of {{lang|es|[[Plan Verde]]}}<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Back |first1=Michele |url=https://repositoriodigital.bnp.gob.pe/bnp/recursos/2/html/Racismo-y-lenguaje/286/ |title=Racialization and Language: Interdisciplinary Perspectives From Perú |last2=Zavala |first2=Virginia |publisher=[[Routledge]] |year=2018 |pages=286–291 |quote=At the end of the 1980s, a group of military elites secretly developed an analysis of Peruvian society called ''El cuaderno verde''. This analysis established the policies that the following government would have to carry out in order to defeat Shining Path and rescue the Peruvian economy from the deep crisis in which it found itself. ''El cuaderno verde'' was passed onto the national press in 1993, after some of these policies were enacted by President Fujimori. |access-date=4 August 2021 |archive-date=4 August 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210804105110/https://repositoriodigital.bnp.gob.pe/bnp/recursos/2/html/Racismo-y-lenguaje/286/ |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |author=Alfredo Schulte-Bockholt |title=The politics of organized crime and the organized crime of politics: a study in criminal power |publisher=Lexington Books |year=2006 |isbn=978-0-7391-1358-5 |pages=114–118 |chapter=Chapter 5: Elites, Cocaine, and Power in Colombia and Peru |quote=important members of the officer corps, particularly within the army, had been contemplating a military coup and the establishment of an authoritarian regime, or a so-called directed democracy. The project was known as 'Plan Verde', the Green Plan. ... Fujimori essentially adopted the Green Plan and the military became a partner in the regime. ... The self-coup, of April 5, 1992, dissolved the Congress and the country's constitution and allowed for the implementation of the most important components of the Green Plan}}</ref> shifted Peru towards [[neoliberal economics]] under the authoritarian rule of [[Alberto Fujimori]] and [[Vladimiro Montesinos]] in the 1990s, with the former's political ideology of [[Fujimorism]] leaving a lasting imprint on the country's governance that continues to present day.<ref name="Villalba-2022" /><ref>{{cite book |last1=Asensio |first1=Raúl |url=https://fondoeditorial.iep.org.pe/producto/el-profe-como-pedro-castillo-se-convirtio-en-presidente-del-peru-y-que-pasara-a-continuacion-2/ |title=El Profe: Cómo Pedro Castillo se convirtió en presidente del Perú y qué pasará a continuación |last2=Camacho |first2=Gabriela |last3=González |first3=Natalia |last4=Grompone |first4=Romeo |last5=Pajuelo Teves |first5=Ramón |last6=Peña Jimenez |first6=Omayra |last7=Moscoso |first7=Macarena |last8=Vásquez |first8=Yerel |last9=Sosa Villagarcia |first9=Paolo |date=August 2021 |publisher=[[Institute of Peruvian Studies]] |isbn=978-612-326-084-2 |edition=1 |location=[[Lima, Peru]] |pages=92 |language=es |access-date=17 November 2021 |archive-date=5 November 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221105081352/https://fondoeditorial.iep.org.pe/producto/el-profe-como-pedro-castillo-se-convirtio-en-presidente-del-peru-y-que-pasara-a-continuacion-2/ |url-status=live}}</ref> The 2000s marked economic expansion and poverty reduction, but the subsequent decade revealed long-existing [[Centralismo (Peru)|sociopolitical vulnerabilities]], exacerbated by a [[Peruvian political crisis (2017–present)|political crisis]] instigated by [[Congress of the Republic of Peru|Congress]] and the [[COVID-19 pandemic in Peru|COVID-19 pandemic]], precipitating the period of [[Peruvian protests (2022–2023)|unrest beginning in 2022]].<ref name="Banda-2023" />

The [[sovereign state]] of Peru is a [[Representative democracy|representative democratic]] republic divided into [[Administrative divisions of Peru|25 regions]]. Its main economic activities include [[Mineral industry of Peru|mining]], [[Manufacturing in Peru|manufacturing]], agriculture and fishing, along with other growing sectors such as [[Telecommunications in Peru|telecommunications]] and [[biotechnology]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://biocanperu.minam.gob.pe/ciisbPeru/wp-content/uploads/2014/11/2-MD-AQP-Biotecnologia-moderna-y-bioseg.pdf |title=Módulo de capacitación en recursos genéticos y bioseguridad |trans-title=Training module on genetic resources and biosafety |publisher=[[Ministry of Environment (Peru)|Ministerio de Ambiente de la República de Perú]] |author=David E. Castro Garro |language=es |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180424072625/http://biocanperu.minam.gob.pe/ciisbPeru/wp-content/uploads/2014/11/2-MD-AQP-Biotecnologia-moderna-y-bioseg.pdf |archive-date=24 April 2018}}</ref> The country forms part of [[The Pacific Pumas]], a political and economic grouping of countries along Latin America's Pacific coast that share common trends of positive growth, stable macroeconomic foundations, improved governance and an openness to global integration. Peru ranks high in [[Freedom in the World|social freedom]];<ref>[https://freedomhouse.org/sites/default/files/FH_FIW_2017_Report_Final.pdf "Freedom in the World 2017 – Populists and Autocrats: The Dual Threat to Global Democracy"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170727054703/https://freedomhouse.org/sites/default/files/FH_FIW_2017_Report_Final.pdf |date=27 July 2017}} by [[Freedom House]], 31 January 2017</ref> it is an active member of the [[Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation]], the [[Pacific Alliance]], the [[Comprehensive and Progressive Agreement for Trans-Pacific Partnership]] and the [[World Trade Organization]]; and is considered as a [[middle power]].<ref>{{cite book|last1=McKercher|first1=B. J. C.|title=Routledge Handbook of Diplomacy and Statecraft|date=2012|publisher=Routledge|isbn=9781136664366|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EtCoAgAAQBAJ|language=en|quote=a Middle Power like Peru lack the diplomatic and other resources...|access-date=30 May 2020|archive-date=17 April 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210417043716/https://books.google.com/books?id=EtCoAgAAQBAJ|url-status=live}}</ref>

Peru's population includes [[Mestizo]]s, [[Indigenous peoples of Peru|Amerindians]], [[White Latin Americans|Europeans]], [[Afro–Latin Americans|Africans]] and [[Asian Latin Americans|Asians]]. The main spoken language is [[Peruvian Spanish|Spanish]], although a significant number of Peruvians speak [[Quechuan languages]], [[Aymara language|Aymara]], or other [[Languages of Peru|Indigenous languages]]. This mixture of cultural traditions has resulted in a wide diversity of expressions in fields such as [[Peruvian art|art]], [[Peruvian cuisine|cuisine]], [[Peruvian literature|literature]], and [[Music of Peru|music]]. Peru has recently gained international recognition for its vibrant gastronomy, blending Indigenous, Spanish, African, and Asian influences. Lima is now considered a global culinary capital, home to award-winning restaurants like [[Central Restaurante|Central]] and Maido.<ref>{{Cite web |date=23 May 2025 |title=A guide to Lima: South America's culinary capital |url=https://www.nationalgeographic.com/travel/article/lima-culinary-guide-south-america |access-date=23 May 2025 |website=Travel |language=en}}</ref>

{{TOC limit|3}}

== Etymology ==
The name of the country may be derived from ''Birú'', the name of a local ruler who lived near the [[Bay of San Miguel]], Panama City, in the early 16th century.<ref>Porras Barrenechea, Raúl. ''El nombre del Perú''. Lima: Talleres Gráficos P.L. Villanueva, 1968, p. 83.</ref> Spanish [[conquistador]]s, who arrived in 1522, believed this was the southernmost part of the [[New World]].<ref>Raúl Porras Barrenechea, ''El nombre del Perú'', p. 84.</ref> When [[Francisco Pizarro]] invaded the regions farther south, they came to be designated ''Birú'' or ''Perú''.<ref>Raúl Porras Barrenechea, ''El nombre del Perú'', p. 86.</ref>

An alternative history is provided by the contemporary writer [[Inca Garcilaso de la Vega]], son of an Inca princess and a conquistador. He said the name ''Birú'' was that of a common Amerindian who was happened upon by the crew of a ship on an exploratory mission for governor [[Pedro Arias Dávila]] and went on to relate more instances of misunderstandings due to the lack of a common language.<ref>Vega, Garcilasco, ''Commentarios Reales de los Incas'', Editorial Mantaro, Lima, ed. 1998. pp. 14–15. First published in Lisbon in 1609.</ref>

The [[Spanish empire|Spanish crown]] gave the name legal status with the 1529 ''[[Francisco Pizarro#Capitulación de Toledo|Capitulación de Toledo]]'', which designated the newly encountered [[Inca Empire]] as the province of Peru.<ref>Raúl Porras Barrenechea, ''El nombre del Perú'', p. 87.</ref> In 1561, the rebel [[Lope de Aguirre]] declared himself the "Prince" of an independent Peru, which was cut short by his arrest and execution. Under Spanish rule, the country adopted the denomination ''[[Viceroyalty of Peru]]'', which became the ''Peruvian Republic'' from its [[Peruvian War of Independence|independence]] until [[Constitution of Peru#1979 Constitution|1979]], when it adopted its current name of ''Republic of Peru''.<ref>{{Cite constitution|article=I|polity=Peru|date=1979}}</ref>

== History ==
<!--lots of paragraphs without citations--> {{main|History of Peru}}

{{see also|Periodization of pre-Columbian Peru|Agricultural history of Peru|Economic history of Peru}}

===Prehistory and Pre-Columbian Peru===
{{main|Pre-Columbian Peru|Andean civilizations}}
[[File:Caral-25.jpg|alt=|left|thumb|Remains of a [[Norte Chico civilization|Caral/Norte Chico]] pyramid in the arid Supe Valley]]
The earliest evidences of human presence in Peruvian territory have been dated to approximately 12,500 [[Common Era|BCE]] in the [[Huaca Prieta]] settlement.<ref>{{cite book |last=Dillehay |first=Tom D. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GIIlDwAAQBAJ |title=Where the Land Meets the Sea |publisher=University of Texas Press |year=2017 |isbn=9781477311493 |page=4 |access-date=30 December 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200317022348/https://www.google.com/books/edition/Where_the_Land_Meets_the_Sea/GIIlDwAAQBAJ |archive-date=17 March 2020 |url-status=live}}</ref>  Andean societies were based on agriculture, using techniques such as [[irrigation]] and [[Terrace (earthworks)|terracing]]; [[camelid]] husbandry and fishing were also important. Organization relied on [[Reciprocity (cultural anthropology)|reciprocity]] and [[Redistribution (cultural anthropology)|redistribution]] because these societies had no notion of market or money. The oldest known complex society in Peru, the [[Caral–Supe civilization|Caral-Supe civilization]], flourished along the coast of the Pacific Ocean between 3,000 and 1,800 BCE.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The Ancient Andes |url=https://historyguild.org/the-ancient-andes/ |access-date=18 May 2025 |website=History Guild |language=en-GB}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=UNESCO |url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1269/ |access-date=18 May 2025 |website=whc.unesco.org}}</ref> These early developments were followed by archaeological cultures that developed mostly around the coastal and Andean regions throughout Peru. The [[Cupisnique]] culture which flourished from around 1000 to 200 BCE<ref>{{cite journal |last=Cordy-Collins |first=Alana |date=1992 |title=Archaism or Tradition?: The Decapitation Theme in Cupisnique and Moche Iconography |journal=Latin American Antiquity |volume=3 |issue=3 |pages=206–220 |doi=10.2307/971715 |jstor=971715 |s2cid=56406255}}</ref> along what is now Peru's [[Pacific coast]] was an example of early pre-[[Inca Empire|Inca culture]].
[[File:Moche_earrings.jpg|alt=|thumb|[[Moche culture|Moche]] earrings depicting warriors, made of turquoise and gold (1–800 CE)]]
The [[Chavín culture]] that developed from 1500 to 300 BCE was probably more of a religious than a political phenomenon, with their religious center in [[Chavín de Huantar]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Chavin (Archaeological Site) |url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/330 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160508102511/https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/330 |archive-date=8 May 2016 |access-date=27 July 2014 |publisher=UNESCO}}</ref> After the decline of the Chavin culture around the beginning of the 1st century CE, a series of localized and specialized cultures rose and fell, both on the coast and in the highlands, during the next thousand years. On the coast, these included the civilizations of the [[Paracas culture|Paracas]], [[Nazca culture|Nazca]], [[Wari culture|Wari]], and the more outstanding [[Chimú culture|Chimu]] and [[Moche culture|Moche]].

The Moche, who reached their apogee in the first millennium CE, were renowned for their irrigation system which fertilized their arid terrain, their sophisticated ceramic pottery, their lofty buildings, and clever metalwork.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Beck |first1=Roger B. |url=https://archive.org/details/mcdougallittellw00beck |title=World History: Patterns of Interaction |last2=Black |first2=Linda |last3=Krieger |first3=Larry S. |last4=Naylor |first4=Phillip C. |last5=Shabaka |first5=Dahia Ibo |publisher=McDougal Littell |year=1999 |isbn=0-395-87274-X |location=Evanston, IL |url-access=registration}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Mochica culture, pre-Inca in northern Peru |work=Sobre Peru |date=11 September 2009 |url=http://sobre-peru.com/2009/09/11/cultura-mochica-pre-inca-en-el-norte-peruano/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160629145512/http://sobre-peru.com/2009/09/11/cultura-mochica-pre-inca-en-el-norte-peruano/ |archive-date=29 June 2016 }}</ref> The Chimu were the great city builders of pre-Inca civilization; as a loose confederation of walled cities scattered along the coast of northern Peru, the Chimu flourished from about 1140 to 1450.<ref name="Keatinge22" /><ref>{{Cite web |title=UNESCO 2 |url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/366/ |access-date=18 May 2025 |website=whc.unesco.org}}</ref> Their capital was at [[Chan Chan]] outside of modern-day [[Trujillo, Peru|Trujillo]].<ref name="Keatinge22" /> In the highlands, both the [[Tiwanaku Empire|Tiahuanaco]] culture, near [[Lake Titicaca]] in both Peru and Bolivia,<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Blom |first1=Deborah E. |last2=Janusek |first2=John W. |date=2004 |title=Making Place: Humans as Dedications in Tiwanaku |journal=World Archaeology |volume=36 |pages=123–141 |doi=10.1080/0043824042000192623 |s2cid=154741300}}</ref> and the Wari culture, near the present-day city of [[Ayacucho]], developed large urban settlements and wide-ranging state systems between 500 and 1000 CE.<ref>[http://countrystudies.us/peru/2.htm Pre-Inca Cultures] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161103012150/http://countrystudies.us/peru/2.htm|date=3 November 2016}}. countrystudies.us.</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=UNESCO 3 |url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/567/ |access-date=18 May 2025 |website=whc.unesco.org}}</ref>
[[File:Machu_Picchu,_Peru.jpg|alt=|left|thumb|The citadel of [[Machu Picchu]], an iconic symbol of pre-Columbian Peru]]
In the 15th century, the [[Inca Empire|Incas]] emerged as a powerful state which, in the span of a century, formed the [[Inca Empire|largest empire]] in the [[Pre-Columbian era|pre-Columbian Americas]] with their capital in [[Cusco]].<ref>Rowe, John (1948). "The Kingdom of Chimor". ''Acta Americana''.</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Dunnell |first=Tony |date=11 May 2019 |title=Ten Interesting Facts About The Inca Empire |url=https://www.savacations.com/ten-interesting-facts-inca-empire/ |access-date=18 May 2025 |website=SA Vacations |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica. "Pachacuti Inca Yupanqui". Encyclopedia Britannica, 1 April 2024, https://www.britannica.com/biography/Pachacuti-Inca-Yupanqui. Accessed 18 May 2025</ref> The Incas of Cusco originally represented one of the small and relatively minor ethnic groups, the [[Quechua people|Quechuas]]. Gradually, as early as the thirteenth century, they began to expand and incorporate their neighbors. Inca expansion was slow until about the middle of the fifteenth century, when the pace of conquest began to accelerate, particularly under the rule of the emperor [[Pachacuti]].<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Demarest |first1=Arthur Andrew |url={{google books |plainurl=y |id=IqecX148zLsC|page=57}} |title=Religion and Empire: The Dynamics of Aztec and Inca Expansionism |last2=Conrad |first2=Geoffrey W. |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=1984 |isbn=0-521-31896-3 |location=Cambridge |pages=57–59}}</ref> Under his rule and that of his son, [[Topa Inca Yupanqui]], the Incas came to control most of the Andean region, with a population of 9 to 16 million inhabitants under their rule. Pachacuti also promulgated a comprehensive code of laws to govern his far-flung empire, while consolidating his absolute temporal and spiritual authority as the God of the Sun who ruled from a magnificently rebuilt Cusco.<ref>Peru [http://countrystudies.us/peru/3.htm The Incas] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161103012145/http://countrystudies.us/peru/3.htm|date=3 November 2016}}</ref> 

From 1438 to 1533, the Incas used a variety of methods, from conquest to peaceful assimilation, to incorporate a large portion of western South America, centered on the [[Andes|Andean]] mountain ranges, from southern Colombia to northern Chile, between the Pacific Ocean in the west and the Amazon rainforest in the east. The official language of the empire was [[Quechuan languages|Quechua]],<ref>Torero Fernández de Córdoba, Alfredo. (1970) "Lingüística e historia de la Sociedad Andina", Anales Científicos de la Universidad Agraria, VIII, 3–4, págs. 249–251. Lima: UNALM.</ref> although hundreds of local languages and dialects were spoken. The Inca referred to their empire as {{lang|qu|Tawantinsuyu}} which can be translated as "The Four Regions" or "The Four United Provinces." Many local forms of worship persisted in the empire, most of them concerning local sacred {{lang|qu|[[Huaca|Huacas]]}}, but the Inca leadership encouraged the worship of [[Inti]], the sun god and imposed its sovereignty above other cults such as that of [[Pachamama]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=The Inca – All Empires |url=http://www.allempires.com/article/index.php?q=inca |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120120164828/http://www.allempires.com/article/index.php?q=inca |archive-date=20 January 2012 |website=www.allempires.com}}</ref> The Incas considered their King, the [[Sapa Inca]], to be the "[[Solar deity|child of the sun]]."<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20091110041802/http://www.nflc.org/Reach/7ca/enCAInca.htm "The Inca"] at the [[Wayback Machine]] (archived 10 November 2009) ''The National Foreign Language Center at the University of Maryland.'' 29 May 2007. Retrieved 27 July 2014.</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last= |first= |date=11 March 2015 |title=Inca: Empire, Religion & Civilization |url=https://www.history.com/articles/inca |access-date=18 May 2025 |website=HISTORY |language=en}}</ref>

===Conquest and colonial period===
{{main|Spanish conquest of Peru|Viceroyalty of Peru}}
[[File:Luis Montero - The Funerals of Inca Atahualpa - Google Art Project.jpg|thumb|upright=1.21|''Los funerales de Atahualpa'' (1867) by Luis Montero. [[Atahualpa]] was the last [[Sapa Inca]], executed by the Spaniards on 29 August 1533.]]
[[Atahualpa]] (or Atahuallpa), the last [[Sapa Inca]], became emperor when he defeated and executed his older half-brother [[Huáscar]] in a civil war sparked by the death of their father,<ref>{{Citation |last=Lavallé |first=Bernard |title=7 El fin de Atahualpa |date=2004 |work=Francisco Pizarro : Biografía de una conquista |pages=123–139 |url=https://books.openedition.org/ifea/936 |access-date=19 March 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240319053716/https://books.openedition.org/ifea/936 |archive-date=19 March 2024 |url-status=live |series=Travaux de l'IFEA |place=Lima |publisher=Institut français d’études andines |language=es |isbn=978-2-8218-2650-2}}</ref> Inca Huayna Capac. In December 1532, a party of conquistadors (supported by the [[Chanka|Chankas]], [[Huanca people|Huancas]], [[Cañari|Cañaris]] and [[Chachapoya culture|Chachapoyas]] as [[Indian auxiliaries]]) led by [[Francisco Pizarro]] defeated and captured the Inca Emperor Atahualpa in the [[Battle of Cajamarca]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Battle of Cajamarca {{!}} Summary {{!}} Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/event/Battle-of-Cajamarca-1532 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210204140859/https://www.britannica.com/event/Battle-of-Cajamarca-1532 |archive-date=4 February 2021 |access-date=19 March 2024 |website=www.britannica.com |language=en}}</ref> After years of preliminary exploration and military conflicts, it was the first step in a long campaign that took decades of fighting but ended in Spanish victory and colonization of the region known as the [[Viceroyalty of Peru]] with its capital at [[Lima]], which was then known as {{lang|es|La Ciudad de los Reyes}} (The City of Kings). The conquest of Peru led to spin-off campaigns throughout the viceroyalty as well as expeditions towards the Amazon Basin as in the case of Spanish efforts to quell Amerindian resistance. The last Inca resistance was suppressed when the Spaniards annihilated the [[Neo-Inca State]] in [[Vilcabamba, Peru|Vilcabamba]] in 1572.

The Indigenous population dramatically collapsed overwhelmingly due to epidemic diseases introduced by the Spanish as well as exploitation and socio-economic change.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Lovell |first=W. George |year=1992 |title='Heavy Shadows and Black Night': Disease and Depopulation in Colonial Spanish America |journal=Annals of the Association of American Geographers |volume=82 |issue=3 |pages=426–443 |doi=10.1111/j.1467-8306.1992.tb01968.x |jstor=2563354}}</ref> Viceroy [[Francisco de Toledo]] reorganized the country in the 1570s with gold and silver mining as its main economic activity and Amerindian [[Mit'a|forced labor]] as its primary workforce. With the discovery of the great silver and gold lodes at [[Potosí]] (present-day Bolivia) and [[Huancavelica]], the viceroyalty flourished as an important provider of mineral resources. Peruvian [[bullion]] provided revenue for the Spanish Crown and fueled a complex trade network that extended as far as Europe and the Philippines. The commercial and population exchanges between Latin America and Asia undergone via the [[Manila Galleon|Manila Galleons]] transiting through Acapulco, had [[Callao]] at Peru as the furthest endpoint of the trade route in the Americas.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Schottenhammer |first=Angela |year=2019 |title=Connecting China with the Pacific World? |url=https://www.academia.edu/44625493 |url-status=live |journal=Orientierungen. Zeitschrift zur Kultur Asiens |page=144 |issn=0936-4099 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210527045556/https://www.academia.edu/44625493/Connecting_China_with_the_Pacific_World |archive-date=27 May 2021 |access-date=27 May 2021 |quote=The wreck excavation could prove that European style jewelry was being made in the Philippines. Some 56 intact storage jars were discovered. Investigations revealed that they had come from kilns in South China, Cochin China (Vietnam), and Siam (Thailand), and one was of Spanish design. The archaeology of the Nuestra Señora de la Concepción, consequently, also provides us with intriguing new insights into the trans-Pacific trade connection and the commodities involved. Each time a galleon arrived at Acapulco, a market, la feria, was organized. This attracted all kinds of people such as Indian peddlers, Mexican and Peruvian merchants, soldiers, the king's officials, and friars, as well as a few Chinese and some Filipinos. From Acapulco, the goods were transported into the hinterlands, into Mexico City, and various other places, including Peru. The Peruvian port at that time was Callao and the Ciudad de los Reyes, that is Lima, the capital of the Viceroyalty of Peru. Generally speaking, much of what was not sold (rezagos) directly in Acapulco was redirected towards Peru. Peruvian ships, mainly loaded with silver, mercury, cacao from Guayaquil, and Peruvian wines, sailed to ports along the Mexican and Guatemalan coasts, returning with Asian goods and leftover cargo from the galleon ships. Besides Callao and Guayaquil, Paita was also frequently a port of call.}}</ref> In relation to this, Don [[Sebastian Hurtado de Corcuera]], governor of Panama was also responsible for settling [[Zamboanga City]] in the Philippines by employing Peruvian soldiers and colonists.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Second book of the second part of the Conquests of the Filipinas Islands, and chronicle of the religious of our Father, St. Augustine |url=http://www.zamboanga.com/html/history_1634_moro_attacks.htm |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210228083013/https://www.zamboanga.com/html/history_1634_moro_attacks.htm |archive-date=28 February 2021 |access-date=18 February 2021 |website=Zamboanga City History |quote=He (Governor Don Sebastían Hurtado de Corcuera) brought a great reenforcement of soldiers, many of them from Perú, as he made his voyage to Acapulco from that kingdom.}}</ref> [[History of slavery#Americas|African slaves]] were added to the labor population to expand the workforce. The expansion of a colonial administrative apparatus and bureaucracy paralleled the economic reorganization.

With the conquest started the spread of Christianity in South America; most people were forcefully converted to [[Catholic Church|Catholicism]], with Spanish clerics believing like Puritan divines of English colonies later that the Native Peoples "had been corrupted by the Devil", who was working "through them to frustrate" their foundations.<ref>Russell Bourne, ''Gods of War, Gods of Peace'' (New York: Harcourt Books, 2002), 7–9.</ref> It only took a generation to convert the population. They built churches in every city and replaced some of the Inca temples with churches, such as the [[Coricancha]] in the city of Cusco. The church employed the [[Inquisition]], making use of torture to ensure that newly converted Catholics did not stray to other religions or beliefs, and monastery schools, educating girls, especially of the Inca nobility and upper class, "until they were old enough either to profess [to become a nun] or to leave the monastery and assume the role ('estado') in the Christian society that their fathers planned to erect" in Peru.<ref>Kathryn Burns, ''Colonial Habits'' (Durham and London: Duke University Press, 1999), 15–40.</ref> Peruvian Catholicism follows the [[syncretism]] found in many Latin American countries, in which religious native rituals have been integrated with Christian celebrations.<ref name="discover-peru.org2" /> In this endeavor, the church came to play an important role in the [[acculturation]] of the Natives, drawing them into the cultural orbit of the Spanish settlers.

