View source for Pharaoh

{{short description|Title of Ancient Egyptian rulers}}
{{About|the title in general|a list of pharaohs|List of pharaohs|other uses}}
{{pp|small=yes}}
{{Infobox former monarchy
| royal_title = Pharaoh
| realm = Egypt
| coatofarms = Double crown.svg
| coatofarmssize = 130px
| coatofarmscaption = The [[Pschent]] combined the [[Deshret|Red Crown]] of [[Lower Egypt]] and the [[Hedjet|White Crown]] of [[Upper Egypt]]
| image = Pharaoh.svg
| caption = A typical depiction of a pharaoh usually depicted the king wearing the [[nemes]] headdress, a [[Egyptian false beard|false beard]], and an ornate [[shendyt]] (kilt)<br />(after [[Djoser]] of the Third Dynasty)
| first_monarch = {{plainlist|
* [[Narmer]] or [[Menes]]<br />(as King of Upper and Lower Egypt)
* [[Akhenaten]] or [[Thutmose III]]<br />(first to be called Pharaoh)}}
| last_monarch = {{plainlist|
* [[Nectanebo II]]<br />(last native)<ref name="Clayton 217">[[#Cla95|Clayton 1995]], p. 217. "Although paying lip-service to the old ideas and religion, in varying degrees, pharaonic Egypt had in effect died with the last native pharaoh, Nectanebo II in 343 BCE."</ref>
* [[Cleopatra]] and [[Caesarion]]<br />(last Hellenistic pharaohs)<ref>{{cite book |last1=Tyldesley |first1=Joyce |title=Cleopatra: Last Queen of Egypt |date=2009 |publisher=Profile Books |isbn=978-1861979018 |pages=20–21 |quote=The Ptolemies believed themselves to be a valid Egyptian dynasty, and devoted a great deal of time and money to demonstrating that they were the theological continuation of all the dynasties that had gone before. Cleopatra defined herself as an Egyptian queen, and drew on the iconography and cultural references of earlier queens to reinforce her position. Her people and her contemporaries accepted her as such.}}</ref>
* [[Maximinus Daza]]<br />(last to have Egyptian royal titulary)}}<ref name=":1">{{Cite book|title=Handbuch der ägyptischen Königsnamen|last=von Beckerath|first=Jürgen|publisher=Verlag Philipp von Zabern|year=1999|isbn=978-3422008328|pages=266–267}}</ref> 
| style = [[Ancient Egyptian royal titulary|Five-name titulary]]
| residence = [[List of Egyptian capitals|Varies by era]]
| appointer = [[Hereditary monarchy|Hereditary]]
| began = {{plainlist|
* {{circa}} 3150 BCE<br />(first by tradition)
* {{circa}} 1458 BCE or {{circa}} 1352 BCE<br />(first to be called a pharaoh)}}
| ended = {{plainlist|
* 343 BC<br />(last native pharaoh)<ref name="Clayton 217"/>
* 30 BC<br />(last Hellenistic pharaohs)
* 313 AD<br />(last known use of ancient Egyptian royal titulary)}}
}}
{{Hiero|pr-ˤ3<br />"Great house"|<hiero>O1:O29</hiero>|align=right|era=egypt}}
{{Hiero|nswt-bjt<br />"King of Upper <br />and Lower Egypt"|<hiero>sw:t L2:t</hiero><br /><br /><hiero>A43 A45</hiero><br /><br /><hiero>S1:t S3:t</hiero><br /><br /><hiero>S2 S4</hiero><br /><br /><hiero>S5</hiero>|align=right|era=egypt}}
'''Pharaoh'''{{efn|({{IPAc-en|ˈ|f|ɛər|oʊ}}, {{IPAc-en|USalso|ˈ|f|eɪ|.|r|oʊ}};<ref>{{citation|last=Wells|first=John C.|year=2008|title=Longman Pronunciation Dictionary|edition=3rd|publisher=Longman|isbn=978-1405881180}}</ref> [[Egyptian language|Egyptian]]: ''[[wikt:pr ꜥꜣ|pr ꜥꜣ]]'';{{refn|group="note"|Likely pronounced ''paɾuwꜥaꜣ'' in [[Old Egyptian]] ({{circa|2500 BCE}}) and [[Middle Egyptian]] ({{Circa|1700 BCE}}), and ''pərəʾaꜥ'' or ''pərəʾōꜥ'' in [[Late Egyptian]] ({{circa|800 BCE}})}} {{langx|cop|{{coptic|ⲡⲣ̄ⲣⲟ}}|Pǝrro}}; [[Biblical Hebrew]]: {{Script/Hebr|פַּרְעֹה}} ''Parʿō'')<ref>{{Cite web |title=Strong's Hebrew Concordance – 6547. Paroh |url=https://biblehub.com/hebrew/6547.htm |website=Bible Hub |access-date=2022-10-20 |archive-date=2022-10-18 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221018224810/https://biblehub.com/hebrew/6547.htm |url-status=live }}</ref>}} was a title of the [[monarch]] of [[ancient Egypt]] used from the [[Eighteenth Dynasty of Egypt|Eighteenth Dynasty]] onwards. The title was subsequently added to all the previous kings of Egypt. Before this Pharaoh was a term that meant more of the kings' administration. The earliest confirmed instance of the title used contemporaneously for a ruler is a letter to [[Akhenaten]] (reigned {{Circa|1353}}–1336 BCE), possibly preceded by an inscription referring to [[Thutmose III]] ({{Circa|1479}}–1425 BCE). Although the title only came into use in the [[Eighteenth Dynasty]] during the [[New Kingdom of Egypt|New Kingdom]], scholars today use it for all the rulers of Egypt from the [[First Dynasty of Egypt|First Dynasty]] ({{Circa|3150 BCE}}) until the [[Roman Egypt|annexation of Egypt]] by the [[Roman Republic]] in 30 BCE.