[[File:TupacAmaruII.jpg|thumb|210x210px|[[Túpac Amaru II]]]]
By the 18th century, declining silver production and economic diversification greatly diminished royal income. In response, the Crown enacted the [[Bourbon Reforms]], a series of [[Edict|edicts]] that increased taxes and partitioned the [[Viceroyalty]]. The new laws provoked [[Rebellion of Túpac Amaru II|Túpac Amaru II's rebellion]] and other revolts, all of which were suppressed. As a result of these and other changes, the Spaniards and their [[Creole peoples|creole]] successors came to monopolize control over the land, seizing many of the best lands abandoned by the massive native depopulation. However, the Spanish did not resist the [[Portuguese colonization of the Americas|Portuguese expansion of Brazil]] across the meridian. The [[Treaty of Tordesillas]] was rendered meaningless between 1580 and 1640 while [[Iberian Union|Spain controlled Portugal]]. The need to ease communication and trade with Spain led to the split of the viceroyalty and the creation of new viceroyalties of [[Viceroyalty of New Granada|New Granada]] and [[Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata|Rio de la Plata]] at the expense of the territories that formed the [[Viceroyalty of Peru]]; this reduced the power, prominence and importance of Lima as the viceroyal capital and shifted the lucrative [[Andes|Andean]] trade to [[Buenos Aires]] and [[Bogotá]], while the fall of the mining and textile production accelerated the progressive decay of the Viceroyalty of Peru.

Eventually, the viceroyalty would dissolve, as with much of the Spanish empire, when challenged by national independence movements at the beginning of the nineteenth century. These movements led to the formation of the majority of modern-day countries of South America in the territories that at one point or another had constituted the Viceroyalty of Peru.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Peru |url=http://countrystudies.us/peru/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161103011538/http://countrystudies.us/peru/ |archive-date=3 November 2016 |access-date=27 July 2014 |website=countrystudies.us}}</ref> The conquest and colony brought a mix of cultures and ethnicities that did not exist before the Spanish conquered the Peruvian territory. Even though many of the Inca traditions were lost or diluted, new customs, traditions and knowledge were added, creating a rich mixed Peruvian culture.<ref name="discover-peru.org2" /> Two of the most important Indigenous rebellions against the Spanish were that of [[Juan Santos Atahualpa]] in 1742, and Rebellion of [[Túpac Amaru II]] in 1780 around the highlands near Cuzco.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |title=Túpac Amaru II |encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/biography/Tupac-Amaru-II |access-date=10 July 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190603132731/https://www.britannica.com/biography/Tupac-Amaru-II |archive-date=3 June 2019 |url-status=live}}</ref>

===Independence===
<!--4 paragraphs with no citations--> {{main|Peruvian War of Independence}}
[[File:Batalla_de_Ayacucho_by_Martín_Tovar_y_Tovar_(1827_-_1902).jpg|alt=|thumb|The [[Battle of Ayacucho]] was decisive in ensuring Peruvian independence.|left]]
In the early 19th century, while most South American nations were swept by [[Decolonization of the Americas|wars of independence]], Peru remained a [[Royalist (Spanish American Revolution)|royalist]] stronghold. As the elite vacillated between emancipation and loyalty to the Spanish monarchy, [[Independence of Peru|independence]] was achieved only after the occupation by military campaigns of [[José de San Martín]] and [[Simón Bolívar]].

The economic crises, the loss of power of Spain in Europe, the [[American Revolutionary War|war of independence in North America]], and Native uprisings all contributed to a favorable climate to the development of emancipation ideas among the [[Criollo people|C''riollo'']] population in South America. However, the Criollo oligarchy in Peru enjoyed privileges and remained loyal to the Spanish Crown. The liberation movement started in Argentina where autonomous juntas were created as a result of the loss of authority of the Spanish government over its colonies.

After fighting for the independence of the Viceroyalty of Rio de la Plata, [[José de San Martín]] created the [[Army of the Andes]] and [[Crossing of the Andes|crossed the Andes]] in 21 days. Once in Chile, he joined forces with Chilean army General [[Bernardo O'Higgins]] and liberated the country in the battles of [[Battle of Chacabuco|Chacabuco]] and [[Battle of Maipú|Maipú]] in 1818.<ref>Scheina, 2003, ''Latin America's Wars: The Age of the Caudillo, 1791–1899'', p. 58.</ref> On 7 September 1820, a fleet of eight warships arrived in the port of [[Paracas (municipality)|Paracas]] under the command of General José de San Martín and [[Thomas Cochrane, 10th Earl of Dundonald|Thomas Cochrane]], who was serving in the Chilean Navy. Immediately on 26 October, they took control of the town of [[Pisco, Peru|Pisco]]. San Martín settled in [[Huacho]] on 12 November, where he established his headquarters while Cochrane sailed north and blockaded the port of [[Callao]] in Lima. At the same time in the north, [[Guayaquil]] was occupied by rebel forces under the command of Gregorio Escobedo. Because Peru was the stronghold of the Spanish government in South America, San Martín's strategy to liberate Peru was to use diplomacy. He sent representatives to Lima urging the [[Viceroy]] that Peru be granted independence, however, all negotiations proved unsuccessful.

[[File:Proclamación de la Independencia del Perú - Juan Lepiani.jpg|thumb|San Martín proclaiming the independence of Peru. Painting by [[Juan Lepiani]].]]
The Viceroy of Peru, [[Joaquín de la Pezuela, 1st Marquess of Viluma|Joaquín de la Pazuela]] named [[José de la Serna, 1st Count of the Andes|José de la Serna]] commander-in-chief of the loyalist army to protect Lima from the threatened invasion by San Martín. On 29 January, de la Serna organized a [[Coup d'état|coup]] against de la Pazuela, which was recognized by Spain and he was named Viceroy of Peru. This internal power struggle contributed to the success of the liberating army. To avoid a military confrontation, San Martín met the newly appointed viceroy, José de la Serna, and proposed to create a [[constitutional monarchy]], a proposal that was turned down. De la Serna abandoned the city, and on 12 July 1821, San Martín occupied Lima and declared Peruvian independence on 28 July 1821. He created the first Peruvian flag. [[Upper Peru]] (present-day Bolivia) remained as a Spanish stronghold until the army of [[Simón Bolívar]] liberated it three years later. José de San Martín was declared Protector of Peru. Peruvian national identity was forged during this period, as Bolivarian projects for a [[Congress of Panama|Latin American Confederation]] floundered and a [[Peru–Bolivian Confederation|union with Bolivia]] proved ephemeral.<ref>Gootenberg (1991) p. 12.</ref>

Simón Bolívar launched his campaign from the north, liberating the [[Viceroyalty of New Granada]] in the Battles of [[Battle of Carabobo|Carabobo]] in 1821 and [[Battle of Pichincha|Pichincha]] a year later. In July 1822, Bolívar and San Martín gathered in the [[Guayaquil Conference]]. Bolívar was left in charge of fully liberating Peru while San Martín retired from politics after the first parliament was assembled. The newly founded [[Congress of the Republic of Peru|Peruvian Congress]] named Bolívar dictator of Peru, giving him the power to organize the military.

With the help of [[Antonio José de Sucre]], they defeated the larger Spanish army in the [[Battle of Junín]] on 6 August 1824 and the decisive [[Battle of Ayacucho]] on 9 December of the same year, consolidating the independence of Peru and Upper Peru. Upper Peru was later established as Bolivia. During the early years of the Republic, endemic struggles for power between military leaders caused political instability.<ref>Discover Peru (Peru cultural society). [http://www.discover-peru.org/peru-history-independence/ War of Independence] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161021143330/http://www.discover-peru.org/peru-history-independence/|date=21 October 2016}}. Retrieved 28 July 2014</ref>

===19th century===
Once independence was proclaimed, San Martín assumed military-political command of the free departments of Peru, under the title of Protector, according to a decree given on 3 August 1821. The works of the Protectorate contributed to the creation of the National Library (in favor of knowledge), the approval of the National Anthem, and the abolition of the mita (in favor of the indigenous people). On 27 December 1821, San Martín created three ministries: Ministry of State and Foreign Affairs, committing Juan García del Río; [[Peruvian Armed Forces|Ministry of War and Navy]], to Bernardo de Monteagudo; and Ministry of Finance, to Hipólito Unanue.

From the 1840s to the 1860s Peru enjoyed [[Guano Era|a period of stability]] under the presidency of [[Ramón Castilla]], through increased state revenues from [[guano]] exports.<ref>Gootenberg (1993) pp. 5–6.</ref> In 1864, a Spanish expedition occupied the Chincha Islands (guano producers) and unleashed an international incident with great consequences in Peruvian internal politics, which led to a coup d'état against President [[Juan Antonio Pezet]], Mariano's government. Peru, with the help of [[Bolivia]], [[Chile]] and [[Ecuador]], sent a declaration of war on Spain. After the battle of Callao on 2 May 1866, the Spanish Navy withdrew from Peru. The government of José Balta was lavish in infrastructure works (construction of the Central Railway) although the first signs of excess government spending were already perceived. By the 1870s the guano resources had been depleted, the country was heavily indebted, and political in-fighting was again on the rise.<ref>Gootenberg (1993) p. 9.</ref>
[[File:Angamos2.jpg|alt=|thumb|The [[Battle of Angamos]], during the [[War of the Pacific]]]]
By 1859, some 41,000 Peruvians had died in the constant civil wars that shook the country since 1829. Thanks to the money from the sale of guano, Peru began to modernize with different public works such as railways; the civil and military bureaucracy grew; The indigenous people stopped paying tribute and the slaves achieved their freedom; The migration policy of Germans, Austrians, Irish and Italians began.

On 5 April 1879, Chile declared war on Peru, unleashing the [[War of the Pacific]], which lasted until 1884. The casus belli was the confrontation between [[Bolivia]] and Chile over a tax problem in which Peru was compromised by the Treaty of Defensive Alliance signed with Bolivia in 1873. However, Peruvian historiography is unanimous in maintaining that the deep cause of ''this'' war was Chile's ambition to take over the nitrate and guano territories of southern Peru. In the first stage of the war, the naval campaign, the Peruvian navy repelled the Chilean attack until 8 October 1879, the day in which the naval combat of Angamos was fought, where the Chilean navy with its ships Cochrane, Blanco Encalada, Loa and Covadonga cornered the monitor [[Huáscar (ironclad)|Huáscar]], the main ship of the Peruvian navy commanded by Admiral AP Miguel Grau, who died in the fray and since then became Peru's greatest hero.

[[File:Batalla de Arica.jpg|thumb|[[Battle of Arica]], painted by [[Juan Lepiani]]]]

Almost five years of war ended with the loss of the [[Tarapacá Department (Peru)|department of Tarapacá]] and the provinces of [[Tacna Province|Tacna]] and [[Arica Province (Peru)|Arica]], in the Atacama region. [[Francisco Bolognesi]] and [[Miguel Grau Seminario|Miguel Grau]] are both renowned heros of the war. Originally Chile committed to a referendum for the cities of Arica and Tacna to be held years later, to self determine their national affiliation. However, Chile refused to apply the Treaty, and neither of the countries could determine the statutory framework. The War of the Pacific was the bloodiest war Peru has fought in. After the War of the Pacific, an extraordinary effort of rebuilding began. The government started to initiate a number of social and economic reforms to recover from the damage of the war. Political stability was achieved only in the early 1900s.

=== 20th century ===
[[File:Protocolo de Río.jpg|thumb|upright|The signing of the [[Rio Protocol]] in January 1942]]
Internal struggles after the war were followed by a period of stability under the [[Civilista Party]], which lasted until the onset of the authoritarian regime of [[Augusto B. Leguía]]. The [[Great Depression]] caused the downfall of Leguía, renewed political turmoil, and the emergence of the [[American Popular Revolutionary Alliance]] (APRA).<ref>Klarén, Peter (2000). ''Peru: society and nationhood in the Andes''. New York: Oxford University Press, pp. 262–276, {{ISBN|0195069285}}.</ref> The rivalry between this organization and a coalition of the elite and the military defined Peruvian politics for the following three decades. A final peace treaty in 1929, signed between Peru and Chile called the [[Treaty of Lima (1929)|Treaty of Lima]], returned [[Tacna]] to Peru. Between 1932 and 1933, Peru was engulfed in a [[Leticia Incident|year-long war with Colombia]] over a territorial dispute involving the [[Amazonas (Colombian department)|Amazonas Department]] and its capital [[Leticia, Amazonas|Leticia]].

In 1941 Peru and Ecuador fought the [[Ecuadorian–Peruvian War]], after which the [[Rio Protocol]] sought to formalize the boundary between those two countries. In a military coup on 29 October 1948, General [[Manuel A. Odría]] became president. Odría's presidency was known as the {{lang|es|Ochenio}}. He came down hard on APRA, momentarily pleasing the oligarchy and all others on the right, but followed a [[Populism|populist]] course that won him great favor with the poor and lower classes. A thriving economy allowed him to indulge in expensive but crowd-pleasing social policies. At the same time, however, [[Civil and political rights|civil rights]] were severely restricted and corruption was rampant throughout his regime. Odría was succeeded by [[Manuel Prado Ugarteche]]. However, widespread allegations of fraud prompted the Peruvian military to depose Prado and install a military junta, via a [[1962 Peruvian coup d'état|coup d'état]] led by [[Ricardo Pérez Godoy]]. Godoy ran a short transitional government and held new elections in 1963, which were won by [[Fernando Belaúnde Terry]] who assumed presidency until 1968. Belaúnde was recognized for his commitment to the democratic process.

[[File:Junta Militar de 1968.jpg|thumb|left|Military Junta of 1968]]
On 3 October 1968 another [[1968 Peruvian coup d'état|coup d'état]] led by a group of officers led by General [[Juan Velasco Alvarado]] brought the army to power with the aim of applying a doctrine of "social progress and integral development", nationalist and reformist, influenced by the [[United Nations Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean]] (UNECLAC) theses on dependence and underdevelopment. Six days after the golpe, Velasco proceeded to nationalize the ''International Petroleum Corporation'' (IPC), the North American company that exploited Peruvian oil, and then launched a reform of the state apparatus, an agrarian reform. It was the biggest agrarian reform ever undertaken in Latin America: it abolished the [[Latifundium|latifunda]] system and modernized agriculture through a more equitable redistribution of land (90% of the peasants formed cooperatives or agricultural societies of social interest). Land was to be owned by those who cultivated it, and large landowners were expropriated. The only large properties allowed were cooperatives. 

Between 1969 and 1976, 325,000 families received land from the state with an average size of {{convert|73.6|acre|hectare}}. The "revolutionary government" also planned massive investments in education, elevated the [[Quechuan languages|Quechua]] language – spoken by nearly half the population but hitherto despised by the authorities – to a status equivalent to that of Spanish and established equal rights for natural children. Peru wished to free itself from any dependence and carried out a third-world foreign policy. The [[United States]] responded with commercial, economic and diplomatic pressure. In 1973 Peru seemed to triumph over the financial blockade imposed by Washington by negotiating a loan from the International Development Bank to finance its agricultural and mining development policy. The relations with Chile became very tense after the coup d'état of the [[general Pinochet]]. General [[Edgardo Mercado Jarrín|Edgardo Mercado Jarrin]] (Prime Minister and Commander-in-Chief of the Army) and Admiral Guillermo Faura Gaig (Minister of the Navy) both escaped assassination attempts within weeks of each other. In 1975 General [[Francisco Morales Bermúdez Cerruti]] seized power and broke with the policies of his predecessor. His regime occasionally participated in [[Operation Condor]] in collaboration with other American military dictatorships.<ref>{{Cite news |title=Francisco Morales Bermudez, ex-Peruvian military ruler, dies at 100 |language=en-US |newspaper=Washington Post |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/obituaries/2022/07/16/morales-burmudez-peru-dies/ |access-date= |issn=0190-8286 |archive-date=16 July 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220716221253/https://www.washingtonpost.com/obituaries/2022/07/16/morales-burmudez-peru-dies/ |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Brands|first=Hal|date=15 September 2010|title=The United States and the Peruvian Challenge, 1968–1975|journal=Diplomacy & Statecraft|publisher=[[Taylor & Francis]]|volume=21|issue=3|pages=471–490|doi=10.1080/09592296.2010.508418|s2cid=154119414}}</ref>

President [[Alan García]]'s economic policies distanced Peru from international markets further, resulting in lower foreign investment in the country.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2 June 2010|title=Welcome, Mr. Peruvian President: Why Alan García is no hero to his people|url=http://www.coha.org/welcome-mr-peruvian-president-why-alan-garcia-is-no-hero-to-his-people/|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190418150551/http://www.coha.org/welcome-mr-peruvian-president-why-alan-garcia-is-no-hero-to-his-people/|archive-date=18 April 2019|access-date=18 April 2019|website=[[Council on Hemispheric Affairs]]|language=en-US}}</ref> After the country experienced [[chronic inflation]], in mid-1985, the Peruvian [[Peruvian sol (1863–1985)|sol]] was replaced by the [[Peruvian inti|inti]], which itself was replaced by the [[Peruvian sol|nuevo sol]] in July 1991 (the new sol had a cumulative value of one billion old soles). At the end of the 1980s, the per capita annual income of Peruvians fell to $720 (below the level of 1960) and Peru's GDP dropped 20%, with national reserves running a $900 million deficit. The economic turbulence of the time acerbated social tensions in Peru and partly contributed to the rise of violent rebel rural insurgent movements, like [[Shining Path|Sendero Luminoso]] (Shining Path) and [[Túpac Amaru Revolutionary Movement|MRTA]], which caused [[Internal conflict in Peru|great havoc]] throughout the country.<ref name="Leonard-2013" /><ref name="ECLAC-1992" /><ref>Luis Rossell, Historias gráficas de la violencia en el Perú, 1980–1984, 2008</ref>

[[File:Alberto Fujimori en 1991.jpg|thumb|upright=.85|President [[Alberto Fujimori]] during his first term]]
The Peruvian armed forces, frustrated with the inability of the García administration to handle the nation's crises, drafted the {{lang|es|Plan Verde}}, which involved the genocide of impoverished and indigenous Peruvians, the control or censorship of the [[media in Peru]], and the establishment of a [[neoliberal]] economy controlled by a [[military junta]].<ref>{{Cite book|last=Rospigliosi|first=Fernando|title=Las Fuerzas Armadas y el 5 de abril: la percepción de la amenaza subversiva como una motivación golpista|publisher=Instituto de Estudios Peruanos|year=1996|location=Lima|pages=46–47}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last1=Gaussens|first1=Pierre|date=2020|title=The forced serilization of indigenous population in Mexico in the 1990s|journal=[[Canadian Journal of Bioethics]]|volume=3|issue=3|pages=180+|doi=10.7202/1073797ar|quote=a government plan, developed by the Peruvian army between 1989 and 1990s to deal with the Shining Path insurrection, later known as the 'Green Plan', whose (unpublished) text expresses in explicit terms a genocidal intention|s2cid=234586692|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Burt|first=Jo-Marie|date=September–October 1998|title=Unsettled accounts: militarization and memory in postwar Peru|journal=[[NACLA|NACLA Report on the Americas]]|publisher=[[Taylor & Francis]]|volume=32|issue=2|pages=35–41|doi=10.1080/10714839.1998.11725657|quote=the military's growing frustration over the limitations placed upon its counterinsurgency operations by democratic institutions, coupled with the growing inability of civilian politicians to deal with the spiraling economic crisis and the expansion of the Shining Path, prompted a group of military officers to devise a coup plan in the late 1980s. The plan called for the dissolution of Peru's civilian government, military control over the state, and total elimination of armed opposition groups. The plan, developed in a series of documents known as the "Plan Verde," outlined a strategy for carrying out a military coup in which the armed forces would govern for 15 to 20 years and radically restructure state-society relations along neoliberal lines.}}</ref> [[Alberto Fujimori]] assumed the presidency in 1990 and, according to the head of the [[National Intelligence Service (Peru)|National Intelligence Service (SIN)]] Rospigliosi, an understanding was established between Fujimori, [[Vladimiro Montesinos]], and some of the military officers involved in {{lang|es|Plan Verde}} to abide by the military's demands prior to Fujimori's inauguration.<ref name="Alfredo3" /><ref name="Rospigliosi-1996b" /><ref name="Avilés-2009" /> Fujimori would go on to adopt many of the policies outlined in {{lang|es|Plan Verde}}, which led to a precitious drop in inflation from 7,650% at the start of 1990 to 139% in 1991 and 57% in 1992.<ref name="Leonard-2013" /><ref name="ECLAC-1992" /><ref name="Alfredo3" /> When Fujimori faced opposition to his reform efforts, he dissolved Congress, suspending the judiciary, arresting several opposition leaders and assuming full powers in the ''[[Self-coup|auto-golpe]]'' ("self-coup") of 5 April 1992.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Cameron |first1=Maxwell A. |date=June 1998 |title=Latin American Autogolpes: Dangerous Undertows in the Third Wave of Democratisation |journal=[[Third World Quarterly]] |publisher=[[Taylor & Francis]] |volume=19 |issue=2 |page=228 |doi=10.1080/01436599814433 |quote=the outlines for Peru's presidential coup were first developed within the armed forces before the 1990 election. This Plan Verde was shown to President Fujimorti after the 1990 election before his inauguration. Thus, the president was able to prepare for an eventual self-coup during the first two years of his administration}}</ref><ref name="Alfredo3" /><ref>{{Cite journal |date=12 July 1993 |title=El "Plan Verde" Historia de una traición |url=https://www.scribd.com/document/310286817/El-Plan-Verde |url-status=live |journal=Oiga |volume=647 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211008233742/https://www.scribd.com/document/310286817/El-Plan-Verde |archive-date=8 October 2021 |access-date=8 January 2022}}</ref> He then revised the constitution, called new congressional elections, and implemented substantial economic reform, including privatization of numerous state-owned companies, creation of an investment-friendly climate, and sound management of the economy. Nonetheless, these policies did not benefit the poorest much, and inequality persisted despite Fujimori's economic achievements.<ref name="Avilés-2009" /><ref name="Mitrovic-2021" />

Fujimori's administration was dogged by [[Insurgency|insurgent]] groups, most notably Shining Path, which carried out attacks across the country throughout the 1980s and 1990s. Fujimori cracked down on the insurgents and was successful in largely quelling them by the late 1990s, but the fight was marred by atrocities committed by both the Peruvian security forces and the insurgents: the [[Barrios Altos massacre]] and [[La Cantuta massacre]] by Government paramilitary groups, and the bombings of [[Tarata bombing|Tarata]] and [[Frecuencia Latina bombing|Frecuencia Latina]] by Sendero Luminoso. Fujimori would also broaden the definition of terrorism in an effort to criminalize as many actions possible to persecute left-wing political opponents.<ref name="Villalba-2022" /> Using the {{lang|es|[[terruqueo]]}}, a [[fearmongering]] tactic that was used to accuse opponents of terrorism, Fujimori established a [[cult of personality]] by portraying himself as a hero and made left-wing ideologies an eternal enemy in Peru.<ref name="Villalba-2022" /> Those incidents subsequently came to symbolize the [[Human rights in Peru|human rights]] violations committed in the last years of violence.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Black|first=Jan|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JRdWDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT355|title=Latin America Its Problems and Its Promise: A Multidisciplinary Introduction|year=2018|publisher=Taylor and Francis|isbn=9780429974694|page=355|quote=In September 1992, a small, elite squad within Peru's antiterrorist police (established under Garcia) captured the Shining Path leader, Abimael Guzman. Within the next few weeks, using information in Guzman's hideout, police arrested more than 1,000 suspected guerillas. During the next few years, the Shining Path was decimated.|access-date=19 March 2023|archive-date=27 April 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230427210130/https://books.google.com/books?id=JRdWDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT355|url-status=live}}</ref> His ''[[Programa Nacional de Población]]'', 'National Population Program' also resulted with the [[forced sterilization]] of at least 300,000 poor and indigenous women.<ref name="Rospigliosi-1996b" /><ref>{{cite journal|last1=Gaussens|first1=Pierre|date=2020|title=The forced serilization of indigenous population in Mexico in the 1990s|journal=[[Canadian Journal of Bioethics]]|volume=3|issue=3|pages=180+|doi=10.7202/1073797ar |s2cid=234586692 |quote=a government plan, developed by the Peruvian army between 1989 and 1990s to deal with the Shining Path insurrection, later known as the 'Green Plan', whose (unpublished) text expresses in explicit terms a genocidal intention|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last1=Back|first1=Michele|url=https://repositoriodigital.bnp.gob.pe/bnp/recursos/2/html/Racismo-y-lenguaje/286/|title=Racialization and Language: Interdisciplinary Perspectives From Perú|last2=Zavala|first2=Virginia|publisher=[[Routledge]]|year=2018|pages=286–291|quote=At the end of the 1980s, a group of military elites secretly developed an analysis of Peruvian society called ''El cuaderno verde''. This analysis established the policies that the following government would have to carry out in order to defeat Shining Path and rescue the Peruvian economy from the deep crisis in which it found itself. ''El cuaderno verde'' was passed onto the national press in 1993, after some of these policies were enacted by President Fujimori. ... It was a program that resulted in the forced sterilization of Quechua-speaking women belonging to rural Andean communities. This is an example of 'ethnic cleansing' justified by the state, which claimed that a properly controlled birth rate would improve the distribution of national resources and thus reduce poverty levels. ... The Peruvian state decided to control the bodies of 'culturally backward' women, since they were considered a source of poverty and the seeds of subversive groups|access-date=4 August 2021|archive-date=4 August 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210804105110/https://repositoriodigital.bnp.gob.pe/bnp/recursos/2/html/Racismo-y-lenguaje/286/|url-status=live}}</ref>

In early 1995, once again Peru and Ecuador clashed in the [[Cenepa War]], but in 1998 the governments of both nations signed a peace treaty that clearly demarcated the international boundary between them. In November 2000, Fujimori resigned from office and went into a self-imposed exile, initially avoiding prosecution for human rights violations and corruption charges by the new Peruvian authorities.<ref name="The Economist-2007" />

=== 21st century ===
{{See also|Peruvian political crisis (2016–present)|Peruvian protests (2022–2023)|2025 Peruvian protests}}

Peru tried to fight corruption while sustaining economic growth at the start of the 21st century,<ref name="The Economist-2007" /> though [[Fujimorism]] held power over much of Peruvian society through maintaining control of institutions and legislation created in the 1993 constitution, which was written by Fujimori and his supporters without opposition participation.<ref name="Villalba-2022" /> In spite of human rights progress since the time of insurgency, many problems are still visible and show the continued marginalization of those who suffered through the violence of the Peruvian conflict.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=White |first=Gavin David |date=2009 |title=Displacement, decentralisation and reparation in post-conflict Peru |url=http://www.fmreview.org/protracted/white.html |journal=Forced Migration Review |access-date=2 July 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171015013756/http://www.fmreview.org/protracted/white.html |archive-date=15 October 2017 |url-status=dead}}</ref> A caretaker government presided over by [[Valentín Paniagua]] took on the responsibility of conducting new presidential and congressional elections. Afterwards [[Alejandro Toledo]] became president in 2001 to 2006. On 28 July 2006, former president [[Alan García]] became President of Peru after winning the [[2006 Peruvian general election|2006 elections]]. In 2006, Alberto Fujimori's daughter, [[Keiko Fujimori]], entered Peru's political arena to continue her father's legacy and espouse Fujimorism.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Ortiz de Zárate |first=Roberto |date=6 June 2016 |title=Keiko Fujimori Higuchi |url=http://www.cidob.org/biografias_lideres_politicos/america_del_sur/peru/keiko_fujimori_higuchi |access-date=21 February 2021 |website=[[Barcelona Centre for International Affairs]] |archive-date=9 December 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221209060543/https://www.cidob.org/biografias_lideres_politicos/america_del_sur/peru/keiko_fujimori_higuchi |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |date=20 September 2004 |title=Fujimori 'to run for presidency' |publisher=BBC |url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/americas/3673082.stm |access-date=13 February 2016 |archive-date=3 March 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303033526/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/americas/3673082.stm |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last=Forero |first=Juan |date=9 April 2006 |title=Fujimori's Daughter Polishes Her Jailed Father's Image on the Road to Congress in Peru |language=en-US |work=[[The New York Times]] |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2006/04/09/world/americas/fujimoris-daughter-polishes-her-jailed-fathers-image-on-the.html |url-access=subscription |access-date=3 June 2021 |issn=0362-4331 |archive-date=4 October 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201004070946/https://www.nytimes.com/2006/04/09/world/americas/fujimoris-daughter-polishes-her-jailed-fathers-image-on-the.html |url-status=live}}</ref> In May 2008, Peru became a member of the [[Union of South American Nations]]. In April 2009, former president [[Alberto Fujimori]] was convicted of human rights violations and [[Alberto Fujimori's arrest and trial|sentenced]] to 25 years in prison for his role in killings and kidnappings by the [[Grupo Colina]] [[death squad]] during his government's battle against leftist guerrillas in the 1990s.<ref>{{Cite news|title=Peru's Fujimori sentenced to 25 years prison|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/bondsNews/idUSN0746237820090407|work=[[Reuters]]|date=7 April 2009|access-date=10 July 2018|archive-date=12 April 2009|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090412001459/https://www.reuters.com/article/bondsNews/idUSN0746237820090407|url-status=live}}</ref>
[[File:Pedro Pablo Kuczynski, ao lado de seus vice-presidentes, discursa sobre seu processo de impeachment.png|thumb|President [[Pedro Pablo Kuczynski]] next to his vice-presidents, [[Martín Vizcarra]] and [[Mercedes Aráoz]], a speech prior to his first impeachment vote.]]
During the presidencies of [[Ollanta Humala]], [[Pedro Pablo Kuczynski]] and [[Martín Vizcarra]], the right-wing Congress led by Keiko Fujimori obstructed much of the actions performed by the presidents.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Flannery |first=Nathaniel Parish |title=Political Risk Analysis: How Will Peru's Economy Perform In 2017? |url=https://www.forbes.com/sites/nathanielparishflannery/2017/03/30/political-risk-analysis-how-fast-will-perus-economy-grow-in-2017/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221209053245/https://www.forbes.com/sites/nathanielparishflannery/2017/03/30/political-risk-analysis-how-fast-will-perus-economy-grow-in-2017/ |archive-date=9 December 2022 |access-date=9 December 2022 |website=[[Forbes]] |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2021 |title=The Political Limits of Presidential Impeachment: Lessons from Latin America |url=https://www.giga-hamburg.de/en/publications/giga-focus/political-limits-presidential-impeachment-lessons-latin-america |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221209053253/https://www.giga-hamburg.de/en/publications/giga-focus/political-limits-presidential-impeachment-lessons-latin-america |archive-date=9 December 2022 |access-date=9 December 2022 |website=[[German Institute for Global and Area Studies]] |language=en-GB}}</ref> On 5 June 2011, [[Ollanta Humala]] was elected president, with his cabinet being [[Motion of no confidence|successfully censured]] by the Fujimorist Congress.<ref>{{cite news |author=<!--Not stated--> |date=31 March 2015 |title=Peru's Prime Minister Ana Jara deposed over spy row |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-latin-america-32129407 |work=BBC |agency=BBC News |access-date=19 August 2017 |archive-date=20 August 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170820050009/http://www.bbc.com/news/world-latin-america-32129407 |url-status=live}}</ref> Beginning with [[Pedro Pablo Kuczynski]], Congress used [[Vacancy due to moral incapacity (Peru)|broadly interpreted]] [[impeachment]] wording in the 1993 Constitution of Peru that allowed impeachment of the president without cause<ref name="PROFE92" /><ref name="Taj-2021" /><ref name="Reuters-2021" /><ref name="Tegel-2021" /> to place pressure on the president, forcing him to [[Pedro Pablo Kuczynski#Resignation|resign]] in 2018 amid various controversies surrounding his administration. Vice president [[Martín Vizcarra]] then assumed office in March 2018 with generally favorable approval ratings as he led the anti-corruption [[2018 Peruvian constitutional referendum|constitutional referendum]] movement.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Tegel |first=Simeon |date=12 August 2018 |title=Corruption scandals have ensnared 3 Peruvian presidents. Now the whole political system could change. |language=en |newspaper=[[The Washington Post]] |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/the_americas/corruption-scandals-have-ensnared-3-peruvian-presidents-now-the-whole-political-system-could-change/2018/08/11/0cd43ab0-9a82-11e8-a8d8-9b4c13286d6b_story.html |access-date=17 August 2018 |archive-date=9 November 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201109035248/https://www.washingtonpost.com/gdpr-consent/?next_url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/the_americas/corruption-scandals-have-ensnared-3-peruvian-presidents-now-the-whole-political-system-could-change/2018/08/11/0cd43ab0-9a82-11e8-a8d8-9b4c13286d6b_story.html |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.usnews.com/news/world/articles/2018-04-15/perus-vizcarra-begins-presidency-with-57-pct-approval-rating|title=Peru's Vizcarra Begins Presidency With 57 Pct Approval Rating|date=15 April 2018|work=[[U.S. News & World Report]]|access-date=16 April 2018|archive-date=16 April 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180416073907/https://www.usnews.com/news/world/articles/2018-04-15/perus-vizcarra-begins-presidency-with-57-pct-approval-rating|url-status=live}}</ref> 

The [[COVID-19 pandemic in Peru|COVID-19 pandemic]] resulted with Peru experiencing the highest death rate from COVID-19 in the world, exposing much of the inequality that persisted since the Fujimori administration<ref name="Mitrovic-2021" /> and triggering an economic crisis that led to [[Removal of Martín Vizcarra|Vizcara's removal from the presidency by Congress]].<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-latin-america-54872826 |title=Peruvian Congress votes to impeach President Martín Vizcarra |work=BBC News |date=10 November 2020 |access-date=17 August 2021 |archive-date=28 August 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210828224411/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-latin-america-54872826 |url-status=live}}</ref> Widely seen as a coup by Congress, its head, the newly seated President [[Manuel Merino]], faced [[2020 Peruvian protests|protests]] across the country, and after five days, Merino resigned from the presidency.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-latin-america-54953546 |title=Peru's President Merino resigns after deadly crackdown on protesters |work=BBC News |date=16 November 2020 |access-date=17 August 2021 |archive-date=3 October 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211003014756/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-latin-america-54953546 |url-status=live}}</ref> Merino was replaced by President [[Francisco Sagasti]], who led a provisional, centrist government, and enforced many of Vizcarra's former policies.<ref>{{cite web |date=18 November 2020 |title=Francisco Sagasti sworn in as interim Peruvian leader |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-latin-america-54967831 |access-date=17 August 2021 |work=BBC News |archive-date=16 November 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201116223056/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-latin-america-54967831 |url-status=live}}</ref> [[2021 Peruvian general election|Elections]] were held on 11 April 2021, and [[Pedro Castillo]] of the [[Free Peru]] party won the first round, followed closely by Keiko Fujimori, with right-wing parties allied with Fujimori maintaining positions in Congress.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-latin-america-57897402 |title=Pedro Castillo declared president-elect of Peru |work=BBC News |date=20 July 2021 |access-date=17 August 2021 |archive-date=13 August 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210813223041/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-latin-america-57897402 |url-status=live}}</ref>

[[File:Protestas Lima Diciembre 2022 (3).jpg|thumb|Demonstrations in Lima during the [[2022–2023 Peruvian political protests]]]]
On 28 July 2021, Pedro Castillo was sworn in as the new [[president of Peru]] after a narrow win in a tightly contested run-off election.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.dw.com/en/peru-pedro-castillo-sworn-in-as-president/a-58672989 |title=Peru: Pedro Castillo sworn in as president |work=DW.com |date=28 July 2021 |access-date=17 August 2021 |archive-date=13 August 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210813235157/https://www.dw.com/en/peru-pedro-castillo-sworn-in-as-president/a-58672989 |url-status=live}}</ref> That same year, Peru celebrated the [[Bicentennial of the Independence of Peru|bicentenary of independence]].<ref>{{cite web |title=The bicentennial of Peru's independence: A historic opportunity |url=https://www.thejakartapost.com/academia/2021/07/27/the-bicentennial-of-perus-independence-a-historic-opportunity.html |website=The Jakarta Post |language=en |access-date=20 January 2022 |archive-date=20 January 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220120152550/https://www.thejakartapost.com/academia/2021/07/27/the-bicentennial-of-perus-independence-a-historic-opportunity.html |url-status=live}}</ref> Castillo [[Pedro Castillo#Removal attempts|faced multiple impeachment votes]] during his presidency from the right-wing controlled Congress and on 7 December 2022, just hours before Congress was set to begin a [[Third impeachment and removal of Pedro Castillo|third impeachment effort]], Castillo tried to prevent this by attempting to [[2022 Peruvian self-coup d'état attempt|dissolve]] the opposition-controlled legislature and create an "exceptional emergency government." In response, Congress quickly held an emergency session on the same day, during which it voted 101–6 (with 10 abstentions) to remove Castillo from office and replace him with Vice President [[Dina Boluarte]]. She became the country's first female president.<ref>{{Cite news |date=7 December 2022 |title=Peru's President Accused of Coup After Move to Dissolve Congress |language=en |work=Bloomberg.com |url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2022-12-07/peru-president-dissolves-congress-hours-before-impeachment-vote |access-date=8 December 2022 |archive-date=8 December 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221208084351/https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2022-12-07/peru-president-dissolves-congress-hours-before-impeachment-vote |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |date=7 December 2022 |title=Peru's President Pedro Castillo replaced by Dina Boluarte after impeachment |language=en-GB |work=BBC News |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-latin-america-63895505 |access-date=8 December 2022 |archive-date=8 December 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221208191334/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-latin-america-63895505 |url-status=live}}</ref> Castillo was arrested after trying to flee to the [[Mexico|Mexican]] embassy and was charged with the crime of rebellion.<ref>{{Cite web |date=8 December 2022 |title=Peru president removed from office and charged with 'rebellion' after alleged coup attempt |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2022/dec/07/peru-president-detained-pedro-castillo-coup |access-date=8 December 2022 |website=The Guardian |language=en |archive-date=7 December 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221207211159/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2022/dec/07/peru-president-detained-pedro-castillo-coup |url-status=live}}</ref>

The Boluarte government proved unpopular as she allied herself with the right-wing Congress and the military, betraying her constituents.<ref name="Banda-2023" /><ref name="Patriau-2023" /> This resentment led to the [[2022–2023 Peruvian political protests]], which sought the removal of Boluarte and Congress, immediate general elections and the writing of a new constitution. Authorities responded to the protests violently, with the [[Ayacucho massacre]] and [[Juliaca massacre]] occurring at this time, resulting with the most violence experienced in the nation in over two decades.<ref name="Banda-2023" /> The strong response by the political elite in Lima raised concerns that they sought to establish an [[authoritarian]] or [[Military junta|civilian-military government]].<ref name="Banda-2023" /><ref name="Patriau-2023" /><ref>{{Cite web |date=4 January 2023 |title=Perú Libre presentará moción de interpelación contra ministro del Interior |url=https://larepublica.pe/politica/2023/01/03/marcha-por-la-paz-peru-libre-presentara-mocion-de-interpelacion-contra-ministro-del-interior-victor-rojas-pnp-atmp/ |access-date=12 January 2023 |website=[[La República (Peru)|La Republica]] |language=es |archive-date=12 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230112005354/https://larepublica.pe/politica/2023/01/03/marcha-por-la-paz-peru-libre-presentara-mocion-de-interpelacion-contra-ministro-del-interior-victor-rojas-pnp-atmp/ |url-status=live}}</ref> On 10 October 2025, Peru’s congress removed President Dina Boluarte from office and [[José Jerí|Jose Jeri]] was sworn in as Peru’s interim president.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Yeung |first1=Mauricio Torres, Jessie |title=Peru’s president is removed from office after string of scandals |url=https://edition.cnn.com/2025/10/10/americas/peru-president-dina-boluarte-removed-intl-hnk |work=CNN |date=10 October 2025 |language=en}}</ref>

== Geography ==
{{main|Geography of Peru}}
{{Multiple image
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| direction         = vertical
| width             = 170
| image1            = Manu riverbank.jpg
| caption1          = 
| image2            = Alpamayo.jpg
| caption2          = 
| image3            = Paracas National Reserve. Ica, Peru.jpg
| caption3          = 
| image4            = Chachani, Peru ESA413331.png
| caption4          = Top to bottom: [[Manu National Park]] in the [[Peruvian Amazon|Amazon]], [[Alpamayo]] mountain peak, [[Paracas National Reserve]], [[Chachani]] volcanic complex.
}}
[[File:Montana de colores Cusco (Vinicunca) y Valle Rojo por Inka Time.jpg|left|thumb|[[Vinicunca]], also known as the Rainbow Mountain in [[Department of Cuzco|Cuzco]]]]
Peru is located on the central western coast of South America facing the Pacific Ocean. It lies wholly in the [[Southern Hemisphere]], its northernmost extreme reaching to 1.8 minutes of latitude or about {{convert|3.3|km|mi|1|abbr=on}} south of the [[equator]], covers {{convert|1285216|km²|sqmi|0|abbr=on}} of western South America. It borders Ecuador and Colombia to the north, Brazil to the east, Bolivia to the southeast, Chile to the south, and the Pacific Ocean to the west. The [[Andes]] run parallel to the Pacific Ocean; they define the three regions traditionally used to describe the country geographically.<ref>Chaboo, C.S. & A. Catenazzi. 2015. Beetles (Coleoptera) of Peru: A survey of the Families. Biogeography. Journal of the Kansas Entomological Society 88(02):140–143.</ref>

The {{lang|es|costa}} (coast), to the west, is a narrow, largely arid plain except for valleys created by seasonal rivers. The {{lang|es|sierra}} (highlands) is the region of the Andes; it includes the [[Altiplano]] plateau as well as the highest peak of the country, the {{convert|6768|m|ft|0|abbr=on|adj=on}} [[Huascarán]].<ref>Andes Handbook, [http://www.andeshandbook.cl/eng/default.asp?main=cerro.asp?codigo=54 ''Huascarán''] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161008051103/http://www.andeshandbook.cl/eng/default.asp?main=cerro.asp%3Fcodigo%3D54 |date=8 October 2016}}. 2 June 2002.</ref> The third region is the {{lang|es|selva}} (jungle), a wide expanse of flat terrain covered by the [[Amazon rainforest]] that extends east. Almost 60 percent of the country's area is located within this region.<ref>Instituto de Estudios Histórico–Marítimos del Perú, ''El Perú y sus recursos: Atlas geográfico y económico'', p. 16.</ref> The country has fifty-four hydrographic basins, fifty-two of which are small coastal basins that discharge their waters into the Pacific Ocean. The final two are the [[Endorheic basin|endorheic]] basin of [[Lake Titicaca]], and the Amazon basin, which empties into the Atlantic Ocean. Both are delimited by the Andes mountain range. The Amazon basin is particularly noteworthy as it is the source of the Amazon, which at {{convert|6872|km|mi|abbr=on}}, is the longest river in the world, and covers 75% of Peruvian territory. Peru contains 4% of the planet's freshwater.

Most Peruvian rivers originate in the peaks of the Andes and drain into one of three [[drainage basin|basins]]. Those that drain toward the Pacific Ocean are steep and short, flowing only intermittently. Tributaries of the [[Amazon River]] have a much larger flow, and are longer and less steep once they exit the {{lang|es|sierra}}. Rivers that drain into Lake Titicaca are generally short and have a large flow.<ref>Instituto de Estudios Histórico–Marítimos del Perú, ''El Perú y sus recursos: Atlas geográfico y económico'', p. 31.</ref> Peru's longest rivers are the [[Ucayali]], the [[Marañón River (Peru)|Marañón]], the [[Içá|Putumayo]], the [[Yavarí River|Yavarí]], the [[Huallaga River|Huallaga]], the [[Urubamba River|Urubamba]], the [[Mantaro River|Mantaro]], and the Amazon.<ref>Instituto Nacional de Estadística e Informática, ''Perú: Compendio Estadístico 2005'', p. 21.</ref>

The largest [[List of lakes of Peru|lake in Peru]], Lake Titicaca between Peru and Bolivia high in the Andes, is also the largest of South America.<ref>{{cite journal|year= 2003|title= Application of Strontium Isotopes to Understanding the Hydrology and Paleohydrology of the Altiplano, Bolivia-Peru|journal=Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology|volume= 194|pages=281–297|doi=10.1016/S0031-0182(03)00282-7|last1= Grove|first1= Matthew J|last2= Baker|first2= Paul A|last3= Cross|first3= Scott L|last4= Rigsby|first4= Catherine A|last5= Seltzer|first5= Geoffrey O|issue= 1–3|bibcode= 2003PPP...194..281G}}</ref> The largest [[Water resources management in Peru|reservoirs]], all in the coastal region of Peru, are the [[Poechos Reservoir|Poechos]], Tinajones, San Lorenzo, and El Fraile reservoirs.<ref>{{cite web|author=Oficina nacional de evaluación de recursos naturales (previous INRENA) |title=Inventario nacional de lagunas y represamientos |website=INRENA |url=http://www.inrena.gob.pe/irh/inv_nac_lagunas_represas/inv_nac_lag_rep.pdf |access-date=3 March 2008 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070625070846/http://www.inrena.gob.pe/irh/inv_nac_lagunas_represas/inv_nac_lag_rep.pdf |archive-date=25 June 2007}}</ref>

Peru also safeguards large portions of its territory through a system of national, regional and private [[List of protected areas of Peru|protected natural areas]], {{as of|2025}} there are 258 protected natural areas covering roughly 21.97% of the country's land area and 7.89% of its marine area, administered under [[SERNANP]].<ref>{{cite web |author=[[UNEP-WCMC]]|title=Protected Area Profile for Peru from the World Database on Protected Areas |url=https://www.protectedplanet.net/country/per |access-date=31 October 2025 |website=[[Protected Planet]]|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250317214432/https://www.protectedplanet.net/country/PER |archive-date=17 March 2025|url-status=live}}</ref>

=== Climate ===
{{main|Climate of Peru}}
[[File:Koppen-Geiger Map PER present.svg|thumb|upright=1.35|[[Köppen climate classification|Köppen–Geiger climate classification]] map for Peru]]
Although Peru is located entirely in the [[tropics]], the combination of tropical latitude, mountain ranges, topography variations, and two ocean currents ([[Humboldt Current|Humboldt]] and [[El Niño Southern Oscillation|El Niño]]) gives Peru a large diversity of climates. Elevations above sea level in the country range from {{convert|−37|to|6,778|m|ft|abbr=on}} and precipitation ranges from less than {{convert|20|mm|in|abbr=on}} annually in desert areas to more than {{convert|8,000|mm|in|abbr=on}} in tropical rainforest areas.

Due to its geography, Peru can be divided into three main climates. The unbroken and relatively slim coastal region has moderate temperatures, low precipitation, and high humidity, except for its warmer, wetter northern reaches.<ref>Instituto de Estudios Histórico–Marítimos del Perú, ''El Perú y sus recursos: Atlas geográfico y económico'', pp. 24–25.</ref> In the mountain region, which covers almost a third of the country, rain is frequent in summer, and temperature and humidity diminish with altitude up to the frozen peaks of the Andes.<ref>Instituto de Estudios Histórico–Marítimos del Perú, ''El Perú y sus recursos: Atlas geográfico y económico'', pp. 25–26.</ref> The [[Peruvian Amazon]], covering more than half of the total area of Peru, is characterized by heavy rainfall and high temperatures, except for its southernmost part, which has cold winters and seasonal rainfall.<ref>Instituto de Estudios Histórico–Marítimos del Perú, ''El Perú y sus recursos: Atlas geográfico y económico'', pp. 26–27.</ref>

===Wildlife===
{{main|Wildlife of Peru}}
[[File:Rupicola peruvianus Gallito de roca andino Andean-Cock-of-the-Rock (male) (13995875991).jpg|left|thumb|upright=.7|[[Andean cock-of-the-rock]], Peru's national bird]]
Because of its varied geography and climate, Peru has a high biodiversity with 21,462 species of plants and animals reported as of 2003, 5,855 of them [[endemism|endemic]],<ref>Instituto Nacional de Estadística e Informática, ''Perú: Compendio Estadístico 2005'', p. 50.</ref> and is one of the [[megadiverse]] countries.

Peru has over 1,800 [[species]] of birds (120 [[Endemism|endemic]]), over 500 species of [[mammal]]s, over 300 species of reptiles, and over 1,000 species of freshwater [[fishes]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.peruwildlife.info/|title=Peru Wildlife: Portal for information about wildlife and ecotourism in Peru|website=www.peruwildlife.info|access-date=28 November 2016|archive-date=17 May 2008|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080517123112/http://www.peruwildlife.info/|url-status=usurped}}</ref><ref>Ortega, H., Hidalgo, M., Correa, E., Espino, J., Chocano, L., Trevejo, G., ... & Quispe, R. (2012). Lista anotada de los peces de aguas continentales del Peru. Estado actual del conocimiento, distribución, usos y aspectos de conservación. Lima, Perú: Ministerio del Ambiente</ref> The hundreds of mammals include rare species like the [[Puma (genus)|puma]], [[jaguar]] and [[spectacled bear]]. The birds of Peru produce large amounts of [[guano]], an economically important export. The Pacific holds large quantities of [[bass (fish)|sea bass]], [[flounder]], [[anchovies]], [[tuna]], [[crustacean]]s, and [[shellfish]], and is home to many sharks, [[sperm whale]]s, and whales.<ref name="selectlatam" /> The invertebrate fauna is far less inventoried; at least beetles (Coleoptera) have been surveyed in the "Beetles of Peru" project, led by Caroline S. Chaboo, University of Nebraska, USA and this revealved more than 12,000 documented and many new species for Peru.<ref>Chaboo, C.S. 2015. Beetles (Coleoptera) of Peru: A survey of the Families. Part I. Overview. Journal of the Kansas Entomological Society 88(02):135–139.</ref>

Peru also has an equally diverse [[Flora of Peru|flora]]. The coastal deserts produce little more than [[cacti]], apart from hilly [[lomas|fog oases]] and river valleys that contain unique plant life.<ref>{{cite web|last1=Dillon|first1=Michael O.|title=The solanaceae of the lomas formations of coastal Peru and Chile|url=http://www.sacha.org/solanaceae/lomas_solanaceae.pdf|website=sacha.org|access-date=28 November 2016|archive-date=13 July 2007|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070713202506/http://www.sacha.org/Solanaceae/Lomas_Solanaceae.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref>
The Highlands above the tree-line known as [[Puna grassland|puna]] is home to bushes, [[cactus]], drought-resistant plants such as [[Jarava ichu|ichu]], and the largest species of [[bromeliad]]&nbsp;– the spectacular [[Puya raimondii]].

The cloud-forest slopes of the Andes sustain [[moss]], [[orchid]]s, and bromeliads, and the [[Amazon rainforest]] is known for its variety of trees and canopy plants.<ref name="selectlatam" /> Peru had a 2019 [[Forest Landscape Integrity Index]] mean score of 8.86/10, ranking it 14th globally out of 172 countries.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Grantham|first1=H. S.|last2=Duncan|first2=A.|last3=Evans|first3=T. D.|last4=Jones|first4=K. R.|last5=Beyer|first5=H. L.|last6=Schuster|first6=R.|last7=Walston|first7=J.|last8=Ray|first8=J. C.|last9=Robinson|first9=J. G.|last10=Callow|first10=M.|last11=Clements|first11=T.|last12=Costa|first12=H. M.|last13=DeGemmis|first13=A.|last14=Elsen|first14=P. R.|last15=Ervin|first15=J.|last16=Franco|first16=P.|last17=Goldman|first17=E.|last18=Goetz|first18=S.|last19=Hansen|first19=A.|last20=Hofsvang|first20=E.|last21=Jantz|first21=P.|last22=Jupiter|first22=S.|last23=Kang|first23=A.|last24=Langhammer|first24=P.|last25=Laurance|first25=W. F.|last26=Lieberman|first26=S.|last27=Linkie|first27=M.|last28=Malhi|first28=Y.|last29=Maxwell|first29=S.|last30=Mendez|first30=M.|last31=Mittermeier|first31=R.|last32=Murray|first32=N. J.|last33=Possingham|first33=H.|last34=Radachowsky|first34=J.|last35=Saatchi|first35=S.|last36=Samper|first36=C.|last37=Silverman|first37=J.|last38=Shapiro|first38=A.|last39=Strassburg|first39=B.|last40=Stevens|first40=T.|last41=Stokes|first41=E.|last42=Taylor|first42=R.|last43=Tear|first43=T.|last44=Tizard|first44=R.|last45=Venter|first45=O.|last46=Visconti|first46=P.|last47=Wang|first47=S.|last48=Watson|first48=J. E. M.|display-authors=1|title=Anthropogenic modification of forests means only 40% of remaining forests have high ecosystem integrity – Supplementary Material|journal=Nature Communications|volume=11|issue=1|year=2020|page=5978|issn=2041-1723|doi=10.1038/s41467-020-19493-3|pmid=33293507|pmc=7723057|bibcode=2020NatCo..11.5978G |doi-access=free}}</ref>
{{Clear}}

==Government and politics==
{{main|Government of Peru|Politics of Peru}}
{{Multiple image
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| align             = right
| caption_align     = center
| total_width       = 260
| image1            = César Quispe Luján juramenta como nuevo ministro de la Producción 2 (cropped).jpg
| caption1          = [[José Jerí]]<br />[[President of Peru|President]]
| image2            = Ernesto Alvarez Miranda.jpg
| caption2          = [[Ernesto Álvarez Miranda]]<br />[[Prime Minister of Peru|Prime Minister]]
}}
[[File:PalacioEjecutivodelPeru.jpg|thumb|[[Government Palace (Peru)|Palacio de Gobierno]], in [[Lima]]]]
Peru is a unitary [[Semi-presidential system|semi-presidential]] [[republic]] with a multi-party system.<ref name="Draft" /><ref name="Dual" /> The country has maintained a [[Liberal democracy|liberal democratic]] system under its [[1993 Peruvian constitutional referendum|1993 Constitution]], which replaced a [[Constitution of Peru|constitution]] that leaned the government to a federation to authorize more power to the president.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://globaledge.msu.edu/countries/peru/government|title=Peru: Government|website=globaledge.msu.edu|language=en-us|access-date=11 March 2020|archive-date=15 July 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200715053213/https://globaledge.msu.edu/countries/peru/government|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite thesis|last=Andrade|first=Guilherme Trivellato|date=21 April 2017|title=From Promise to Delivery: Organizing the Government of Peru to Improve Public Health Outcomes|url=https://dash.harvard.edu/handle/1/38811936|language=en|access-date=2 April 2020|archive-date=17 July 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200717030051/https://dash.harvard.edu/handle/1/38811936|url-status=live}}</ref> It is also a [[Unitary state|unitary republic]], in which the central government holds the most power and can create [[administrative division]]s. The Peruvian system of government combines elements derived from the political systems of the United States (a [[Constitution|written constitution]], an autonomous [[Supreme court]], and a [[presidential system]]) and the [[Government of China|People's Republic of China]] (a [[Unicameralism|unicameral]] congress, a [[premier]] and [[Minister (government)|ministry system]]).<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Fernandini|first1=Patrick Wieland|last2=Sousa|first2=Ronnie Farfan|date=2015|title=Overview of the different levels of government|journal=The Distribution of Powers and Responsibilities Affecting Forests, Land Use, and Redd+ Across Levels and Sectors in Peru|url=http://www.jstor.org/stable/resrep02240.5|pages=1–12|access-date=2 April 2020|archive-date=26 July 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200726205333/https://www.jstor.org/stable/resrep02240.5|url-status=live}}</ref>

The Peruvian government is [[Separation of powers|separated]] into three branches:

* Legislature: the unicameral [[Congress of the Republic of Peru|Congress of Peru]], consisting of 130 members of Congress (on a basis of population), the president of Congress, and the Permanent Commission;<ref>{{Cite book|last=Serra|first=Diego|title=Constitutional Reform of National Legislatures |chapter=Defending bicameralism and equalising powers: The case of Peru |date=30 August 2019|chapter-url=https://www.elgaronline.com/view/edcoll/9781788978637/9781788978637.00016.xml|pages=142–162|doi=10.4337/9781788978644.00016|isbn=9781788978644|s2cid=203215051|language=en-US|access-date=2 April 2020|archive-date=15 July 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200715053427/https://www.elgaronline.com/view/edcoll/9781788978637/9781788978637.00016.xml|url-status=live}}</ref>
* Executive: the president, the [[Cabinet of Peru|Council of Ministers]], which in practice controls [[Legislation|domestic legislation]] and serve as a Cabinet to the president, consisting of the [[President of the Council of Ministers of Peru|prime minister]] and 18 ministers of the state;
* Judiciary: the [[Supreme Court of Peru]], also known as the [[Real Audiencia of Lima|Royal Audencia of Lima]], composed of 18 [[Judge|justices]] including a supreme justice, along with 28 [[Superior Courts of Justice of Peru|superior courts]], 195 [[trial court]]s, and 1,838 [[district court]]s.

Under its constitution, the president of Peru is both [[head of state]] and [[head of government|government]] and is elected to a five-year term without immediate reelection.<ref>''Constitución Política del Perú'', Article No. 112.</ref> The president appoints [[Council of Ministers of Peru|ministers]] who oversee the 18 ministries of the state, including the [[Prime Minister of Peru|prime minister]], into the [[Cabinet of Peru|Cabinet]].<ref>''Constitución Política del Perú'', Article No. 122.</ref> The constitution designates minimal authority to the prime minister, who presides over [[Cabinet (government)|cabinet meetings]] in which ministers advise the president and acts as a spokesperson on behalf of the [[Executive (government)|executive branch]].<ref>{{Cite book|last=Hildebrancht|first=Martha|title=El Habla Culta (o lo que debiera serlo)|year=2003|location=Lima|pages=37}}</ref> The president is also able to pose [[Motion of confidence|questions of confidence]] to the Congress of Peru, and consequently order the [[Dissolution of parliament|dissolution of congress]], done in [[1992 Peruvian constitutional crisis|1992]] by [[Alberto Fujimori]] and in [[2019–20 Peruvian constitutional crisis|2019]] by [[Martín Vizcarra]].<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/the_americas/perus-president-dissolved-congress-then-congress-suspended-the-president/2019/10/01/7b404cd6-e451-11e9-b0a6-3d03721b85ef_story.html|title=Peru's president dissolved Congress. Then Congress suspended the president.|last=Tegel|first=Simeon|newspaper=Washington Post|language=en|access-date=2 April 2020|archive-date=21 February 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200221011812/https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/the_americas/perus-president-dissolved-congress-then-congress-suspended-the-president/2019/10/01/7b404cd6-e451-11e9-b0a6-3d03721b85ef_story.html|url-status=live}}</ref>

In the Congress of Peru there are 130 members, from 25 [[administrative division]]s, determined by respective population and elected to five-year terms.<ref>''Constitución Política del Perú'', Article No. 90.</ref> Bills are proposed by the executive and [[Legislature|legislative]] powers and become law through a [[Plurality voting|plurality]] vote in Congress.<ref>''Constitución Política del Perú'', Articles No. 107–108.</ref> The judiciary is nominally independent,<ref>''Constitución Política del Perú'', Article No. 146.</ref> though political intervention into judicial matters has been common throughout history.<ref>Clark, Jeffrey. [https://web.archive.org/web/20070813232240/http://www.humanrightsfirst.org/pubs/descriptions/perubuilding.htm ''Building on quicksand'']. Retrieved 24 July 2007.</ref> The Congress of Peru can also pass a [[motion of no confidence]], [[censure]] ministers, as well as initiate impeachments and [[convict]] executives.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www2.congreso.gob.pe/sicr/RelatAgenda/reglamento.nsf/033ee8fa0e1a44f40525729300229e8b/b362ef2a104cc2780525672b007856e1?OpenDocument|title=Reglamento del Congreso de la Republica|website=www2.congreso.gob.pe|access-date=11 March 2020|archive-date=15 July 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200715051433/http://www2.congreso.gob.pe/sicr/RelatAgenda/reglamento.nsf/033ee8fa0e1a44f40525729300229e8b/b362ef2a104cc2780525672b007856e1?OpenDocument|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Lee|first1=Sang Hoon|last2=Magallanes|first2=José Manuel|last3=Porter|first3=Mason A.|date=1 March 2017|title=Time-dependent community structure in legislation cosponsorship networks in the Congress of the Republic of Peru|url=https://academic.oup.com/comnet/article/5/1/127/2909061|journal=Journal of Complex Networks|language=en|volume=5|issue=1|pages=127–144|doi=10.1093/comnet/cnw004|arxiv=1510.01002|s2cid=15837465|issn=2051-1310|access-date=2 April 2020|archive-date=24 February 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210224155028/https://academic.oup.com/comnet/article/5/1/127/2909061|url-status=live}}</ref> Due to broadly interpreted [[impeachment]] wording in the [[Constitution of Peru|1993 Constitution of Peru]], the legislative branch can impeach the president without cause, effectively making the executive branch subject to Congress.<ref name="PROFE92" /><ref name="Taj-2021" /><ref name="Reuters-2021" /><ref name="Tegel-2021" /> In recent history, the legislative body has passed semi-successful impeachment and two successful impeachments; [[Alberto Fujimori]] resigned prior to removal in 2000, [[Pedro Pablo Kuczynski]] [[Resignation of Pedro Pablo Kuczynski|resigned]] in 2018, [[Martín Vizcarra]] was [[Removal of Martín Vizcarra|removed from office]] in 2020 and [[Pedro Castillo]] was removed in 2022.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-latin-america-43492421|title=Under fire Peru president resigns|date=22 March 2018|work=BBC News|access-date=11 March 2020|language=en-GB|archive-date=4 March 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200304170729/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-latin-america-43492421|url-status=live}}</ref> Following a ruling in February 2023 by the [[Constitutional Court of Peru]], whose members are elected by Congress, judicial oversight of the legislative body was also removed by the court, essentially giving Congress absolute control of Peru's government.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Romero |first=César |title=Tribunal Constitucional falla a favor del Congreso, que tendrá un poder absoluto y sin control judicial |url=https://larepublica.pe/politica/congreso/2023/02/24/tribunal-constitucional-falla-a-favor-del-congreso-que-tendra-un-poder-absoluto-y-sin-control-judicial-poder-judicial-defensoria-del-pueblo-sunedu-1427472 |access-date=2 March 2023 |website=[[La República (Peru)|La República]] |date=28 February 2023 |language=es |archive-date=16 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230316090853/https://larepublica.pe/politica/congreso/2023/02/24/tribunal-constitucional-falla-a-favor-del-congreso-que-tendra-un-poder-absoluto-y-sin-control-judicial-poder-judicial-defensoria-del-pueblo-sunedu-1427472 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Romero |first=César |title=El Tribunal Constitucional está destruyendo el régimen democrático del país |url=https://larepublica.pe/politica/judiciales/2023/02/25/el-tribunal-constitucional-esta-destruyendo-el-regimen-democratico-del-pais-congreso-poder-ejecutivo-poder-judicial-1500875 |access-date=2 March 2023 |website=[[La República (Peru)|La República]] |date=25 February 2023 |language=es |archive-date=25 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230225202050/https://larepublica.pe/politica/judiciales/2023/02/25/el-tribunal-constitucional-esta-destruyendo-el-regimen-democratico-del-pais-congreso-poder-ejecutivo-poder-judicial-1500875 |url-status=live}}</ref>

[[File:Lima Peru - City of kings - Congress.jpg|thumb|The [[Congress of the Republic of Peru|Congress of Peru]], in Lima|alt=]]
Peru's [[electoral system]] uses [[compulsory voting]] for citizens from the age of 18 to 70, including [[Multiple citizenship|dual-citizens]] and [[Peruvians]] abroad.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Brennan|first1=Jason|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MRpvAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA116|title=Compulsory Voting: For and Against|last2=Hill|first2=Lisa|year=2014|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-1-107-04151-6|language=en|access-date=30 May 2020|archive-date=9 August 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200809202530/https://books.google.com/books?id=MRpvAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA116|url-status=live}}</ref> Members of Congress are [[directly elected]] by constituents in respective districts through [[Proportional representation|proportional voting]]. The president is elected in a general election, along with the [[Vice President of Peru|vice president]], through a majority in a [[two-round system]].<ref>''Constitución Política del Perú'', Article No. 31.</ref> Elections are observed and organized by the [[National Jury of Elections]], [[National Office of Electoral Processes]], and the [[National Registry of Identification and Civil Status]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://pdba.georgetown.edu/ElecSys/Peru/peru.html|title=Peru: Sistemas Electorales / Electoral Systems|website=pdba.georgetown.edu|access-date=2 April 2020|archive-date=9 January 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200109100950/http://pdba.georgetown.edu/ElecSys/Peru/peru.html|url-status=live}}</ref>

Peru uses a [[multi-party system]] for [[congress]]ional and general elections. Major groups that have formed governments, both on a federal and legislative level, are parties that have historically adopted [[economic liberalism]], [[progressivism]], [[right-wing populism]] (specifically [[Fujimorism]]), [[nationalism]], and [[reformism]].<ref>{{in lang|es}} Congreso de la República del Perú, [http://www.congreso.gob.pe/organizacion/grupos.asp ''Grupos Parlamentarios''] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071229061528/http://www.congreso.gob.pe/organizacion/grupos.asp |date=29 December 2007}}. Retrieved 27 August 2011.</ref>

The [[2021 Peruvian general election|most recent general election]] was held on 11 April 2021 and resulted in [[Free Peru]] winning the most seats in Congress, although it fell well short of a majority.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.fitchratings.com/research/sovereigns/elections-show-fissures-in-perus-political-institutions-14-04-2021|title=Elections Show Fissures in Peru's Political Institutions|date=14 April 2021|work=Finch Ratings|access-date=19 July 2021|archive-date=7 June 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210607090449/https://www.fitchratings.com/research/sovereigns/elections-show-fissures-in-perus-political-institutions-14-04-2021|url-status=live}}</ref> A presidential runoff between [[Pedro Castillo]] and [[Keiko Fujimori]] took place on 5 June 2021 and resulted in the victory of Castillo.<ref>{{Cite news|last=Aquino|first=Marco|date=20 July 2021|title=Peru socialist Castillo confirmed president after lengthy battle over results|language=en|work=Reuters|url=https://www.reuters.com/world/americas/perus-fujimori-admits-defeat-presidential-election-lashes-out-socialist-rival-2021-07-19/|access-date=3 November 2021|archive-date=20 July 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210720182728/https://www.reuters.com/world/americas/perus-fujimori-admits-defeat-presidential-election-lashes-out-socialist-rival-2021-07-19/|url-status=live}}</ref>

=== Allegations of corruption in politics ===
{{main|Corruption in Peru}}
Many Peruvian presidents have been removed from office or imprisoned on allegations of corruption from the 1990s into the 2020s. Alberto Fujimori was serving a 25-year prison sentence for commanding [[death squad]]s that killed civilians in a counterinsurgency campaign during his tenure (1990–2000). He was later also found guilty of corruption. Former president Alan García (1985–1990 and 2006–2011) killed himself in April 2019 when Peruvian police arrived to arrest him over allegations he participated in the [[Odebrecht Case|Odebrecht bribery]] scheme. Former president Alejandro Toledo is accused of allegedly receiving bribes from Brazilian construction firm [[Odebrecht]] during his government (2001–2006). Former president Ollanta Humala (2011–2016) is also under investigation for allegedly receiving bribes from Odebrecht during his presidential election campaign. Humala's successor Pedro Pablo Kuczynski (2016–2018) remains under house arrest while prosecutors investigate him for favoring contracts with Odebrecht. Former president Martín Vizcarra (2018–2020) was controversially ousted by Congress after media reports alleged he had received bribes while he was a regional governor years earlier.<ref>{{cite news |title=The curious case of Peru's persistent president-to-prison politics |url=https://www.theweek.in/news/world/2020/11/17/the-curious-case-of-perus-persistent-president-to-prison-politics.html |work=The Week |language=en |access-date=22 November 2021 |archive-date=22 November 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211122082750/https://www.theweek.in/news/world/2020/11/17/the-curious-case-of-perus-persistent-president-to-prison-politics.html |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Peru's presidential lineup: graft probes, suicide and impeachment |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-peru-politics-presidents-factbox-idUSKBN27V0M1 |work=Reuters |date=15 November 2020 |language=en |access-date=22 November 2021 |archive-date=22 November 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211122082749/https://www.reuters.com/article/us-peru-politics-presidents-factbox-idUSKBN27V0M1 |url-status=live}}</ref>

Corruption is also widespread throughout Congress as legislators use their office for [[parliamentary immunity]] and other benefits, despite a large majority of Peruvians disapproving of Congress and its behavior.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Dennis |first=Claire |date=23 August 2017 |title=Another Top Peru Politician Embroiled in Odebrecht Scandal |url=https://insightcrime.org/news/analysis/another-top-peru-politician-embroiled-odebrecht-scandal/ |access-date=15 December 2022 |website=[[InSight Crime]] |language=en-US |archive-date=15 December 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221215040557/https://insightcrime.org/news/analysis/another-top-peru-politician-embroiled-odebrecht-scandal/ |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=11 December 2022 |title=El misterio del harakiri {{!}} IDL Reporteros |url=https://www.idl-reporteros.pe/el-misterio-del-harakiri/ |access-date=15 December 2022 |website=[[IDL Reporteros]] |archive-date=28 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230128100315/https://www.idl-reporteros.pe/el-misterio-del-harakiri/ |url-status=live}}</ref>

=== Administrative divisions ===
{{Imageframe|width=450|content= {{Peru Labelled Area Map}} <!--map text is jumbled on mobile--> |caption=Clickable map of the regions of Peru|link=Image:Perú Mapa Divisiones Administrativas (Sin etiquetas) ImgID1.png |align=right}}
{{main|Administrative divisions of Peru}}
Peru is divided into 26 units: [[Regions of Peru#History|24 departments]], the [[Constitutional Province of Callao]] and the [[Lima Province|Province of Lima]] (LIM) – which is independent of any region and serves as the [[Capital city|country's capital]].<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Pozo Díaz|first=Hildebrando Castro|date=August 2008|title=Existen regiones en nuestro pais|url=http://www2.congreso.gob.pe/sicr/cendocbib/con_uibd.nsf/9F70BD4F97DA0D27052574B800766BBB/$FILE/EXISTENREGIONES.pdf|journal=Congreso de la Republica de Peru|access-date=2 April 2020|archive-date=24 March 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200324180534/http://www2.congreso.gob.pe/sicr/cendocbib/con_uibd.nsf/9F70BD4F97DA0D27052574B800766BBB/$FILE/EXISTENREGIONES.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref> Under the constitution, the 24 departments plus Callao Province have an elected "regional"{{efn|name=e|The government in each department is referred to as "regional" governments despite being departments.}} government composed of the regional governor and the [[Regions of Peru|regional council]].<ref>''Ley N° 27867, Ley Orgánica de Gobiernos Regionales'', Article No. 11.</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.gob.pe/estado/gobiernos-regionales|title=Gobierno del Perú|website=www.gob.pe|language=es|access-date=12 March 2020|archive-date=19 June 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200619102427/https://www.gob.pe/estado/gobiernos-regionales|url-status=live}}</ref>

The governor constitutes the [[Executive (government)|executive body]], proposes [[budget]]s, and creates decrees, resolutions, and regional programs.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Dickovick|first=J. Tyler|date=1 January 2007|title=Municipalization as Central Government Strategy: Central-Regional–Local Politics in Peru, Brazil, and South Africa|url=https://academic.oup.com/publius/article/37/1/1/1940139|journal=Publius: The Journal of Federalism|language=en|volume=37|issue=1|pages=1–25|doi=10.1093/publius/pjl012|issn=0048-5950|access-date=2 April 2020|archive-date=17 April 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210417061905/https://academic.oup.com/publius/article/37/1/1/1940139|url-status=live|url-access=subscription}}</ref> The Regional Council, the region's [[Legislature|legislative body]], debates and votes on budgets, supervises regional officials, and can vote to remove the governor, deputy governor, or any member of the council from office. The regional governor and the Regional Council serve a term of four years, without immediate reelection. These governments plan regional development, execute public investment projects, promote economic activities, and manage public property.<ref>''Ley N° 27867, Ley Orgánica de Gobiernos Regionales'', Article No. 10.</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Schönwälder|first=Gerd|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=40GaCgAAQBAJ&q=peru+government&pg=PP1|title=Linking Civil Society and the State: Urban Popular Movements, the Left, and Local Government in Peru, 1980–1992|year=2002|publisher=Penn State Press|isbn=978-0-271-02379-3|language=en|access-date=18 November 2020|archive-date=17 April 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210417061233/https://books.google.com/books?id=40GaCgAAQBAJ&q=peru+government&pg=PP1|url-status=live}}</ref>

Provinces such as [[Lima]] are administered by a [[municipal council]], headed by a mayor.<ref>''Ley N° 27867, Ley Orgánica de Gobiernos Regionales'', Article No. 66.</ref> The goal of devolving power to regional and municipal governments was among others to improve popular participation. NGOs played an important role in the [[decentralization]] process and still influence local politics.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.dandc.eu/en/article/perus-ngos-want-government-decentralisation-serve-social-goals-and-public-participation|title=Mixed Feelings|author1=Monika Huber|author2=Wolfgang Kaiser|date=February 2013|publisher=dandc.eu|access-date=8 May 2013|archive-date=7 July 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180707042639/https://www.dandc.eu/en/article/perus-ngos-want-government-decentralisation-serve-social-goals-and-public-participation|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Pique|first=Ricardo|date=1 May 2019|title=Higher pay, worse outcomes? The impact of mayoral wages on local government quality in Peru|url=http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0047272719300064|journal=Journal of Public Economics|language=en|volume=173|pages=1–20|doi=10.1016/j.jpubeco.2019.01.005|s2cid=14763370|issn=0047-2727|access-date=2 April 2020|archive-date=16 July 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210716090526/https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0047272719300064|url-status=live|url-access=subscription}}</ref>

Some areas of Peru are defined as [[List of metropolitan areas of Peru|metropolitan areas]] which overlap district areas. The largest of them, the [[Lima metropolitan area]], is the seventh-[[List of metropolitan areas in the Americas|largest metropolis in the Americas]].
{{Clear}}

===Foreign relations===
{{main|Foreign relations of Peru}}
[[File:Perú asume Presidencia Pro Témpore de la Comunidad Andina.jpg|alt=|left|thumb|The headquarters of the [[Andean Community]] is located in Lima.]]
Over recent decades, [[Foreign relations of Peru|Peru's foreign relations]] has historically been dominated by close ties with the United States and Asia,<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Costa|first=Eduardo Ferrero|date=1987|title=Peruvian Foreign Policy: Current Trends, Constraints and Opportunities|journal=Journal of Interamerican Studies and World Affairs|volume=29|issue=2|pages=55–78|doi=10.2307/166073|jstor=166073|issn=0022-1937}}</ref> particularly through the [[Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation]] (APEC), the [[World Trade Organization]], the [[Pacific Alliance]], [[Mercosur]], and the [[Organization of American States]] (OAS).<ref name="John" /><ref>{{Cite book|last1=Lincoln|first1=Jennie K.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rAiiDwAAQBAJ&q=peru++%22foreign+policy%22&pg=PT150|title=The Dynamics Of Latin American Foreign Policies: Challenges For The 1980s|last2=Ferris|first2=Elizabeth G.|year=2019|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-000-31605-6|language=en|access-date=18 November 2020|archive-date=17 April 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210417061236/https://books.google.com/books?id=rAiiDwAAQBAJ&q=peru++%22foreign+policy%22&pg=PT150|url-status=live}}</ref>
Peru is an active member of several [[Trade bloc|regional trade blocs]] and is one of the founding members of the [[Andean Community of Nations]]. It is also a member of international organizations such as the [[Organization of American States|OAS]] and the [[United Nations]].<ref>{{Cite book|last=Blanco-Jiménez, M., Parra-Irineo, G., González-González, N. and Tavizon-Salazar, A.|title=Regional Integration in Latin America |chapter=Pacific Alliance: Political, Economic, and Commercial Implications |date=30 May 2019|volume=1|pages=1–12|doi=10.1108/978-1-78973-159-020191001|isbn=978-1-78973-160-6|s2cid=181395804}}</ref> [[Javier Pérez de Cuéllar]], a celebrated Peruvian diplomat, served as [[Secretary-General of the United Nations|United Nations Secretary General]] from 1981 to 1991.

Peru planned to be fully integrated into the [[OECD|Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development]] (OECD) by 2021, attributing its economic success and efforts to strengthen institutions as meeting factors to be a part of the OECD.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://blogs.lse.ac.uk/latamcaribbean/2018/01/25/productivity-provides-the-key-to-perus-bid-for-oecd-membership/|title=Productivity provides the key to Peru's bid for OECD membership|author=Alonso Morán de Romaña|date=25 January 2018|website=LSE Latin America and Caribbean|access-date=29 March 2020|archive-date=29 March 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200329020937/https://blogs.lse.ac.uk/latamcaribbean/2018/01/25/productivity-provides-the-key-to-perus-bid-for-oecd-membership/|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://andina.pe/ingles/noticia-perus-oecd-member-status-bid-likely-to-succeed-512879.aspx|title=Peru's OECD member status bid likely to succeed|website=andina.pe|date=2 July 2014 |language=es|access-date=29 March 2020|archive-date=29 March 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200329020940/https://andina.pe/ingles/noticia-perus-oecd-member-status-bid-likely-to-succeed-512879.aspx|url-status=live}}</ref> Peru is a member of the [[World Trade Organization]], and has pursued multiple major free trade agreements, most recently the [[United States - Peru Trade Promotion Agreement|Peru–United States Free Trade Agreement]], the [[China–Peru Free Trade Agreement]], the [[European Union free trade agreements|European Union Free Trade Agreement]], free trade agreements with Japan, and many others.<ref>{{Cite journal|date=2019|title=The treaties of free trade (FTA) and exports of aggro-industrial products in Peru|url=http://www.indianjournals.com/ijor.aspx?target=ijor:soct&volume=7&issue=1and2&article=004|journal=Socrates|volume=7|issue=1 and 2|issn=2347-2146|access-date=2 April 2020|archive-date=18 February 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200218030837/https://www.indianjournals.com/ijor.aspx?target=ijor:soct&volume=7&issue=1and2&article=004|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Shaffer|first1=Gregory|last2=Winters|first2=L. Alan|date=April 2017|title=FTA Law in WTO Dispute Settlement: Peru–Additional Duty and the Fragmentation of Trade Law|journal=World Trade Review|language=en|volume=16|issue=2|pages=303–326|doi=10.1017/S1474745616000550|issn=1474-7456|doi-access=free}}</ref>

Peru maintains an integrated relationship with other South American nations, and is a member of various South American intergovernmental agreements, more recently the [[Organization of American States]], [[Mercosur]], the [[Andean Community]] of Nations, the [[Pacific Alliance]], and the [[Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation|APEC]]. Peru has historically experienced [[Chile–Peru relations|stressed relations with Chile]], including the [[Peru v Chile]] international court resolution and the [[Chilean–Peruvian maritime dispute|Chilean-Peruvian maritime dispute]], but the two countries have agreed to work in improving relations.<ref>BBC News (4 November 2005), [https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/americas/4405402.stm ''Peru–Chile border row escalates''] . Retrieved 16 May 2007.</ref>

Peru has participated in taking a leading role in addressing the [[crisis in Venezuela]] through the establishment of the [[Lima Group]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.international.gc.ca/world-monde/international_relations-relations_internationales/latin_america-amerique_latine/2020-01-05-lima_group-groupe_lima.aspx?lang=eng|title=Lima Group statement|author=Global Affairs Canada-Affaires Mondiales Canada|date=29 August 2019|website=GAC|access-date=29 March 2020|archive-date=29 March 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200329060108/https://www.international.gc.ca/world-monde/international_relations-relations_internationales/latin_america-amerique_latine/2020-01-05-lima_group-groupe_lima.aspx?lang=eng|url-status=live}}</ref>

Peru is the 99th most peaceful country in the world, according to the 2024 [[Global Peace Index]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=2024 Global Peace Index |url=https://www.economicsandpeace.org/wp-content/uploads/2024/06/GPI-2024-web.pdf |access-date=18 August 2024 |archive-date=19 August 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240819091540/https://www.economicsandpeace.org/wp-content/uploads/2024/06/GPI-2024-web.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref>

===Military===
{{main|Peruvian Armed Forces}}
[[File:Peruvian_Marines_2019.jpg|alt=|thumb|[[Peruvian Naval Infantry|Peruvian marines]] in the [[Valle de los Ríos Apurímac, Ene y Mantaro|VRAEM]] in 2019]]
Peru has the fourth largest military in Latin America. Peru's armed forces{{snd}}the [[Peruvian Armed Forces|Armed Forces of Peru]]{{snd}}comprise the [[Peruvian Navy]] (MGP), the [[Peruvian Army]] (EP), and the [[Peruvian Air Force]] (FAP), in total numbering 392,660 personnel (including 120,660 regulars and 272,000 reservists) as of 2020.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://rpp.pe/mundo/latinoamerica/ranking-ubica-al-peru-como-la-cuarta-fuerza-armada-mas-poderosa-de-latinoamerica-noticia-1061135|title=Ránking ubica al Perú como la cuarta Fuerza Armada más poderosa de Latinoamérica|website=RPP|date=29 July 2017|language=es|access-date=31 March 2020|archive-date=17 July 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200717012037/https://rpp.pe/mundo/latinoamerica/ranking-ubica-al-peru-como-la-cuarta-fuerza-armada-mas-poderosa-de-latinoamerica-noticia-1061135|url-status=live}}</ref> Their primary mission is to safeguard the independence, sovereignty and territorial integrity of the country.<ref name="Williams 1972 43–60" />

Their functions are separated by branch:

* The [[Peruvian Army]] is made up of the Chief of Staff, two Control Bodies, two Support Bodies, five Military Regions and six Command Rooms.
* The [[Peruvian Air Force]] was officially created on 20 May 1929, with the name of Peruvian Aviation Corps. Its main function is to serve as the country's [[air defense]]. It also participates in [[Peace movement|social support campaigns]] for hard-to-reach populations, organizes air bridges during disasters, and participates in [[Peacekeeping|international peace missions]]. Its four major [[air base]]s are located in the cities of [[Piura]], [[Callao]], [[Arequipa]] and [[Iquitos]].
*The [[Peruvian Navy]] is in charge of the country's maritime, river, and lake defense. It is made up of 26,000 sailors. Personnel are divided into three levels: superior personnel, junior personnel and seafarers.

The military is governed by both the [[President of Peru|commander in chief]], [[Ministry of Defense (Peru)|Ministry of Defense]], and [[Joint Command of the Armed Forces of Peru|Joint Command of the Armed Forces]] (CCFFAA). The CCFFAA has subordinates to the Operational Commands and Special Commands, with which it carries out the military operations that are required for the defense and the fulfillment of the tasks that the executive power provides.<ref>Ministerio de Defensa, ''Libro Blanco de la Defensa Nacional''. Ministerio de Defensa, 2005, 90.</ref> [[Conscription]] was abolished in 1999 and replaced by [[voluntary military service]].<ref>''Ley N° 27178, Ley del Servicio Militar'', Articles No. 29, 42 and 45.</ref> The [[National Police of Peru]] is often classified as a part of the armed forces. However, it has a distinct organizational structure and a purely civilian mandate. Its training and operations, particularly over the past two decades as an anti-terrorist unit, have imbued it with distinctly military traits, leading to its portrayal as a de facto fourth military branch with substantial land, sea, and air capabilities, and a work force of around 140,000 individuals.The Peruvian armed forces report through the Ministry of Defense, while the National Police of Peru reports through the Ministry of Interior.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Vásquez|first=George L.|title=The Peruvian Army in War and Peace: 1980–1992|date=1994|journal=Journal of Third World Studies|volume=11|issue=2|pages=100–116|jstor=45197485|issn=8755-3449}}</ref><ref name="Williams 1972 43–60" />

Since the end of the [[Internal conflict in Peru|crisis in Peru]] in 2000, the federal government has significantly reduced annual spending in defense.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Weber|first=Cynthia|date=1990|title=Representing Debt: Peruvian Presidents Belaunde's and Garcia's Reading/Writing of Peruvian Debt|journal=International Studies Quarterly|volume=34|issue=3|pages=353–365|doi=10.2307/2600575|jstor=2600575|issn=0020-8833}}</ref> In the 2016–2017 budget, defense spending has constituted 1.1% of GDP ($2.3&nbsp;billion), the second lowest spending relative to GDP in South America following Argentina.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/MS.MIL.XPND.GD.ZS?locations=PE|title=Military expenditure (% of GDP) – Peru {{!}} Data|website=data.worldbank.org|access-date=31 March 2020|archive-date=15 July 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200715175900/https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/MS.MIL.XPND.GD.ZS?locations=PE|url-status=live}}</ref> More recently, the Armed Forces of Peru have been used in [[civil defense]]. In 2020, Peru used its military personnel and even reservists to enforce the strict [[quarantine]] measures placed during the [[COVID-19 pandemic]].<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-health-coronavirus-peru-army-idUSKBN21J69A|title=Peru calls up 10,000 army reserves to enforce quarantine|date=1 April 2020|work=Reuters|access-date=2 April 2020|language=en|archive-date=6 April 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200406070507/https://www.reuters.com/article/us-health-coronavirus-peru-army-idUSKBN21J69A|url-status=live}}</ref>

==Economy==
{{Main|Economy of Peru}}
[[File:Sanisidroskyscrapers.jpg|thumb|The [[San Isidro District, Lima|San Isidro District]] in [[Lima]], the financial centre of Peru]]
The economy of Peru is the 47th largest in the world (ranked by [[Purchasing power parity|Purchasing Power Parity (PPP)]])<ref name="IMFWEO.PE" /> and the income level is classified as ''upper middle'' by the World Bank.<ref>The World Bank, [http://data.worldbank.org/country/peru ''Data by country: Peru''] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161108042430/http://data.worldbank.org/country/peru |date=8 November 2016}}. Retrieved on 1 October 2011.</ref> Peru is, {{As of|2011|lc=y}}, one of the world's fastest-growing economies owing to an economic boom experienced during the 2000s.<ref>BBC (31 July 2012), [https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/americas/country_profiles/1224656.stm ''Peru country profile''] .</ref> It has an above-average [[Human Development Index|Human Development Index (HDI)]] of 0.76 which has seen steady improvement over the years leading up to 2024, which has seen another 0.007 points improvement.<ref>{{cite web|title= Peru|url=http://hdr.undp.org/en/countries/profiles/PER|website=Human Development Reports |publisher=United Nations|language=en|date=2016|access-date=7 January 2018|archive-date=28 December 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171228165331/http://hdr.undp.org/en/countries/profiles/PER|url-status=live}}</ref> Historically, the country's economic performance has been tied to exports, which provide [[hard currency]] to finance imports and external debt payments.<ref>Thorp, p. 4.</ref> Although they have provided substantial revenue, self-sustained growth and a more egalitarian [[distribution of income]] have proven elusive.<ref>Thorp, p. 321.</ref> According to 2015 data, 19.3% of its total population is poor, including 9% that lives in extreme poverty.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.worldbank.org/en/country/peru/overview|title=Overview|access-date=2 January 2018|archive-date=29 December 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171229034557/http://www.worldbank.org/en/country/peru/overview|url-status=live}}</ref> Inflation in 2012 was the lowest in Latin America at only 1.8%, but increased in 2013 as oil and commodity prices rose; {{As of|2014|lc=y}} it stands at 2.5%,<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.imf.org/external/country/PER/index.htm?pn=2 | title=Peru and the IMF | publisher=[[International Monetary Fund]] | access-date=27 July 2014 | archive-date=3 July 2014 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140703022454/http://www.imf.org/external/country/PER/index.htm?pn=2 | url-status=live}}</ref> and 8.6% in 2023.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Montero |first=Juan Carlos Pérez |date=1 March 2023 |title=Perú registró una inflación de 0,43% en febrero de 2023 |url=https://finanzasdigital.com/2023/03/peru-registro-una-inflacion-de-043/ |access-date= |website=Finanzas Digital |language=es |archive-date=4 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230304003635/https://finanzasdigital.com/2023/03/peru-registro-una-inflacion-de-043/ |url-status=live}}</ref> The unemployment rate was 3.6% in 2012.
[[File:Bolsa de Valores de Lima, Peru.jpg|thumb|[[Lima Stock Exchange]] Building]]

Peruvian economic policy has varied widely since the 20th century. The 1968–1975 government of [[Juan Velasco Alvarado]] introduced radical reforms, which included [[Peruvian Agrarian Reform|agrarian reform]], the expropriation of foreign companies, the introduction of an [[economic interventionism|economic planning system]], and the creation of a large state-owned sector. These measures failed to achieve their objectives of [[income redistribution]] and the end of [[dependency theory|economic dependence on developed nations]].<ref>Thorp, pp. 318–319.</ref>

Despite these results, most reforms were not reversed until the 1990s, when the [[liberalization|liberalizing]] government of [[Alberto Fujimori]] ended [[price controls]], [[protectionism]], restrictions on [[foreign direct investment]], and most state ownership of companies.<ref name="Sheahan" />

{{As of|2010}} [[Tertiary sector of industry|Services]] account for 53% of Peruvian gross domestic product, followed by manufacturing (22.3%), extractive industries (15%), and taxes (9.7%).<ref>2006 figures. {{in lang|es}} Banco Central de Reserva, [http://www.bcrp.gob.pe/publicaciones/memoria-anual/memoria-2006.html ''Memoria 2006''] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160909090819/http://www.bcrp.gob.pe/publicaciones/memoria-anual/memoria-2006.html |date=9 September 2016}}, p. 204. Retrieved 27 December 2010.</ref> Recent economic growth had been fueled by [[Macroeconomics|macroeconomic]] stability, improved [[terms of trade]], and rising investment and consumption.<ref>{{in lang|es}} Banco Central de Reserva, [http://www.bcrp.gob.pe/publicaciones/memoria-anual/memoria-2006.html ''Memoria 2006''] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160909090819/http://www.bcrp.gob.pe/publicaciones/memoria-anual/memoria-2006.html |date=9 September 2016}}, pp. 15, 203. Retrieved 27 December 2010.</ref> Trade was expected to increase further after the implementation of a [[United States-Peru Trade Promotion Agreement|free trade agreement with the United States]] signed on 12 April 2006.<ref>Office of the U.S. Trade Representative, [https://web.archive.org/web/20110501000640/http://ustraderep.gov/Document_Library/Press_Releases/2006/April/United_States_Peru_Sign_Trade_Promotion_Agreement.html ''United States and Peru Sign Trade Promotion Agreement''], 12 April 2006. Retrieved 27 December 2010.</ref> Peru's main exports were copper, gold, zinc, textiles, and fish meal; its major trade partners were the United States, China, Brazil, and Chile.<ref>2006 figures. {{in lang|es}} Banco Central de Reserva, [http://www.bcrp.gob.pe/publicaciones/memoria-anual/memoria-2006.html ''Memoria 2006''] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160909090819/http://www.bcrp.gob.pe/publicaciones/memoria-anual/memoria-2006.html |date=9 September 2016}}, pp. 60–61. Retrieved 27 December 2010.</ref> 

Informal workers represent, in 2019, 70% of the labour market according to the National Institute of Statistics and Informatics (INEI). In 2016, almost three million children and adolescents worked in the informal sector.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.inei.gob.pe/media/MenuRecursivo/publicaciones_digitales/Est/Lib1764/cap04.pdf |title=Capítulo 4 La Informalidad y la Fuerza de Trabajo |access-date=4 March 2023 |archive-date=24 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230324023357/https://www.inei.gob.pe/media/MenuRecursivo/publicaciones_digitales/Est/Lib1764/cap04.pdf |url-status=live}}</ref>

=== Mining ===
[[File:OperacionesYanacocha.jpg|thumb|Yanacocha Mine]]

The country is heavily dependent on [[mining]] for the export of raw materials, which represented 61.3% of exports in 2023.<ref name="pemining" /> In 2019, the country was the world's second largest producer of [[copper]]<ref>{{cite web |url-status=live |url=https://pubs.usgs.gov/periodicals/mcs2021/mcs2021-copper.pdf |publisher=USGS |title=Copper |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://pubs.usgs.gov/periodicals/mcs2021/mcs2021-copper.pdf |archive-date=9 October 2022 |work=Mineral Commodity Summaries |date=January 2021}}</ref> and [[zinc]],<ref>{{cite web |work=Mineral Commodity Summaries |date=January 2021 |url-status=live |url=https://pubs.usgs.gov/periodicals/mcs2021/mcs2021-zinc.pdf |publisher=USGS |title=Zinc |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://pubs.usgs.gov/periodicals/mcs2021/mcs2021-zinc.pdf |archive-date=9 October 2022}}</ref> eighth largest producer of [[gold]],<ref>{{cite web |work=Mineral Commodity Summaries |date=January 2021 |url-status=live |url=https://pubs.usgs.gov/periodicals/mcs2021/mcs2021-gold.pdf |publisher=USGS |title=Gold |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://pubs.usgs.gov/periodicals/mcs2021/mcs2021-gold.pdf |archive-date=9 October 2022}}</ref> third largest producer of [[lead]],<ref>{{cite web |work=Mineral Commodity Summaries |date=January 2021 |url-status=live |url=https://pubs.usgs.gov/periodicals/mcs2021/mcs2021-lead.pdf |publisher=USGS |title=Lead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210515091715/https://pubs.usgs.gov/periodicals/mcs2021/mcs2021-lead.pdf |archive-date=15 May 2021}}</ref> the fourth largest producer of [[tin]],<ref>{{cite web |work=Mineral Commodity Summaries |date=January 2021 |url-status=live |url=https://pubs.usgs.gov/periodicals/mcs2021/mcs2021-tin.pdf |publisher=USGS |title=Tin |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210813153917/https://pubs.usgs.gov/periodicals/mcs2021/mcs2021-tin.pdf |archive-date=13 August 2021}}</ref> the fifth largest producer of [[boron]],<ref>[https://pubs.usgs.gov/periodicals/mcs2021/mcs2021-boron.pdf USGS Boron Production Statistics] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210718104325/https://pubs.usgs.gov/periodicals/mcs2021/mcs2021-boron.pdf |date=18 July 2021}} (PDF)</ref> and the fourth largest producer of [[molybdenum]]<ref>[https://pubs.usgs.gov/periodicals/mcs2021/mcs2021-molybdenum.pdf USGS Molybdenum Production Statistics] {{Webarchive|url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://pubs.usgs.gov/periodicals/mcs2021/mcs2021-molybdenum.pdf |date=9 October 2022}} (PDF)</ref> – not to mention gas and of oil. In 2023, it was the third largest producer of silver globally.<ref>{{Cite web |title=USGS Silver Production Statistics |url=https://pubs.usgs.gov/periodicals/mcs2024/mcs2024.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241220035538/https://pubs.usgs.gov/periodicals/mcs2024/mcs2024.pdf |archive-date=20 December 2024 |access-date=23 December 2024}}</ref> The country has an expectant competitive position in global mining, maintaining mining leadership in Latin America and a solid mining history and trajectory little industrialized; Peru suffers from the international variation of commodity prices.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://diplomatique.org.br/duas-opcoes-direita-ou-direita/|title=Duas opções: direita ou direita – Le Monde Diplomatique|website=diplomatique.org.br|date=6 June 2016|access-date=12 July 2022|archive-date=12 July 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220712021704/https://diplomatique.org.br/duas-opcoes-direita-ou-direita/|url-status=live}}</ref>

The Yanacocha mine in [[Cajamarca]] is the main source of gold extraction in Peru. It is considered the largest gold mine in South America and the second largest in the world. In 2005, {{convert|3,333,088|oz|g}} of gold were produced. An indicator of mining growth can be seen in mining exports, having grown from US$1,447 million in 1990<ref>{{Cite web |date=31 December 1990 |title=II. SECTOR EXTERNO |url=https://www.bcrp.gob.pe/docs/Publicaciones/Memoria/1990/Memoria-BCRP-1990-2.pdf |access-date=13 August 2024 |website=bcrp.gob.pe |page=32 |language=es |archive-date=13 August 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240813231927/https://www.bcrp.gob.pe/docs/Publicaciones/Memoria/1990/Memoria-BCRP-1990-2.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> to US$39,639 million in 2023.<ref name="pemining" />

=== Agriculture ===
[[File:Quinoa growing on Isla del Sol, Lake Titicaca.jpg|thumb|[[Quinoa]]]]
Peru is the world's largest producer of [[quinoa]] and [[maca]], one of the 5 largest producers of [[avocado]], [[blueberry]], [[artichoke]] and [[asparagus]], one of the 10 largest producers in the world of [[coffee]] and [[Cocoa bean|cocoa]], and one of the 15 largest producers in the world of [[potato]] and [[pineapple]], also having a considerable production of [[grape]], [[sugarcane]], [[rice]], [[banana]], [[maize]] and [[cassava]]; its agriculture is considerably diversified. In livestock, Peru is one of the 20 largest producers of [[chicken meat]] in the world.<ref>{{cite web| url = http://www.fao.org/faostat/es/#data/QCL/| title = Agriculture in Peru, by FAO| access-date = 12 July 2022| archive-date = 16 October 2020| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20201016050347/http://www.fao.org/faostat/es/#data/QCL/| url-status = live}}</ref>

According to a report by the UN [[Food and Agriculture Organization]] (FAO) published in August 2022, half of Peru's population is moderately [[food insecure]] (16.6 million people), and more than 20% (6.8 million people), are severely food insecure: they go without food for a whole day, or even several days.<ref name="Atalayar" /><ref name="Chaparro-2023" />

The director of FAO Peru stresses that "this is the great paradox of a country that has enough food for its population. Peru is a net producer of food and one of the major agro-exporting powers in the region. Food insecurity is due to high [[social inequality]] and low wages, with Peru's minimum wage being one of the lowest in South America and a large informal sector. According to the FAO, the small farmers themselves suffer from hunger. Poorly paid, they also suffer from the impacts of [[climate change]] and face the problem of [[Drug Trafficking|drug trafficking]] on their land and mining activity that exhausts the soil."<ref name="Atalayar" /><ref name="Chaparro-2023" />

=== Tourism ===
{{Main|Tourism in Peru}}
[[File:Huacachina - Ica, Peru.jpg|left|thumb|[[Huacachina]], in [[Department of Ica|Ica]], the only natural oasis in South America]]
Tourism constitutes the third largest industry in Peru, behind fishing and mining. Tourism is mainly directed towards archaeological monuments, as it has more than one hundred thousand archaeological sites. According to a study by the Peruvian government, the satisfaction rate of tourists after visiting Peru is 94%. Peru has become one of the largest tourist destinations in the Americas and is the fastest growing industry in the country, growing annually at a rate of 25% over the last five years, the highest growth rate of any other country in South America.

Tourism has an impact of 7% of Peru's GDP, it is regulated and stimulated by the Commission for the Promotion of Peru for Exports and Tourism under the Ministry of Foreign Trade and Tourism. For this reason, in 2011 Marca Perú was created, which is an initiative of the Ministry of Foreign Trade and Tourism in association with Peruvian companies and startups to promote the purchase and consumption of products created in the country. The pillars of this initiative are: exports, tourism and investments. Tourism employs 11% of the country's economically active population (484 000 direct jobs and 340,000 indirect jobs), most of them in hospitality and transportation. Peru is known to be perfect for cultural, eco, adventure, gastronomic, beach, and luxury travel.
[[File:Choquequirao, July 18, 2007.jpg|thumb|[[Choquequirao]], Incan ruins in [[Department of Cusco|Cusco]]]]
The places most visited by tourists are the cities of [[Lima]] and its historic center, [[Cusco]], which is characterized by its [[Inca Empire|Inca]] and colonial architecture but its main attractions are the [[Sacred Valley|Sacred Valley of the Incas]] and [[Machu Picchu]]. Other famous places in Cusco include [[Qorikancha]], [[Ollantaytambo]], [[Písac]] and many more. [[Arequipa]] is also a large tourist destination, for the historic center, also for the [[Colca Canyon]] and finally [[Puno]] through [[Lake Titicaca]]. The main tourist circuit of the country is the southern circuit, which includes cities such as; [[Ica, Peru|Ica]], [[Nazca]], [[Pisco]], Paracas, [[Ayacucho]], [[Puerto Maldonado]] and others with architectural, cultural and natural attractions. The second most important route is the [[Callejón de Huaylas]], in the department of Áncash, headquarters of adventure tourism and the main point of reference for New Andean gastronomy. Peru has 14 [[World Heritage Site|World Heritage Sites]] and 15 [[List of national parks of Peru|national parks]].

Peru has many other tourist routes. Among these are those of the [[Mantaro River|Mantaro River valley]] with the city of [[Huancayo]] as one of its axis, and the [[Tarma]] Valley as another axis, which in turn is the entrance to the central jungle and the northern city of [[Trujillo, Peru|Trujillo]] where [[Chan Chan]] is located, the largest adobe citadel in the world,  the traditional spa of [[Huanchaco]] and the Huacas del Sol and de la Luna belonging to the [[Chimú culture]]. [[Chiclayo]], [[Piura]] and the rainforest city [[Iquitos]] are also very popular destinations. According to the Ministry of Foreign Trade and Tourism, the visit of foreign tourists increased by 7% during 2015 and would have generated US$3.5 billion in foreign currency for the country.

=== Industry ===
The [[World Bank]] lists the top producing countries each year, based on the total value of production. According to the 2019 list, Peru has the 50th most valuable industry in the world ($28.7 billion).<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/NV.IND.MANF.CD?most_recent_value_desc=true|title=Manufacturing, value added (current US$) &#124; Data|website=data.worldbank.org|access-date=12 July 2022|archive-date=7 January 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200107135049/https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/NV.IND.MANF.CD?most_recent_value_desc=true|url-status=live}}</ref>
Peru was ranked 80th in the [[Global Innovation Index]] in 2025.<ref>{{Cite web |title=GII Innovation Ecosystems & Data Explorer 2025 |url=https://www.wipo.int/gii-ranking/en/peru |access-date=2025-10-16 |website=WIPO}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last1=Dutta |first1=Soumitra |url=https://www.wipo.int/web-publications/global-innovation-index-2025/en/index.html |title=Global Innovation Index 2025: Innovation at a Crossroads |last2=Lanvin |first2=Bruno |publisher=[[World Intellectual Property Organization]] |year=2025 |isbn=978-92-805-3797-0 |page=19 |language=en |doi=10.34667/tind.58864 |access-date=2025-10-17}}</ref>


In 2011 and 2016 Peru was the world's largest supplier of [[fishmeal]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://gauchazh.clicrbs.com.br/geral/noticia/2016/07/peru-prepara-industria-pesqueira-para-enfrentar-mudanca-climatica-6567755.html|title=Peru prepara indústria pesqueira para enfrentar mudança climática|date=12 July 2016|website=GZH|access-date=12 July 2022|archive-date=12 July 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220712035258/https://gauchazh.clicrbs.com.br/geral/noticia/2016/07/peru-prepara-industria-pesqueira-para-enfrentar-mudanca-climatica-6567755.html|url-status=live}}</ref> It is also the world's leading producer of alpaca wool, and the most important exporter of cotton textile garments in Latin America, and due to its natural wealth, it is an excellent place for the development of the polymer industry worldwide. The country is in a stage of economic growth and it is expected, in light of the agreements and treaties signed in free trade areas, to become one of the most attractive South American nations for developing business.

=== Transport ===
{{main|Transport in Peru}}
[[File:Paisaje cerca de Ica, Perú, 2015-07-29, DD 45.JPG|thumb|Highway in [[Ica, Peru|Ica]]]]
Peru's road network in 2021 consisted of {{convert|175589|km|0|abbr=on}} of highways, with {{convert|29579|km|0|abbr=on}} paved.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Estadística – Infraestructura de Transportes – Infraestructura Vial |url=https://www.gob.pe/institucion/mtc/informes-publicaciones/344790-estadistica-infraestructura-de-transportes-infraestructura-vial |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220326024359/https://www.gob.pe/institucion/mtc/informes-publicaciones/344790-estadistica-infraestructura-de-transportes-infraestructura-vial |archive-date=26 March 2022 |access-date=12 July 2022 |website=www.gob.pe}}</ref> Some highways in the country that stand out are the [[Pan American Highway]] and [[Interoceanic Highway]]. In 2016, the country had {{convert|827|km|0|abbr=on}} of [[Dual carriageway|duplicated highways]], and was investing in more duplications: the plan was to have {{convert|2634|km|0|abbr=on}} in 2026.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Visión de desarrolo de la infraestructura vial |url=https://www.cip.org.pe/publicaciones/2018/vision-de-desarrollo-de-la-infraestructura-vial.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220717052534/https://www.cip.org.pe/publicaciones/2018/vision-de-desarrollo-de-la-infraestructura-vial.pdf |archive-date=17 July 2022 |access-date=12 July 2022}}</ref> The country's rail network is small: in 2018, the country only had {{convert|1939|km|0|abbr=on}} of railways.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Estadística – Infraestructura de Transportes – Infraestructura Ferroviaria |url=https://www.gob.pe/institucion/mtc/informes-publicaciones/344794-estadistica-infraestructura-de-transportes-infraestructura-ferroviaria |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221022021352/https://www.gob.pe/institucion/mtc/informes-publicaciones/344794-estadistica-infraestructura-de-transportes-infraestructura-ferroviaria |archive-date=22 October 2022 |access-date=12 July 2022 |website=www.gob.pe}}</ref>

Peru has important international airports such as [[Jorge Chávez International Airport|Lima]], [[Alejandro Velasco Astete International Airport|Cuzco]] and [[Rodríguez Ballón International Airport|Arequipa]]. The 10 busiest airports in South America in 2017 were São Paulo-Guarulhos (Brazil), Bogotá (Colombia), São Paulo-Congonhas (Brazil), Santiago (Chile), Lima (Peru), Brasília (Brazil), Rio de Janeiro (Brazil), Buenos Aires-Aeroparque (Argentina), Buenos Aires-Ezeiza (Argentina) and Minas Gerais (Brazil).<ref>{{Cite web |last=Andrade |first=Artur Luiz |date=29 October 2018 |title=Brasil tem 9 dos maiores aeroportos da América Latina |url=https://www.panrotas.com.br/aviacao/aeroportos/2018/10/brasil-tem-9-dos-maiores-aeroportos-da-america-latina_159919.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210111125631/https://www.panrotas.com.br/aviacao/aeroportos/2018/10/brasil-tem-9-dos-maiores-aeroportos-da-america-latina_159919.html |archive-date=11 January 2021 |access-date=12 July 2022 |website=Portal PANROTAS}}</ref> Multiple airport expansions are currently under construction across Peru, the two main ones being the [[Jorge Chávez International Airport]] and [[Chinchero International Airport]]. [[Jorge Chávez International Airport]], the largest in Peru, is undergoing an expansion that includes the construction of a new runway, control tower and a new terminal, along with new hotels, logistical buildings and cargo sector. Altogether, they make up the Ciudad Aeropuerto, Airport City. It will allow transit of 40 million passengers every year and will be completed in December 2024. Another ambitious airport project is the [[Chinchero International Airport]] in [[Department of Cuzco|Cusco]]. The new airport is set to replace the old [[Alejandro Velasco Astete International Airport]] and help passengers bypass a stop in Lima by introducing international routes.

[[File:Puerto de Callao.jpg|thumb|[[Port of Callao]]]]Peru has important ports in [[Callao]], [[Ilo, Peru|Ilo]] and [[Matarani]]. The 15 most active ports in South America in 2018 were: Port of Santos (Brazil), Port of Bahia de Cartagena (Colombia), Callao (Peru), Guayaquil (Ecuador), Buenos Aires (Argentina), San Antonio (Chile), Buenaventura (Colombia), Itajaí (Brazil), Valparaíso (Chile), Montevideo (Uruguay), Paranaguá (Brazil), Rio Grande (Brazil), São Francisco do Sul (Brazil), Manaus (Brazil) and Coronel (Chile).<ref>{{Cite web |title=actividad portuaria de América Latina y el Caribe 2018 |url=https://www.cepal.org/sites/default/files/news/files/actividad_portuaria_2018.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210114132759/https://www.cepal.org/sites/default/files/news/files/actividad_portuaria_2018.pdf |archive-date=14 January 2021 |access-date=12 July 2022}}</ref> The [[Port of Callao]] is currently the largest port in Peru, but will soon be overtaken by the [[Port of Chancay]], a joint project between [[China]] and Peru in [[Chancay]], north of [[Lima]]. When completed, the port will become the largest in Latin America.<ref>{{Cite web |date=15 November 2023 |title=With Peru port project, China gains a foothold in America's backyard |url=https://www.nbcnews.com/news/world/china-peru-chancay-port-rcna124564 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240509224633/https://www.nbcnews.com/news/world/china-peru-chancay-port-rcna124564 |archive-date=9 May 2024 |access-date=9 May 2024 |website=NBC News |language=en}}</ref> Officially inaugurated on 14 November 2024, the Port of Chancay is a key gateway for trade between South America and Asia, significantly reducing shipping time across the Pacific.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Codings |title=THE PORT OF CHANCAY AND CHINA'S EVOLVING BRI |url=https://orcasia.org/article/1099/the-port-of-chancay-and-chinas-evolving-bri#:~:text=A%20Gateway%20Between%20Asia%20and,shipping%20time%20across%20the%20Pacific. |access-date=23 May 2025 |website=orcasia.org |language=en}}</ref>

=== Energy ===
[[File:Dam on urubamba river.jpg|thumb|Dam on the [[Urubamba River]] in 2013]]
The electricity sector has experienced notable improvements in recent years. The number of homes with electric lighting grew from 82% in 2007 to 94.2% in 2016, while the quality and effectiveness of service provision also improved. Current electricity generation capacity is evenly divided between thermal energy and hydroelectric energy sources. The National Interconnected Electrical System supplies 85% of the connected population, with several isolated systems that cover the rest of the country. Peruvian electricity production totalled 5.1 TWh in the month of October 2022. Of these, 52% came from hydroelectric plants, 38.3% from thermoelectric plants (which use oil, gas and coal) and 9.7% of renewable energy plants like: wind, solar, and others.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.ceicdata.com/en/indicator/peru/electricity-production|title=Peru Electricity Production, 1978 – 2023 &#124; CEIC Data|website=www.ceicdata.com|access-date=26 January 2023|archive-date=26 January 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230126153442/https://www.ceicdata.com/en/indicator/peru/electricity-production|url-status=live}}</ref>

In 2021, Peru had, in terms of installed renewable electricity, 5,490 MW in hydropower (34th largest in the world), 409 MW in wind power (49th largest in the world), 336 MW in solar power (62nd largest in the world), and 185 MW in biomass.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.irena.org/-/media/Files/IRENA/Agency/Publication/2022/Apr/IRENA_RE_Capacity_Statistics_2022.pdf |work=IRENA |title=Renewable Capacity Statistics 2022 |access-date=19 May 2022 |archive-date=9 October 2022 |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://www.irena.org/-/media/Files/IRENA/Agency/Publication/2022/Apr/IRENA_RE_Capacity_Statistics_2022.pdf |url-status=live}}</ref>

== Demographics ==
{{main|Demographics of Peru|Peruvian people}}
[[File:Peru Population Density, 2000 (6171916181).jpg|thumb|Population density, 2000]]With a population of 33,396,698 inhabitants according to estimates and projections of the National Institute of Statistics and Informatics until the year 2022, Peru is the [[List of South American countries by population|fourth most populous country in South America]].<ref>{{cite web |date=11 July 2016 |title=El Perú tiene una población de 31 millones 488 mil 625 habitantes |trans-title=Peru has a population of 31 million 488 thousand 625 inhabitants |url=https://www.inei.gob.pe/prensa/noticias/el-peru-tiene-una-poblacion-de-31-millones-488-mil-625-habitantes-9196/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170202214123/https://www.inei.gob.pe/prensa/noticias/el-peru-tiene-una-poblacion-de-31-millones-488-mil-625-habitantes-9196/ |archive-date=2 February 2017 |access-date=7 January 2018 |website=www.inei.gob.pe |publisher=INEI |language=es}}</ref> Its population density is {{convert|25.79|PD/km2|PD/sqmi}} and its annual growth rate is 1.1%. 58.8% of the Peruvian population lives on the coast, 27% in the mountains, and 14.2% in the jungle. In 2020, 27 million Peruvians lived in urban areas, which represents 80% of the population. Peru had a population of seven million residents in 1940; between 1950 and 2000, the demographic growth rate of Peru declined from 2.6% to 1.6%, with the population being expected to reach approximately 42 million in 2050.<ref>Instituto Nacional de Estadística e Informática, ''Perú: Estimaciones y Proyecciones de Población, 1950–2050'', pp. 37–38, 40.</ref><ref>{{cite news |date=26 June 2018 |title=First results of the Peruvian population census conducted last year |url=https://www.perutelegraph.com/news/peru-living-lifestyle/first-results-of-the-peruvian-population-census-conducted-last-year |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180710194519/https://www.perutelegraph.com/news/peru-living-lifestyle/first-results-of-the-peruvian-population-census-conducted-last-year |archive-date=10 July 2018 |access-date=10 July 2018 |work=The Peru Telegraph}}</ref>

{{As of|2017}}, 79.3% lived in urban areas and 20.7% in rural areas.<ref>{{cite web |title=Perú: Perfil Sociodemográfico |url=https://www.inei.gob.pe/media/MenuRecursivo/publicaciones_digitales/Est/Lib1539/libro.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200211135110/https://www.inei.gob.pe/media/MenuRecursivo/publicaciones_digitales/Est/Lib1539/libro.pdf |archive-date=11 February 2020 |access-date=27 September 2018 |website=Instituto Nacional de Estadística e Informática |page=16}}</ref> Major cities include the [[Lima metropolitan area]] (home to over 9.8 million people), [[Arequipa]], [[Trujillo, Peru|Trujillo]], [[Chiclayo]], [[Piura]], [[Iquitos]], [[Cusco]], [[Chimbote]], and [[Huancayo]]; all reported more than 250,000 inhabitants in the [[2007 Peru Census|2007 census]].<ref>Instituto Nacional de Estadística e Informática, ''Perfil sociodemográfico del Perú'', p. 24.</ref> Arequipa is Peru's second largest city, with an estimated population of 1,177,000, while Trujillo is the third largest city with 1,048,000. There are 15 known [[Uncontacted peoples|uncontacted]] Amerindian tribes in Peru.<ref>"[https://web.archive.org/web/20160305101828/http://www.usatoday.com/news/world/story/2012-01-31/isolated-peru-tribe/52903966/1 Isolated Peru tribe threatened by outsiders]. USAToday.com. 31 January 2012</ref> Peru has a [[life expectancy]] of 75.0 years (72.4 for males and 77.7 for females) according to the latest data for the year 2016 from the [[World Bank]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Life expectancy at birth, total (years) {{!}} Data |url=https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SP.DYN.LE00.IN?locations=PE&year_high_desc=true |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180826005113/https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SP.DYN.LE00.IN?locations=PE&year_high_desc=true |archive-date=26 August 2018 |access-date=25 August 2018 |website=data.worldbank.org |language=en-us}}</ref>

The economically active population is equivalent to 53.78% of the total population, or about 17,830,500 inhabitants. The largest cities are located on the coast, such as Sullana, Piura, Chiclayo, Trujillo, Chimbote, Lima and Ica. In the mountains, the cities of Arequipa, Cusco, Huancayo, Cajamarca and Juliaca stand out. Finally, in the jungle, [[Iquitos]] is the most important, followed by [[Pucallpa]], [[Tarapoto]], [[Moyobamba]] and Tingo María.
{{Largest cities|country=Peru|stat_ref=[[Instituto Nacional de Estadística e Informática|National Institute of Statistics and Informatics]] - INEI (Estimated 2025)<ref>{{cite web |url=https://cdn.www.gob.pe/uploads/document/file/8353403/6953760-estado-de-la-poblacion-peruana-2025-una-mirada-hacia-la-poblacion-adulta-mayor.pdf |title=Estado de la Población Peruana 2025. Una mirada hacia la población adulta mayor |page=22 |website=Instituto Nacional de Estadística e Informática |access-date=1 November 2025 |archive-date=1 November 2025 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20251101001232/https://cdn.www.gob.pe/uploads/document/file/8353403/6953760-estado-de-la-poblacion-peruana-2025-una-mirada-hacia-la-poblacion-adulta-mayor.pdf |url-status=live}}</ref>|list_by_pop=List of metropolitan areas of Peru|div_name=Region|city_1=Lima|div_1=Lima Region{{!}}Lima|pop_1=10,353,700 <small>([[Lima metropolitan area|Metro pop.]])</small>|city_2=Arequipa|div_2=Arequipa Region{{!}}Arequipa|pop_2=1,195,200 <small>([[Arequipa metropolitan area|Metro pop.]])</small>|city_3=Trujillo, Peru{{!}}Trujillo|div_3=La Libertad Region{{!}}La Libertad|pop_3=1,063,700 <small>([[Trujillo metropolitan area (Peru)|Metro pop.]])</small>|city_4=Chiclayo|div_4=Lambayeque Region{{!}}Lambayeque|pop_4=618,600 <small>([[Chiclayo metropolitan area|Metro pop.]])</small>|city_5=Piura|div_5=Piura Region{{!}}Piura|pop_5=598,200|city_6=Huancayo|div_6=Junín Region{{!}}Junín|pop_6=571,000|city_7=Cusco|div_7=Cusco Region{{!}}Cusco|pop_7=497,200|city_8=Iquitos|div_8=Loreto Region{{!}}Loreto|pop_8=461,500|city_9=Pucallpa|div_9=Ucayali Region{{!}}Ucayali|pop_9=437,600|city_10=Chimbote|div_10=Ancash Region{{!}}Ancash|pop_10=413,800|city_11=Ica, Peru{{!}}Ica|div_11=Ica Region{{!}}Ica|pop_11=369,500|city_12=Juliaca|div_12=Puno Region{{!}}Puno|pop_12=347,800|city_13=Tacna|div_13=Tacna Region{{!}}Tacna|pop_13=332,400|city_14=Ayacucho|div_14=Ayacucho Region{{!}}Ayacucho|pop_14=266,800|city_15=Cajamarca|div_15=Cajamarca Region{{!}}Cajamarca|pop_15=259,400|city_16=Huánuco|div_16=Huánuco Region{{!}}Huánuco|pop_16=246,300|city_17=Chincha Alta|div_17=Ica Region{{!}}Ica|pop_17=226,200|city_18=Sullana|div_18=Piura Region{{!}}Piura|pop_18=210,500|city_19=Huacho|div_19=Lima Region{{!}}Lima|pop_19=195,600|city_20=Tarapoto|div_20=San Martin Region{{!}}San Martín|pop_20=182,300}}

===Ethnic groups===
{{Pie chart|thumb=right|caption=Racial groups in Peru (2017 census)<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.inei.gob.pe/media/MenuRecursivo/publicaciones_digitales/Est/Lib1539/libro.pdf|title=2017 Peruvian census|access-date=27 September 2018|archive-date=11 February 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200211135110/https://www.inei.gob.pe/media/MenuRecursivo/publicaciones_digitales/Est/Lib1539/libro.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref>
|label1 = [[Mestizos]]
|value1 = 60.20
|color1 = #CBA481
|label2 = [[Indigenous peoples of Peru|Indigenous]]
|value2 = 25.75
|color2 = #BE7343
|label3 = [[White Peruvians|Whites]]
|value3 = 5.89
|color3 = #FBC5A7
|label4 = [[Black Peruvians|Blacks]]
|value4 = 3.57
|color4 = #62402F
|label5 = [[Asian Peruvians|East Asians]]
|value5 = 0.16
|color5 = #E8BF88
|label6 = Others
|value6 = 4.42
|color6 = Lightgray
}}

Peru is a [[Multiethnic society|multiethnic nation]] formed by successive waves of different peoples over five centuries. [[Indigenous Peoples in Peru|Amerindians]] inhabited Peruvian territory for several millennia before the [[Spanish conquest of Peru|Spanish conquest]] in the 16th century; according to historian [[Noble David Cook]], their population decreased from nearly 5–9 million in the 1520s to around 600,000 in 1620 mainly because of [[Infectious disease|infectious diseases]].<ref>[[Noble David Cook|Cook, Noble David]] (1982) ''Demographic collapse: Indian Peru, 1520–1620''. Cambridge University Press. p. 114. {{ISBN|0521239958}}.</ref>

The 2017 census for the first time included a question on ethnic self-identification. According to the results, 60.2% of the people identified themselves as [[mestizo]], 22.3% identified themselves as [[Quechua people|Quechua]], 5.9% identified themselves as [[White Peruvians|white]], 3.6% identified themselves as [[Afro-Peruvians|black]], 2.4% identified themselves as [[Aymara people|Aymara]], 2.3% identified themselves as other ethnic groups, and 3.3% did not declare their ethnicity.<ref>{{cite web |title=Perú: Perfil Sociodemográfico |url=https://www.inei.gob.pe/media/MenuRecursivo/publicaciones_digitales/Est/Lib1539/libro.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200211135110/https://www.inei.gob.pe/media/MenuRecursivo/publicaciones_digitales/Est/Lib1539/libro.pdf |archive-date=11 February 2020 |access-date=27 September 2018 |website=Instituto Nacional de Estadística e Informática |page=214}}</ref>  In the different stages of Peru's history, ethnic composition has varied, with a continuous decline in the Amerindian proportion, due to multiple socioeconomic and sociocultural factors, birth controls, high mortality rates, exclusion, among others. The country tends towards a slow generalized miscegenation of all ethnic segments that began from the beginning of the colonial period to the present day. Because the majority of the Peruvian population has become mestizo, some feel a superiority complex towards the natives of the mountains and the jungle, either because they do not pronounce a word properly, or simply because they do not know how to read a text well, leading to a kind of [[racism]] towards them.

During the [[Viceroyalty of Peru]], Spaniards and Africans arrived in large numbers, mixing widely with each other and with the native population, mainly on the coast (the mountains and the jungle maintained a very little mixed indigenous majority). After independence there was European immigration from Spain, Italy, England, France, and Germany, along with the Middle East.<ref>Vázquez, Mario (1970) "Immigration and mestizaje in nineteenth-century Peru", pp. 79–81 in ''Race and class in Latin America''. Columbia Univ. Press. {{ISBN|0-231-03295-1}}</ref> Peru freed its black slaves in 1854.<ref>"[https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/8384853.stm Peru apologises for abuse of African-origin citizens] ". BBC News. 29 November 2009</ref> Chinese and Japanese arrived in the 1850s as laborers following the end of slavery, and have since become a major influence in Peruvian society.<ref>Mörner, Magnus (1967), ''Race mixture in the history of Latin America'', p.&nbsp;131.</ref> The first Croatian immigrants came to Peru in 1573 from Dubrovnik.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Peru izabrao predsjednicu peruansko-hrvatskog prijateljstva |url=https://www.index.hr/vijesti/clanak/peru-izabrao-predsjednicu-peruanskohrvatskog-prijateljstva/2587838.aspx |access-date=21 September 2024 |website=www.index.hr |language=hr |archive-date=21 September 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240921142859/https://www.index.hr/vijesti/clanak/peru-izabrao-predsjednicu-peruanskohrvatskog-prijateljstva/2587838.aspx |url-status=live }}</ref>
[[File:Local-truck-transit-market-chinchaypujio.jpg|thumb|Quechua travelers in the Andes]]

In recent decades, Peruvian emigration figures have shown a marked growth and currently more than 10% of Peruvians are residing outside the country. This migratory movement has been accentuated since the year 2000, the official figure of Peruvian emigrants is 3,505,511 from 1994 to 2024.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://cdn.www.gob.pe/uploads/document/file/7469985/6359031-peru-estadisticas-de-la-migracion-internacional-al-2024-una-vision-desde-los-registros-administrativos%282%29.pdf |title=Perú: Estadísticas de la Migración Internacional, al 2024 (Una visión desde los Registros Administrativos) |lang=es |page=9 |website=Instituto Nacional de Estadística e Informática |access-date=1 November 2025 |archive-date=16 March 2025 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250316204643/https://cdn.www.gob.pe/uploads/document/file/7469985/6359031-peru-estadisticas-de-la-migracion-internacional-al-2024-una-vision-desde-los-registros-administrativos(2).pdf |url-status=live}}</ref> This without considering the descendant population, and the illegal floating population that is essentially found in neighboring countries. With respect to the main countries of destination for Peruvian emigrants between 1994 and 2023, these were: the United States (30.4%), Spain (16.1%), Argentina (12.9%), Chile (11.6%), Italy (10.3%), Japan (3.6%) and Canada (1.9%).<ref>{{cite web |url=https://cdn.www.gob.pe/uploads/document/file/7469985/6359031-peru-estadisticas-de-la-migracion-internacional-al-2024-una-vision-desde-los-registros-administrativos%282%29.pdf |title=Perú: Estadísticas de la Migración Internacional, al 2024 (Una visión desde los Registros Administrativos) |lang=es |page=18 |website=Instituto Nacional de Estadística e Informática |access-date=1 November 2025 |archive-date=16 March 2025 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250316204643/https://cdn.www.gob.pe/uploads/document/file/7469985/6359031-peru-estadisticas-de-la-migracion-internacional-al-2024-una-vision-desde-los-registros-administrativos(2).pdf |url-status=live}}</ref> 75% of Peruvian emigrants are between 15 and 49 years old, with a slight majority of women. For the most part, Peruvian emigration is a labor migration.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://cdn.www.gob.pe/uploads/document/file/7469985/6359031-peru-estadisticas-de-la-migracion-internacional-al-2024-una-vision-desde-los-registros-administrativos%282%29.pdf |title=Perú: Estadísticas de la Migración Internacional, al 2024 (Una visión desde los Registros Administrativos) |lang=es |pages=10-12 |website=Instituto Nacional de Estadística e Informática |access-date=1 November 2025 |archive-date=16 March 2025 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250316204643/https://cdn.www.gob.pe/uploads/document/file/7469985/6359031-peru-estadisticas-de-la-migracion-internacional-al-2024-una-vision-desde-los-registros-administrativos(2).pdf |url-status=live}}</ref>

Throughout its history, Peru has received migrations from Europe (mainly Spain and Italy; and to a lesser extent from France, United Kingdom, and from other Central European countries and Southern), sub-Saharan Africa and East Asia (China and Japan). It currently receives a large number of Venezuelan immigrants, who are escaping the economic crisis that their country is suffering.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://cdn.www.gob.pe/uploads/document/file/7469985/6359031-peru-estadisticas-de-la-migracion-internacional-al-2024-una-vision-desde-los-registros-administrativos%282%29.pdf |title=Perú: Estadísticas de la Migración Internacional, al 2024 (Una visión desde los Registros Administrativos) |lang=es |pages=52-54 |website=Instituto Nacional de Estadística e Informática |access-date=1 November 2025 |archive-date=16 March 2025 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250316204643/https://cdn.www.gob.pe/uploads/document/file/7469985/6359031-peru-estadisticas-de-la-migracion-internacional-al-2024-una-vision-desde-los-registros-administrativos(2).pdf |url-status=live}}</ref>

From 2016, the flow of Venezuelans to Peru increased, going from 6615 residents in that year to around 820,000 until mid-June 2019, being the most important migratory wave of the 21st century in the country. Peru is home to the second largest number of Venezuelan immigrants after Colombia.<ref>{{Cite web |date=14 June 2019 |title=Miles de venezolanos ingresan a Perú antes que entre en vigencia requisito de visa humanitaria {{!}} Mundo {{!}} Gestion |work=Gestion |url=https://gestion.pe/mundo/miles-venezolanos-ingresan-peru-vigencia-requisito-visa-humanitaria-270196 |access-date=23 September 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190614190654/https://gestion.pe/mundo/miles-venezolanos-ingresan-peru-vigencia-requisito-visa-humanitaria-270196 |archive-date=14 June 2019 |last1=Ap |first1=Agencia }}</ref>

===Language===
{{main|Languages of Peru}}
[[File:Last look arounjd Lima (8444763943).jpg|alt=|thumb|[[Casa de Osambela]], headquarters of the [[Academia Peruana de la Lengua]] (APL) in [[Lima]]]]
According to the Peruvian Constitution of 1993, Peru's official languages are [[Spanish language|Spanish]] and, in areas where they predominate, [[Quechuan languages|Quechua]] and other Indigenous languages. Spanish is spoken natively by 82.6% of the population, and coexists with several native languages, of which the most important is the [[Quechuan languages]], spoken by 16.92% of the population, 1.7% [[Aymara language|Aymara]] and 0.8% speaking another native language. In the urban areas of the country, especially in the coastal region, monolingualism of Spanish predominates; while in many rural areas of the country, particularly in the Amazon, multilingual populations dominate.<ref>{{cite web |title=Perú: Perfil Sociodemográfico |url=https://www.inei.gob.pe/media/MenuRecursivo/publicaciones_digitales/Est/Lib1539/libro.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200211135110/https://www.inei.gob.pe/media/MenuRecursivo/publicaciones_digitales/Est/Lib1539/libro.pdf |archive-date=11 February 2020 |access-date=27 September 2018 |website=Instituto Nacional de Estadística e Informática |page=198}}</ref>

Spanish language is used by the government and is the mainstream language of the country, which is used by the media and in educational systems and commerce. Amerindians who live in the Andean highlands speak Quechua and Aymara and are ethnically distinct from the diverse Indigenous groups who live on the eastern side of the Andes and in the tropical lowlands adjacent to the [[Amazon basin]].<ref name="Loaiza-2016" />

Peru's distinct geographical regions are mirrored in a language divide between the coast where Spanish is more predominant over the Amerindian languages, and the more diverse traditional Andean cultures of the mountains and highlands. The Indigenous populations east of the Andes speak various languages and dialects. Some of these groups still adhere to traditional Indigenous languages, while others have been almost completely assimilated into the Spanish language. There has been an increasing and organized effort to teach Quechua in public schools in the areas where Quechua is spoken. In the Peruvian Amazon, numerous Indigenous languages are spoken, including [[Asháninka language|Asháninka]], [[Bora language|Bora]], and [[Aguaruna language|Aguaruna]].<ref name="Loaiza-2016" />

===Religion===
{{main|Religion in Peru}}
[[File:La Basílica Catedral de Arequipa 03.jpg|alt=|thumb|[[Basilica Cathedral of Arequipa]]]]
Roman Catholicism has been the predominant faith in Peru for centuries, albeit religious practices have a high degree of [[syncretism]] with Indigenous traditions.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Budde |first=Michael L. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6tJ0DQAAQBAJ&dq=syncretism+with+Indigenous+traditions+Peru&pg=PA201 |title=Beyond the Borders of Baptism: Catholicity, Allegiances, and Lived Identities |date=2 September 2016 |publisher=Wipf and Stock Publishers |isbn=978-1-4982-0473-6 |language=en}}</ref> Two of its universities, [[Pontifical Catholic University of Peru]] and Universidad Católica San Pablo, are among the country's five top universities.<ref>World University Ranking 2023, Times Higher Education, https://www.times {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220127230006/https://times/ |date=27 January 2022}} highereducation.com > world-ranking</ref> As of the 2017 census, 76% of the population over 12 years old described themselves as [[Catholic Church|Catholic]]; 14.1% as [[Evangelical Protestant|Evangelical]]; 4.8% as Protestant, Jewish, [[Latter-day Saints]], and [[Jehovah's Witnesses]]; and 5.1% as nonreligious.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://es.statista.com/grafico/28553/las-religiones-mas-comunes-en-latinoamerica/ |title=Catholicism and evangelism: the two most common religions in Latin America |website=Statista |date=26 October 2022 |access-date=18 November 2022 |archive-date=19 November 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221119004809/https://es.statista.com/grafico/28553/las-religiones-mas-comunes-en-latinoamerica/ |url-status=live}}</ref> In 2025, naturalized Peruvian citizen [[Cardinal (Catholic Church)|Cardinal]] Robert Francis Prevost became [[Pope Leo XIV]].<ref>{{cite news |last1=Collyns |first1=Dan |title='The pope is Peruvian': elation in country where pontiff served as bishop |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2025/may/08/pope-leo-xiv-peru-latin-america |access-date=9 May 2025 |work=The Guardian |date=8 May 2025 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250509010417/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2025/may/08/pope-leo-xiv-peru-latin-america |archive-date=9 May 2025 |url-status=live}}</ref>

Amerindian religious traditions continue to play a major role in the beliefs of Peruvians. Catholic festivities like [[Corpus Christi (feast)|Corpus Christi]], [[Holy Week]] and Christmas sometimes blend with Amerindian traditions. Pre-Columbian Amerindian festivities remain widespread; [[Inti Raymi]], an ancient Inca festival, is still celebrated, especially in rural communities.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://peru.info/en-us/tourism/news/3/46/inti-raymi-the-timeless-festival-of-the-sun |title=Inti Raymi: The Timeless Festival of the Sun |access-date=2024-08-03 |website=[[Peru Brand]]|last=Peru Brand|language=es}}</ref>

The majority of towns, cities, and villages have their own official church or cathedral and [[patron saint]]. The two saints of Peru are [[Rose of Lima]], the first Saint of the Americas, and [[Martin de Porres]]. The largest cathedral in Peru is the [[Metropolitan Cathedral of Lima]]. Its construction began in 1535 by under [[Francisco Pizarro]] and was completed in 1797.<ref name="Manuel García">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dRFtAAAAIAAJ&q=catedral+de+lima|title=Historia de la Catedral de Lima, 1535-1898|author=Manuel García Irigoyen|year=1898|publisher=Imprenta de El País|pages=5, 8, 10, 16, 19, 21, 25}}</ref> Other notable churches and cathedrals are the [[Cusco Cathedral]] [[Basilica Cathedral of Arequipa]] and the [[Basilica of Santo Domingo, Lima|Basilica of Santo Domingo]].

===Education===
{{main|Education in Peru}}
[[File:Mural Colorido - UNMSM.jpg|thumb|[[National University of San Marcos]] located in [[Lima]], the [[List of oldest universities in continuous operation#Latin America and the Caribbean|oldest university in the Americas]]]]
In Peru, education is under the jurisdiction of the [[Ministry of Education (Peru)|Ministry of Education]], which is in charge of formulating, implementing and supervising the national education policy. According to the Political Constitution of Peru, education is [[Compulsory education|compulsory]] and free in public schools for the initial, primary and secondary levels.<ref>[https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/peru/ Peru] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210123014649/https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/peru/|date=23 January 2021}} . CIA, The World Factbook</ref><ref>''Constitución Política del Perú'', Article No. 17.</ref> It is also free in public universities for students who have satisfactory academic performance and pass the admission exams. Most of the schools in Peru are [[Private school|private]] and [[Religious school|religious]]. Peru's literacy rate is estimated at 92.9% as of 2007; this rate is lower in rural areas (80.3%) than in urban areas (96.3%).<ref>Instituto Nacional de Estadística e Informática, ''Perfil sociodemográfico del Perú'', p. 93.</ref>

Education is divided into different levels: Initial education corresponds to the period between zero and five years of age, and is in charge of cribs whose purpose is to provide children with the stimulation required for their comprehensive development and the gardens that offer technical-pedagogical activities. Primary education begins with the first cycle, made up of the first and second grades. The entry age for children is six years old. This level begins in the first grade and ends in the sixth grade of primary school. Secondary education consists of five years, from first to fifth year. Then comes higher education that can be technical, productive, technological or university. To enter universities it is essential to take an admission exam, although the difficulty of this depends on the requirements of the university.

Peru is home to one of the oldest institutions of higher learning in the New World. The [[National University of San Marcos]], founded on 12 May 1551, during the [[Viceroyalty of Peru]], is the first officially established and the [[List of oldest universities in continuous operation#Latin America and the Caribbean|oldest continuously functioning university in the Americas]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Samaké |first=Cynthia LeCount |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5qAuEQAAQBAJ&dq=National+University+of+San+Marcos+oldest+continuously+functioning+university+in+the+Americas&pg=PT91 |title=Textile Traveler's Guide to Peru & Bolivia |date=5 April 2019 |publisher=Schiffer + ORM |isbn=978-1-5073-0253-8 |language=en |archive-date=19 February 2025 |access-date=17 January 2025 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250219125140/https://www.google.com/books/edition/Textile_Traveler_s_Guide_to_Peru_Bolivia/5qAuEQAAQBAJ?hl=en&gbpv=1&dq=National+University+of+San+Marcos+oldest+continuously+functioning+university+in+the+Americas&pg=PT91&printsec=frontcover |url-status=live }}</ref> The University of San Marcos is known to be the best in Peru and among the best in South America.

=== Health ===
{{main|Health in Peru}}
{{see also|Healthcare in Peru}}
[[File:Hospital de Tarapoto 2.jpg|thumb|Hospital of [[Tarapoto]]]]

According to the [[Pan American Health Organization]], life expectancy for men is 72.6 years, while for women it is 77.9 years. Infant mortality is eighteen per thousand births, having been reduced 76% from 1990 to 2011.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Core Indicators, Health Situation in the America's |url=https://iris.paho.org/bitstream/handle/10665.2/34329/CoreIndicators2017_eng.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y |access-date=9 May 2024 |archive-date=1 June 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230601200823/https://iris.paho.org/bitstream/handle/10665.2/34329/CoreIndicators2017_eng.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y |url-status=live}}</ref> The main causes of death of Peruvians are [[neoplasm]], [[influenza]] and [[pneumonia]], bacterial diseases, ischemic heart diseases and cerebrovascular diseases. According to the 2017 Population and Housing Censuses, 75.5% of the population has some type of health insurance, that is, 22,173,663 people, despite this, 24.5% of the population does not have any type of insurance.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Perfil Sociodemografico |url=https://www.inei.gob.pe/media/MenuRecursivo/publicaciones_digitales/Est/Lib1539/libro.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200211135110/https://www.inei.gob.pe/media/MenuRecursivo/publicaciones_digitales/Est/Lib1539/libro.pdf |access-date=27 September 2018 |archive-date=11 February 2020 |url-status=live}}</ref>

=== Toponyms ===
Many of the Peruvian [[toponym]]s have [[Indigenous language|Indigenous]] sources. In the Andes communities of [[Áncash Region|Ancash]], [[Cusco Region|Cusco]] and [[Puno Region|Puno]], Quechua or Aymara names are overwhelmingly predominant. Their Spanish-based orthography, however, is in conflict with the normalized alphabets of these languages. According to Article 20 of {{lang|es|Decreto Supremo No 004-2016-MC}} (Supreme Decree) which approves the Regulations to Law 29735, published in the official newspaper El Peruano on 22 July 2016, adequate spellings of the [[toponym]]s in the normalized alphabets of the Indigenous languages must progressively be proposed with the aim of standardizing the naming used by the National Geographic Institute {{lang|es|(Instituto Geográfico Nacional, IGN)}}. The National Geographic Institute realizes the necessary changes in the official maps of Peru.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://busquedas.elperuano.com.pe/normaslegales/decreto-supremo-que-aprueba-el-reglamento-de-la-ley-n-29735-decreto-supremo-n-004-2016-mc-1407753-5/|title=Decreto Supremo que aprueba el Reglamento de la Ley N° 29735, Ley que regula el uso, preservación, desarrollo, recuperación, fomento y difusión de las lenguas originarias del Perú, Decreto Supremo N° 004-2016-MC|access-date=10 July 2017|archive-date=29 October 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171029100122/http://busquedas.elperuano.com.pe/normaslegales/decreto-supremo-que-aprueba-el-reglamento-de-la-ley-n-29735-decreto-supremo-n-004-2016-mc-1407753-5/|url-status=live}}</ref>

== Culture ==
{{main|Culture of Peru}}
[[File:Chancay - Textile Doll - Walters 83768.jpg|thumb|upright|11th-century textile doll, [[Chancay culture]], [[Walters Art Museum]]. Dolls are frequently found in the tombs of ancient Peru.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://art.thewalters.org/detail/79394/textile-doll/|title=Textile Doll|website=[[Walters Art Museum]] site|access-date=3 August 2023|archive-date=4 June 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230604043027/https://art.thewalters.org/detail/79394/textile-doll/|url-status=live}}</ref>]]
Peruvian culture is primarily rooted in Iberian and Andean traditions,<ref name="Belaunde" /> though it has also been influenced by various European, Asian, and African ethnic groups. [[Peruvian arts|Peruvian artistic traditions]] date back to the elaborate pottery, textiles, jewelry, and sculpture of [[Pre-Inca cultures]]. The Incas maintained these crafts and made [[Architecture of Peru|architectural]] achievements including the construction of [[Machu Picchu]]. [[Baroque]] dominated colonial art, though modified by Native traditions.<ref>Bailey, pp. 72–74.</ref>

During this period, most art focused on religious subjects; the numerous churches of the era and the paintings of the [[Cusco School]] are representative.<ref>Bailey, p. 263.</ref> Arts stagnated after independence until the emergence of {{lang|es|[[Indigenismo]]}} in the early 20th century.<ref name="Lucie" /> Since the 1950s, Peruvian art has been [[Eclecticism in art|eclectic]] and shaped by both foreign and local art currents.

===Visual arts===
{{Main|Peruvian art}}
Peruvian art has its origin in the [[Peruvian Ancient Cultures|Andean civilizations]]. These civilizations arose in the territory of modern Peru before the [[Spanish colonization of the Americas|arrival of the Spanish]]. Peruvian art incorporated European elements after the Spanish conquest and continued to evolve throughout the centuries up to the modern day.
==== Pre-Columbian art ====
Peru's earliest artwork came from the [[Cupisnique]] culture, which was concentrated on the Pacific coast, and the Chavín culture, which was largely north of [[Lima]] between the Andean mountain ranges of the [[Cordillera Negra]] and the [[Cordillera Blanca]]. Decorative work from this era, approximately the 9th century BCE, was symbolic and religious in nature. The artists worked with gold, silver, and [[Ceramics (art)|ceramics]] to create a variety of sculptures and relief carvings. These civilizations were also known for their architecture and wood sculptures.<ref>Jones, Sam, ''[https://www.theguardian.com/world/2021/mar/25/peru-archaeologists-mural-temple-spider-god-rain-fertility Archaeologists identify 3,200-year-old temple mural of spider god in Peru]'', The Guardian, March 25, 2021 with images</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=The Great Hall Balcony: Containing the Divine Peru |url=https://www.metmuseum.org/essays/great-hall-balcony-containing-the-divine-peru |website=The Metropolitan Museum of Art |access-date=8 November 2025}}</ref>

The [[Paracas culture|Paracas]] Cavernas and Paracas [[Necropolis]] cultures developed on the south coast of Peru between the 9th century BCE and the 2nd century CE. Paracas Cavernas produced complex polychrome and monochrome ceramics with religious representations. Burials from the Paracas Necropolis also yielded complex textiles, many produced with sophisticated geometric patterns. The 3rd century BCE saw the flowering of the urban culture, [[Moche (culture)|Moche]], in the [[Lambayeque (Department of Peru)|Lambayeque]] region. The Moche culture produced architectural works, such as the [[Huaca del Sol|Huacas del Sol y de la Luna]] and the [[Huaca Rajada]] of [[Sipán]]. They were experts at [[Terrace (agriculture)|cultivation in terraces]] and [[hydraulic engineering]] and produced original ceramics, textiles, pictorial and sculptural works. Another urban culture, the [[Huari Culture|Wari civilization]], flourished between the 8th and 12th centuries in [[Ayacucho (Department of Peru)|Ayacucho]]. Their centralized town planning was extended to other areas, such as [[Pachacamac]], [[Cajamarquilla]] and [[Wari Willka]]. Between the 9th and 13th centuries CE, the military urban [[Tiwanaku]] empire rose by the borders of [[Lake Titicaca]]. Centered around a city of the same name in modern-day Bolivia, the Tiwanaku introduced stone architecture and sculpture of a monumental type. These works of architecture and art were made possible by the Tiwanaku's developing [[bronze]], which enabled them to make the necessary tools.<ref>{{cite web |title=Wari: Imperial Art |url=https://www.metmuseum.org/essays/wari-imperial-art |website=The Metropolitan Museum of Art |access-date=8 November 2025}}</ref>

Urban architecture reached a new height between the 14th and 15th centuries in the [[Chimú Culture]]. The Chimú built the city of [[Chan Chan]] in the valley of the [[Moche River]], in [[La Libertad (Department of Peru)|La Libertad]]. The Chimú were skilled [[goldsmith]]s and created remarkable works of [[hydraulic engineering]].<ref>{{Cite encyclopedia |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Chimu |title=Chimú |encyclopedia=[[Encyclopædia Britannica]] |access-date=20 April 2018}}</ref> The [[Inca Empire|Inca Civilization]], which united Peru under its hegemony in the centuries immediately preceding the Spanish conquest, incorporated into their own works a great part of the cultural legacy of the civilizations which preceded it. Important relics of their artwork and architecture can be seen in cities like [[Cusco (Department of Peru)|Cusco]], architectural remains like [[Sacsayhuamán]] and [[Machu Picchu]] and stone pavements that united Cusco with the rest of the Inca Empire.<ref>[https://www.worldhistory.org/Sacsayhuaman/ World History Encyclopedia: Sacsayhuaman]</ref><ref>{{cite web |title = Machu Picchu |url = https://www.nationalgeographic.com/history/article/machu-picchu-mystery |website = [[National Geographic]] |first1 = Kelly |last1 = Hearn |first2 = Jason |last2 = Golomb |date = 21 January 2017 |access-date = 2024-08-12 }}</ref>

==== Colonial art ====
{{Main|Peruvian colonial architecture|Cusco School}}
[[File:Saint Joseph and the Christ Child - Google Art Project.jpg|thumb|upright=.8|''Saint Joseph and the Christ Child'', Anonymous, [[Cusco School|Colonial Cusco Painting School]], 17th–18th century]]
Peruvian sculpture and painting began to define themselves from the [[Studio|ateliers]] founded by monks, who were strongly influenced by the Sevillian Baroque School. In this context, the stalls of the [[Metropolitan Cathedral of Lima|Cathedral]] choir, the fountain of the Main Square of Lima both by [[Pedro de Noguera]], and a great part of the colonial production were registered. The first center of art established by the Spanish was the [[Cuzco School]] that taught [[Quechua languages|Quechua]] artists European painting styles. [[Diego Quispe Tito]] (1611–1681) was one of the first members of the Cuzco school and [[Marcos Zapata]] (1710–1773) was one of the last.<ref name="Bayon" />

Painting of this time reflected a synthesis of European and Indigenous influences, as is evident in the portrait of prisoner Atahualpa, by D. de Mora or in the canvases of the Italians [[Mateo Pérez de Alesio]] and Angelino Medoro, the Spaniards Francisco Bejarano and J. de Illescas and the Creole J. Rodriguez.

During the 17th and 18th centuries, the [[Baroque]] and [[Rococo]] styles, with their heavy ornamentation and predominantly curved lines, also dominated the fields of architecture and [[plastic arts]], as for example on the walls of the [[Basilica and Convent of San Francisco, Lima|Monastery of San Francisco]] in Lima.

=== Literature ===
{{main|Peruvian literature}}
Peruvian literature refers not only to literature produced in the modern Republic of Peru, but also literature produced in the [[Viceroyalty of Peru]] during the colonial period, and to [[Oral tradition|oral]] traditions created by diverse ethnic groups living in what is now Peru during the [[Prehispanic#South America|pre-Columbian period]], such as the [[Quechua people|Quechua]], the [[Aymara people|Aymara]] and the [[Chanka]] people.
[[File:Cesar vallejo 1929 RestauradabyJohnManuel.jpg|thumb|upright=.8|[[Cesar Vallejo]], Peru's most famous poet]]

Spaniards introduced writing in the 16th century; colonial literary expression included [[chronicle]]s and [[Christian literature|religious literature]]. Some of the first chroniclers were writers and soldiers who were responsible for producing official transcripts of military expeditions. There was also a small group of non-official chroniclers or personal diarists who provided unique personal insights on the effort to subdue and colonize the region. For the most part, these chroniclers all wrote from the perspective of Spanish [[Conquistador|conquistadores]], whose mission was to "civilize" and "reveal the true faith" to the native peoples of Peru. Among the official Spanish chroniclers were [[Francisco Xerez]], personal secretary of Pizarro, who wrote the {{lang|es|Verdadera relación de la conquista del Perú y provincia del Cuzco llamada la Nueva Castilla}} (The True Narrative of the Conquest of Peru and of Cuzco Province, Otherwise Known as New Castile), in 1534. Indigenous chroniclers were also known, such as [[Titu Cusi Yupanqui]] who, after familiarizing himself with Spanish culture, wrote {{lang|es|Relación de cómo los españoles entraron en Pirú y el subceso que tuvo Mango Inca en el tiempo en que entre ellos vivió}} (The Narrative of How the Spaniards Entered Piru and Mango Inca's Experiences while Living Among Them) in 1570.

After independence, [[Costumbrism]] and [[Romanticism]] became the most common literary genres, as exemplified in the works of [[Ricardo Palma]].<ref>Martin, "Literature, music and the visual arts, c. 1820–1870", pp. 37–39.</ref> The early 20th century's {{lang|es|Indigenismo}} movement was led by such writers as [[Ciro Alegría]]<ref>Martin, "Narrative since c. 1920", pp. 151–152.</ref> and [[José María Arguedas]].<ref>Martin, "Narrative since c. 1920", pp. 178–179.</ref> The [[avant-garde]] movement of the late 19th and early 20th centuries saw the establishment of magazines {{lang|es|Colónida}} and {{lang|es|Amauta}}, the latter founded in 1926 by the prominent socialist essayist [[José Carlos Mariátegui]]. The influential poet [[César Vallejo]], who was one of its collaborators, wrote modernist and often politically engaged verse in the 1920s and 1930s. Modern Peruvian literature is recognized thanks to authors such as [[List of Nobel laureates in Literature|Nobel laureate]] [[Mario Vargas Llosa]], a leading member of the [[Latin American Boom]].<ref>Martin, "Narrative since c. 1920", pp. 186–188.</ref>

=== Music ===
{{main|Peruvian music}}
[[File:Marinera Norteña.jpg|thumb|[[Marinera]] was declared [[Cultural heritage of Peru|cultural heritage of the Nation]] in 1986<ref>{{cite act |title=Resolución Suprema Nº 022-86-ED |url=http://administrativos.cultura.gob.pe/intranet/dpcn/anexos/1_1.pdf |publisher=Ministerio de Educación del Perú |date=1986-01-30 |access-date=2025-08-07 |italics=y |language=es}}</ref>]]

Peruvian music has [[Andean music|Andean]], [[Music of Spain|Spanish]], and [[African Music|African]] roots.<ref>Romero, Raúl (1999). "Andean Peru". In: John Schechter (ed.), ''Music in Latin American culture: regional tradition''. New York: Schirmer Books, pp.&nbsp;385–386.</ref> In pre-Columbian times, musical expressions varied widely in each region; the {{lang|qu|[[quena]]}} and the {{lang|qu|[[tinya]]}} were two common instruments.<ref name="Olsen" /> Spaniards introduced new instruments, such as the guitar and the harp, which led to the development of crossbred instruments like the {{lang|es|[[charango]]}}.<ref name="Turino" /> African contributions to Peruvian music include its rhythms and the {{lang|es|[[cajón]]}}, a percussion instrument. [[Peruvian folk dances]] include [[marinera]], [[tondero]], [[zamacueca]], [[diablada]] and [[huayno]].<ref>Romero, Raúl (1985). "La música tradicional y popular". In: Patronato Popular y Porvenir, ''La música en el Perú''. Lima: Industrial Gráfica, pp.&nbsp;pp. 243–245, 261–265.</ref>

Peruvian music is dominated by the national [[Musical instrument|instrument]], the [[charango]]. The charango is a member of the [[lute]] family of instruments and was invented during [[Viceroyalty of Peru|colonial times]] by musicians imitating the Spanish [[vihuela]]. In the Canas and [[Titicaca]] regions, the charango is used in courtship rituals, symbolically invoking mermaids with the instrument to lure the woman to the male performers. Until the 1960s, the charango was denigrated as an instrument of the rural poor. After the revolution in 1959, which built the [[Indigenismo]] movement (1910–1940), the charango was popularized among other performers. Variants include the [[walaycho]], [[chillador]], [[chinlili]], and the larger and lower-tuned [[charangon]].

While the Spanish guitar is widely played, so too is the Spanish-in-origin [[bandurria]]. Unlike the guitar, it has been transformed by Peruvian players over the years, changing from a 12-string, 6-course instrument to one having 12 to 16 strings in a mere four courses. Violins and [[harps]], also of European origin, are also played. A very famous instrument from Peru is the [[pan flute]], dating back to Incan times. It is made of hollow bamboo tubes and is widely played in the Peruvian Andes.

The country also has some rock and pop singers and bands of great acceptance, both nationally and internationally such as: Susan Ochoa, [[Anna Carina]], Jean Paul Strauss, [[Leslie Shaw]], Raúl Romero, [[Gian Marco]] and [[Pedro Suárez-Vértiz]], winners of awards such as the [[Latin Grammy Awards]] and [[Orgullosamente Latino Award]]. Peru is also the country that saw the birth of [[Los Saicos]], considered the first garage rock and protopunk band in the world. Other famous [[Peruvian rock]] bands include [[Arena Hash]], [[Nosequien y Los Nosecuantos]], [[Frágil (band)|Frágil]], [[Amen (Peruvian band)|Amen]], and [[Mar de Copas]].

=== Cinema ===
{{Main|Cinema of Peru}}
[[File:Claudia Llosa (113).jpg|thumb|upright=.8|Award-winning filmmaker [[Claudia Llosa]]]]
While the Peruvian film industry has not been nearly as prolific as that of some other Latin American countries, some Peruvian movies have enjoyed regional success. Historically, the cinema of Peru began in Iquitos in 1932 with Antonio Wong Rengifo (alongside a significant early film billboard from 1900) due to the [[Amazon rubber cycle|rubber boom]] and the influx of foreigners bringing technology to the city. This led to the development of an extensive and distinctive filmography, characterized by a style different from the films produced in the capital, [[Lima]].

Peru also produced the first animated 3-D film in Latin America, {{lang|es|[[Piratas en el Callao]]}}. This film is set in the historical port city of [[Callao]], which during colonial times had to defend itself against attacks by Dutch and British privateers seeking to undercut Spain's trade with its colonies. The film was produced by the [[Peruvians|Peruvian]] company Alpamayo Entertainment, which made a second 3-D film one year later: {{lang|es|Dragones: Destino de Fuego}}.

In February 2006, the film ''[[Madeinusa]]'', produced as a joint venture between Peru and Spain and directed by [[Claudia Llosa]], was set in an imaginary Andean village and describes the stagnating life of Madeinusa performed by [[Magaly Solier]] and the traumas of post-civil war Peru.

Llosa, who drew inspiration from elements of [[Gabriel García Márquez]]'s [[magic realism]], won an award at the [[Rotterdam Film Festival]]. Llosa's second feature, ''[[The Milk of Sorrow]]'' ("La Teta Asustada"), was nominated for the [[82nd Academy Awards]] for Best Foreign Language Picture, the first Peruvian film in the academy's history to be nominated. The film won the [[Golden Bear]] at the [[59th Berlin International Film Festival]].

=== Cuisine ===
{{Main|Peruvian cuisine}}
[[File:Ceviche mixto callao.jpg|alt=|thumb|''[[Ceviche]]'' is a popular lime-marinated seafood dish which originated in Peru.]]

Because of the Spanish expedition and discovery of America, explorers started the [[Columbian exchange]] which included unknown food in the Old World, including potatoes, tomatoes, and maize. Modern Indigenous Peruvian food often includes corn, potatoes, and [[Chili pepper|chilies]]. There are now more than 3,000 kinds of potatoes grown on Peruvian terrain, according to Peru's {{lang|es|Instituto Peruano de la Papa}}.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://guide.michelin.com/sg/features/7-things-you-need-to-know-about-peruvian-cuisine/news|title=7 Things You Need to Know about Peruvian Cuisine|website=MICHELIN Guide|access-date=4 February 2019|archive-date=4 February 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190204122212/https://guide.michelin.com/sg/features/7-things-you-need-to-know-about-peruvian-cuisine/news|url-status=live}}</ref>
Modern [[Peruvian cuisine]] blends [[Native American cuisine#Native American cuisine of South America|Amerindian]] and [[Spanish food]] with strong influences from Chinese, African, Arab, Italian, and Japanese cooking.<ref>Custer, pp. 17–22.</ref> Common dishes include {{lang|es|[[anticuchos]]}}, {{lang|es|[[ceviche]]}}, and {{lang|es|[[pachamanca]]}}. Peru's varied climate allows the growth of diverse plants and animals good for cooking.<ref>Custer, pp. 25–38.</ref> Peru is known to have one of the best cuisines in the world. The capital, Lima, is home to [[Central Restaurante]], which is one of the [[The World's 50 Best Restaurants|World's Best Restaurants]] and serves various Peruvian dishes from each geographical part of the country, the {{lang|es|Costa}} (coast), {{lang|es|Sierra}} (mountains) and {{lang|es|Selva}} (rainforest).

Peruvian cuisine reflects local practices and ingredients – including influences from the Indigenous population such as the [[Quechua people|Inca]] and cuisines introduced by colonizers and immigrants. Without the familiar ingredients from their home countries, immigrants modified their traditional cuisines by using ingredients available in Peru. The four traditional staples of Peruvian cuisine are [[Maize|corn]], [[potatoes]] and other [[tuber]]s, [[Amaranthaceae]]s ([[quinoa]], [[kañiwa]] and [[kiwicha]]) and [[legume]]s ([[beans]] and [[lupins]]). Staples brought by the Spanish include rice, wheat, and meats (beef, pork, and chicken). Many traditional foods{{snd}}such as [[quinoa]], [[kiwicha]], [[chili pepper]]s, and several roots and [[tuber]]s have increased in popularity in recent decades, reflecting a revival of interest in Native Peruvian foods and culinary techniques. It is also common to see traditional cuisines being served with a modern flair in towns like [[Cusco]], where tourists come to visit. Chef [[Gastón Acurio]] has become well known for raising awareness of local ingredients.

=== Sport ===
{{Main|Sport in Peru}}
[[File:Vista aérea del estadio nacional del Perú (2021).jpg|thumb|[[Estadio Nacional del Perú]] in 2021]]
The idea of sport dates back to the arrival of the Spanish in the 16th century, though many games and other native forms of entertainment predated the colonial era. More recently, the American ideology of physical education linked to commercialization has had widespread appeal. Sports in the country are divided into several sports federations (one for each sports practice) that are under the tutelage of the highest state entity to regulate their practice, the Peruvian Sports Institute (IPD). Most of the sports federations are based in the [[Villa Deportiva Nacional]] in Lima. Peru's largest stadium is [[Estadio Monumental "U"]] which has a capacity of over 80,000, making it the second largest stadium in South America. The country's national stadium is the [[Estadio Nacional del Perú|Estadio Nacional]]. Peru has hosted various sporting events, such as the [[2004 Copa América]], [[2005 FIFA U-17 World Championship]], [[2013 Bolivarian Games|2013]] and [[2024 Bolivarian Games]], and the largest sporting event held by the country, the [[2019 Pan American Games]]. The national sport of Peru is [[Paleta frontón]], which has developed in the 16th century in Lima.

[[Association football|Football]] is the most popular and widely practiced sport in the country. The [[Peruvian Primera División]] is the most important club tournament in the nation. The [[Peru national football team|men's team]] has had some important performances on the world stage. They participated in the  [[FIFA World Cup]] five times. Likewise, they have been champions of the [[Copa América]] on two occasions, in [[1939 South American Championship|1939]]  and [[1975 Copa América|1975]], and impressed at the [[1936 Summer Olympics]] before going home after withdrawing from a walkover given to Austria in the quarter-final. [[Teófilo Cubillas]] is considered Peru's greatest footballer. At the club level, [[Universitario]] stands out with the runner-up in the [[Copa Libertadores]] in 1972 and [[Sporting Cristal]] also with the runner-up in 1997. The only Peruvian clubs with international titles are Cienciano, which won the [[2003 Recopa Sudamericana]] and the [[2004 Recopa Sudamericana]], and Universitario, champion of the [[2011 U-20 Copa Libertadores]].

Other popular sports in Peru are [[volleyball]], [[surfing]] and [[karate]]. Peru has won multiple gold, silver, and bronze medals at the [[Pan American Games]]. The [[Peru women's national volleyball team]] was one of the dominant teams in the 1980s and 90s and won the silver medal at the [[1988 Summer Olympics]], losing to the [[Soviet Union]] 3–2 after having led by a wide margin. Peru has usually been very good at surfing and volleyball.

==See also==
{{Portal|Peru}}
*[[Outline of Peru]]

==Notes and references==
=== Explanatory notes ===
{{Notelist}}

===Citations===
{{Reflist|refs=
<ref name="Bayon">Bayón, Damián (1998). "Art, c. 1920–c. 1980". In: Leslie Bethell (ed.), ''A cultural history of Latin America''. Cambridge: University of Cambridge, {{ISBN|0521626269}}, pp.&nbsp;425–428.</ref>
<ref name="Belaunde">Belaunde, Víctor Andrés (1983). ''Peruanidad''. Lima: BCR, p. 472.</ref>
<ref name="John">St John, Ronald Bruce (1992). ''The foreign policy of Peru''. Boulder: Lynne Rienner, {{ISBN|1555873049}}, pp. 223–224.</ref>
<ref name="Lucie">Lucie-Smith, Edward (1993). [https://archive.org/details/latinamericanart00luci ''Latin American art of the 20th century''] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160820094958/https://archive.org/details/latinamericanart00luci |date=20 August 2016}}. London: Thames and Hudson, {{ISBN|0500203563}}, pp. 76–77, 145–146.</ref>
<ref name="Olsen">Olsen, Dale (2002). ''Music of El Dorado: the ethnomusicology of ancient South American cultures''. Gainesville: University Press of Florida, {{ISBN|0813029201}}, pp. 17–22.</ref>
<ref name="Sheahan">{{cite book |last=Sheahan |first=John |title=Searching for a better society: the Peruvian economy from 1950 |location=University Park |publisher=The Pennsylvania State University Press |date=1999 |isbn=0271018720 |page=157}}</ref>
<ref name="Turino">[[Thomas Turino|Turino, Thomas]] (1993). "Charango". In: Stanley Sadie (ed.), ''The New Grove Dictionary of Musical Instruments'', vol. I. New York: MacMillan Press Limited. p.&nbsp;340. {{ISBN|0333378784}}.</ref>
<ref name="Draft">{{cite journal |last=Shugart |first=Matthew Søberg |date=September 2005 |title=Semi-Presidential Systems: Dual Executive and Mixed Authority Patterns |url=http://dss.ucsd.edu/~mshugart/semi-presidentialism.pdf |url-status=dead |journal=Graduate School of International Relations and Pacific Studies |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080819200307/http://dss.ucsd.edu/~mshugart/semi-presidentialism.pdf |archive-date=19 August 2008 |access-date=31 August 2017}}</ref>
<ref name="Dual">{{cite journal |last=Shugart |first=Matthew Søberg |author-link=Matthew Søberg Shugart |date=December 2005 |title=Semi-Presidential Systems: Dual Executive And Mixed Authority Patterns |journal=French Politics |volume=3 |issue=3 |pages=323–351 |issn=1476-3427 |oclc=6895745903 |doi=10.1057/palgrave.fp.8200087 |doi-access=free |quote=Only in Latin America have all new democracies retained a pure presidential form, except for Peru (president-parliamentary) and Bolivia (assembly-independent).}}</ref>
<ref name="IMFWEO.PE">{{cite web |url=https://www.imf.org/en/Publications/WEO/weo-database/2023/October/weo-report?c=293,&s=NGDPD,PPPGDP,NGDPDPC,PPPPC,&sy=2020&ey=2028&ssm=0&scsm=1&scc=0&ssd=1&ssc=0&sic=0&sort=country&ds=.&br=1 |title=World Economic Outlook Database, October 2023 Edition. (Peru) |publisher=[[International Monetary Fund]] |date=10 October 2023 |access-date=12 October 2023 |archive-date=29 October 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231029022041/https://www.imf.org/en/Publications/WEO/weo-database/2023/October/weo-report?c=293,&s=NGDPD,PPPGDP,NGDPDPC,PPPPC,&sy=2020&ey=2028&ssm=0&scsm=1&scc=0&ssd=1&ssc=0&sic=0&sort=country&ds=.&br=1 |url-status=live}}</ref>
<ref name="Villalba-2022">{{cite journal |last1=Villalba |first1=Fernando Velásquez |date=2022 |title=A Totalidade Neoliberal-Fujimorista: Estigmatização e Colonialidade No Peru Contemporâneo |journal=Revista Brasileira de Ciências Sociais |volume=37 |issue=109 |article-number=e3710906 |doi=10.1590/3710906/2022 |s2cid=251877338 |quote=terruqueo, ou seja, a construção artificial, racista e conveniente de um inimigo sociopolítico para deslegitimar formas de protesto social|doi-access=free |issn = 0102-6909}}</ref>
<ref name="Banda-2023">{{Cite web |last1=Banda |first1=Gonzalo |date=12 January 2023 |title=At Peru Protests' Epicenter, Rage—And a Sense of Betrayal |url=https://www.americasquarterly.org/article/at-peru-protests-epicenter-rage-and-a-sense-of-betrayal/ |access-date=15 January 2023 |website=[[Americas Quarterly]] |language=en-US |archive-date=12 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230112203739/https://www.americasquarterly.org/article/at-peru-protests-epicenter-rage-and-a-sense-of-betrayal/ |url-status=live}}</ref>
<ref name="Keatinge22">{{cite journal |last1=Keatinge |first1=Richard W. |last2=Conrad |first2=Geoffrey W. |date=1983 |title=Imperialist expansion in Peruvian prehistory: Chimu administration of a conquered territory |journal=Journal of Field Archaeology |volume=10 |pages=255–283 |doi=10.1179/009346983791504246 |number=3}}</ref>
<ref name="discover-peru.org2">Conquest and Colony of Peru.{{cite web |title=Conquest and Colony of Peru |url=http://www.discover-peru.org/conquest-and-colony-of-peru/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160818164503/http://www.discover-peru.org/conquest-and-colony-of-peru/ |archive-date=18 August 2016 |access-date=28 July 2014 |website=discover-peru.org}}</ref>
<ref name="Alfredo3">{{cite book|author=Alfredo Schulte-Bockholt|title=The politics of organized crime and the organized crime of politics: a study in criminal power|publisher=Lexington Books|year=2006|isbn=978-0-7391-1358-5|pages=114–118|chapter=Chapter 5: Elites, Cocaine, and Power in Colombia and Peru|quote=important members of the officer corps, particularly within the army, had been contemplating a military coup and the establishment of an authoritarian regime, or a so-called directed democracy. The project was known as 'Plan Verde', the Green Plan. ... Fujimori essentially adopted the 'Plan Verde,' and the military became a partner in the regime. ... The autogolpe, or self-coup, of April 5, 1992, dissolved the Congress and the country's constitution and allowed for the implementation of the most important components of the 'Plan Verde.'}}</ref>
<ref name="Rospigliosi-1996b">{{Cite book|last=Rospigliosi|first=Fernando|title=Las Fuerzas Armadas y el 5 de abril: la percepción de la amenaza subversiva como una motivación golpista|publisher=Instituto de Estudios Peruanos|year=1996|location=Lima, Peru|pages=28–40}}</ref>
<ref name="Avilés-2009">{{Cite journal|last=Avilés|first=William|date=Spring 2009|title=Despite Insurgency: Reducing Military Prerogatives in Colombia and Peru|journal=[[Latin American Politics and Society]]|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|volume=51|issue=1|pages=57–85|doi=10.1111/j.1548-2456.2009.00040.x|s2cid=154153310}}</ref>
<ref name="Leonard-2013">{{Cite book|last=Leonard|first=Thomas M.|title=Encyclopedia of the Developing World|year= 2013 |publisher=Taylor and Francis|isbn=9781135205157|pages=685|quote=The inflation rate in 1990 was 7,650%.... President Fujimori immediately implemented a program of severe austerity and privatization programs. The economic shock therapy hit the poor the hardest, but brought inflation down to 139% in 1991 and 57% in 1992.}}</ref>
<ref name="ECLAC-1992">{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RTMDEAAAQBAJ|title=Economic Survey of Latin America and the Caribbean 1992|date=31 December 1992|publisher=ECLAC|pages=31|isbn=9789210601191|access-date=19 March 2023|archive-date=27 April 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230427210129/https://books.google.com/books?id=RTMDEAAAQBAJ|url-status=live}}</ref>
<ref name="Mitrovic-2021">{{Cite journal |last=Mitrovic |first=Mijail |date=30 December 2021 |title=At the fabric of history: Peru's political struggle under (and against) the pandemic |journal=[[Dialectical Anthropology]] |volume=45 |issue=4 |pages=431–446|doi=10.1007/s10624-021-09634-5 |pmid=34980936 |pmc=8716181}}</ref>
<ref name="The Economist-2007">{{cite news |url=http://www.economist.com/research/backgrounders/displaybackgrounder.cfm?bg=709221 |url-status=dead |newspaper=The Economist |date=17 October 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080410185845/http://www.economist.com/research/backgrounders/displaybackgrounder.cfm?bg=709221 |archive-date=10 April 2008 |title=Peru}}</ref>
<ref name="Patriau-2023">{{Cite web |date=2 January 2023 |title=Daniel Encinas: "Dina Boluarte ha hecho una coalición con fuerzas que no ganaron la elección" |url=https://larepublica.pe/politica/actualidad/2023/01/02/pedro-castillo-daniel-encinas-dina-boluarte-ha-hecho-una-coalicion-con-fuerzas-que-no-ganaron-la-eleccion-golpe-de-estado-fuerzas-armadas-adelanto-de-elecciones/ |access-date=12 January 2023 |website=[[La República (Peru)|La Republica]] |language=es |archive-date=16 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230116172824/https://larepublica.pe/politica/actualidad/2023/01/02/pedro-castillo-daniel-encinas-dina-boluarte-ha-hecho-una-coalicion-con-fuerzas-que-no-ganaron-la-eleccion-golpe-de-estado-fuerzas-armadas-adelanto-de-elecciones/ |url-status=live}}</ref>
<ref name="PROFE92">{{cite book|last1=Asensio|first1=Raúl|url=https://fondoeditorial.iep.org.pe/producto/el-profe-como-pedro-castillo-se-convirtio-en-presidente-del-peru-y-que-pasara-a-continuacion-2/|title=El Profe: Cómo Pedro Castillo se convirtió en presidente del Perú y qué pasará a continuación|last2=Camacho|first2=Gabriela|last3=González|first3=Natalia|last4=Grompone|first4=Romeo|last5=Pajuelo Teves|first5=Ramón|last6=Peña Jimenez|first6=Omayra|last7=Moscoso|first7=Macarena|last8=Vásquez|first8=Yerel|last9=Sosa Villagarcia|first9=Paolo|year=2021|publisher=[[Institute of Peruvian Studies]]|isbn=978-612-326-084-2|edition=1|location=[[Lima, Peru]]|pages=92|language=es|access-date=17 November 2021|archive-date=5 November 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221105081352/https://fondoeditorial.iep.org.pe/producto/el-profe-como-pedro-castillo-se-convirtio-en-presidente-del-peru-y-que-pasara-a-continuacion-2/|url-status=live}}</ref>
<ref name="Taj-2021">{{Cite news|last=Taj|first=Mitra|date=7 December 2021|title='Too many mistakes': Peru's president threatened with impeachment after shaky start|work=[[Financial Times]]|url=https://www.ft.com/content/685a5a7d-4531-4242-9074-badd59254349 |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221210/https://www.ft.com/content/685a5a7d-4531-4242-9074-badd59254349 |archive-date=10 December 2022 |url-access=subscription |url-status=live|access-date=13 December 2021}}</ref>
<ref name="Reuters-2021">{{Cite news|date=19 November 2021|title=Peru's Keiko Fujimori backs long-shot effort to impeach President Castillo|language=en|work=[[Reuters]]|url=https://www.reuters.com/world/americas/perus-keiko-fujimori-backs-long-shot-effort-impeach-president-castillo-2021-11-19/|access-date=13 December 2021|archive-date=29 November 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211129191635/https://www.reuters.com/world/americas/perus-keiko-fujimori-backs-long-shot-effort-impeach-president-castillo-2021-11-19/|url-status=live}}</ref>
<ref name="Tegel-2021">{{Cite web|last=Tegel|first=Simeon|date=15 October 2021|title=Can Pedro Castillo Save His Presidency?|url=https://foreignpolicy.com/2021/10/15/peru-president-pedro-castillo-left-extremism-impeachment/|access-date=13 December 2021|website=[[Foreign Policy]]|language=en-US|archive-date=15 October 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211015221103/https://foreignpolicy.com/2021/10/15/peru-president-pedro-castillo-left-extremism-impeachment/|url-status=live}}</ref>
<ref name="Williams 1972 43–60">{{Cite journal|last=Williams|first=James L.|title=Revolution from Within: Changing Military Perspectives in Peru|date=1972|journal=Naval War College Review|volume=25|issue=2|pages=43–60|jstor=44639763|issn=0028-1484}}</ref>
<ref name="selectlatam">{{cite web | url=http://www.selectlatinamerica.co.uk/destinations/peru/wildlife | title=Peru: Wildlife | publisher=Select Latin America | access-date=16 September 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100226200532/http://www.selectlatinamerica.co.uk/destinations/peru/wildlife | archive-date=26 February 2010}}</ref>
<ref name="pemining">{{Cite web |title=PRODUCCIÓN CUPRÍFERA AUMENTÓ UN 12.7% EN 2023 Y EL PERÚ SE MANTIENE COMO EL SEGUNDO MAYOR PRODUCTOR DE COBRE DEL MUNDO |url=https://www.comexperu.org.pe/articulo/produccion-cuprifera-aumento-un-127-en-2023-y-el-peru-se-mantiene-como-el-segundo-mayor-productor-de-cobre-del-mundo |access-date=13 August 2024 |website=Sociedad de Comercio Exterior del Perú |language=es |archive-date=16 September 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240916020921/https://www.comexperu.org.pe/articulo/produccion-cuprifera-aumento-un-127-en-2023-y-el-peru-se-mantiene-como-el-segundo-mayor-productor-de-cobre-del-mundo |url-status=live }}</ref>
<ref name="Atalayar">{{Cite web |title=Food crisis deepens in Peru, more than half of the population lacks enough to eat |url=https://atalayar.com/en/content/food-crisis-deepens-peru-more-half-population-lacks-enough-eat |access-date= |website=Atalayar |date=December 2022 |language=en |archive-date=4 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230304003439/https://atalayar.com/en/content/food-crisis-deepens-peru-more-half-population-lacks-enough-eat |url-status=live}}</ref>
<ref name="Chaparro-2023">{{Cite news |date=22 January 2023 |title=In Peru, half the population lacks food security |language=en |work= |url=https://www.lemonde.fr/en/international/article/2023/01/22/in-peru-half-the-population-lacks-food-security_6012540_4.html |access-date=4 March 2023 |archive-date=4 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230304004054/https://www.lemonde.fr/en/international/article/2023/01/22/in-peru-half-the-population-lacks-food-security_6012540_4.html |url-status=live}}</ref>
<ref name="Loaiza-2016">{{in lang|es}} [http://www.resonancias.org/content/read/355/ Resonancias.org] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161007040234/http://www.resonancias.org/content/read/355/ |date=7 October 2016}} – Aboriginal languages of Peru</ref>
<ref name="IfKRF">{{cite web|url=https://ourworldindata.org/grapher/un-population-projection-medium-variant?tab=table&time=2023|title=Population, including UN projections, 2023|author=United Nations|access-date=25 February 2023|archive-date=26 February 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230226040947/https://ourworldindata.org/grapher/un-population-projection-medium-variant?tab=table&time=2023|url-status=live}}</ref>
}}

== Bibliography ==
{{refbegin}}
* Bailey, Gauvin Alexander. ''Art of colonial Latin America''. London: Phaidon, 2005. {{ISBN|0714841579}}.
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20070324043856/http://www.tc.gob.pe/legconperu/constitucion.html ''Constitución Política del Perú'']. 29 December 1993.
* Custer, Tony. ''The Art of Peruvian Cuisine''. Lima: Ediciones Ganesha, 2003. {{ISBN|9972920305}}.
* [[Gonzalo Garland|Garland, Gonzalo]]. "Perú Siglo XXI", series of 11 working papers describing sectorial long-term forecasts, Grade, Lima, Peru, 1986–1987.
* Garland, Gonzalo. Peru in the 21st Century: Challenges and Possibilities in ''Futures: the Journal of Forecasting, Planning, and Policy'', Volume 22, No. 4, Butterworth-Heinemann, London, England, May 1990.
* Gootenberg, Paul. (1991) ''Between silver and guano: commercial policy and the state in postindependence Peru''. Princeton: Princeton University Press. {{ISBN|0691023425}}.
* Gootenberg, Paul. (1993) ''Imagining development: economic ideas in Peru's "fictitious prosperity" of Guano, 1840–1880''. Berkeley: University of California Press. {{ISBN|0520082907}}.
* Higgins, James (editor). ''The Emancipation of Peru: British Eyewitness Accounts'', 2014. Online at [https://sites.google.com/site/jhemanperu jhemanperu] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200421153751/https://sites.google.com/site/jhemanperu |date=21 April 2020 }}
* Instituto de Estudios Histórico–Marítimos del Perú. ''El Perú y sus recursos: Atlas geográfico y económico''. Lima: Auge, 1996.
* Instituto Nacional de Estadística e Informática. {{cite web |url= http://www.inei.gob.pe/biblioineipub/bancopub/Est/Lib0638/Libro.pdf |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20070307225725/http://www.inei.gob.pe/biblioineipub/bancopub/Est/Lib0638/Libro.pdf |url-status= dead |archive-date= 7 March 2007 |title= ''Perú: Compendio Estadístico 2005'' }}&nbsp;{{small|(8.31&nbsp;MB)}}. Lima: INEI, 2005.
* Instituto Nacional de Estadística e Informática. ''Perfil sociodemográfico del Perú''. Lima: INEI, 2008.
* Instituto Nacional de Estadística e Informática. ''Perú: Estimaciones y Proyecciones de Población, 1950–2050''. Lima: INEI, 2001.
* {{DOClink|[https://web.archive.org/web/20070614010900/http://www.ccffaa.mil.pe/INFORMACION/Ley27178_Ley__ServicioMilitar.doc ''Ley N° 27178, Ley del Servicio Militar'']}}. 28 September 1999.
* Ley N° 27867, [https://web.archive.org/web/20070702195833/http://www.pmde.gob.pe/taller/Compilacion%20normativa/DESCENTRALIZACI%C3%93N/LEY%20N%C2%BA%2027867_LEY%20ORG%C3%81NICA%20DE%20GOBIERNOS%20LOCALES.pdf ''Ley Ley Orgánica de Gobiernos Regionales'']. 16 November 2002.
* Martin, Gerald. "Literature, music and the visual arts, c. 1820–1870". In: Leslie Bethell (ed.), ''A cultural history of Latin America''. Cambridge: University of Cambridge, 1998, pp.&nbsp;3–45.
* Martin, Gerald. "Narrative since c. 1920". In: Leslie Bethell (ed.), ''A cultural history of Latin America''. Cambridge: University of Cambridge, 1998, pp.&nbsp;133–225.
* Porras Barrenechea, Raúl. ''El nombre del Perú''. Lima: Talleres Gráficos P.L. Villanueva, 1968.
* {{citation
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 | first = Robert
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* Thorp, Rosemary, and Geoffrey Bertram. ''Peru 1890–1977: growth and policy in an open economy''. New York: Columbia University Press, 1978. {{ISBN|0231034334}}
{{refend}}

== Further reading ==
{{refbegin}}
* {{Cite EB1911|wstitle= Peru |volume= 21 |last1= Akers |first1= Charles Edmond |author1-link= |last2= Edmundson |first2= George |author2-link= George Edmundson | pages = 264–278 |short= 1 }}
;Economy
* {{in lang|es}} Banco Central de Reserva. [http://www.bcrp.gob.pe/estadisticas/cuadros-anuales-historicos.html ''Cuadros Anuales Históricos''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110501045724/http://www.bcrp.gob.pe/estadisticas/cuadros-anuales-historicos.html |date=1 May 2011 }}.
* {{in lang|es}} Instituto Nacional de Estadística e Informática. ''Perú: Perfil de la pobreza por departamentos, 2004–2008''. Lima: INEI, 2009.
* Concha, Jaime. "Poetry, c. 1920–1950". In: Leslie Bethell (ed.), ''A cultural history of Latin America''. Cambridge: University of Cambridge, 1998, pp.&nbsp;227–260.
{{refend}}

== External links ==
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{{Sister project links|voy=yes}}
* [https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/americas/country_profiles/1224656.stm Country Profile] from [[BBC News]]
* [https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/peru/ Peru]. ''[[The World Factbook]]''. [[Central Intelligence Agency]].
* [http://wits.worldbank.org/CountryProfile/Country/PER/Year/2012/Summary World Bank Summary Trade Statistics Peru]
* [http://www.perulinks.com/pages/english/ PeruLinks] web directory; {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081015034906/http://www.perulinks.com/pages/english/ |date=15 October 2008 }}
* {{Wikiatlas|Peru}}
* {{In lang|es|cap=yes}} [http://www.peru.gob.pe/ Web portal] of the Peruvian Government
* {{OSM relation|288247|bullet=no}}

{{Peru topics}}
{{Inca Empire topics}}
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[[Category:Peru| ]]
[[Category:Andean Community]]
[[Category:Countries in South America]]
[[Category:Former Spanish colonies]]
[[Category:Member states of the United Nations]]
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[[Category:Cradle of civilization]]
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