In the early dynasties, ancient Egyptian kings had as many as [[ancient Egyptian royal titulary|three titles]]: the [[Horus name|Horus]], the [[prenomen (Ancient Egypt)|Sedge and Bee]] ([[wikt:nswt-bjtj|''nswt-bjtj'']]), and the Two Ladies or [[Two Ladies#Nebty name|Nebty]] ([[wikt:nbtj|''nbtj'']]) name.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Wilkinson |first=Toby A. H. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lGGFAgAAQBAJ&dq=In+the+early+dynasties,+ancient+Egyptian+kings+used+to+have+up+to+three+titles:+the+Horus,+the+Sedge+and+Bee&pg=PA171 |title=Early Dynastic Egypt |date=2002|publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-134-66420-7 |language=en}}</ref> The Golden Horus and the nomen titles were added later.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Bierbrier |first=Morris L. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Wp9u7bmexz8C&dq=The+Golden+Horus+as+well+as+the+nomen+and+prenomen+titles+were+added+later.&pg=PA242 |title=Historical Dictionary of Ancient Egypt |date=2008 |publisher=Scarecrow Press |isbn=978-0-8108-6250-0 |language=en}}</ref>

In Egyptian society, [[ancient Egyptian religion|religion]] was central to everyday life. One of the roles of the king was as an intermediary between the deities and the people. The king thus was deputised for the deities in a role that was both as civil and religious administrator. The king owned all of the land in Egypt, enacted laws, collected taxes, and served as [[commander-in-chief]] of the [[Military of ancient Egypt|military]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ancientegypt.co.uk/pharaoh/home.html |title=Pharaoh |author=<!--Not stated--> |date=1999 |website=AncientEgypt.co.uk |publisher=The British Museum |access-date=20 December 2017 |archive-date=27 November 1999 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/19991127225744/http://www.ancientegypt.co.uk/pharaoh/home.html |url-status=live }}</ref> Religiously, the king officiated over religious ceremonies and chose the sites of new temples. The king was responsible for maintaining [[Maat]] ([[wikt:mꜣꜥt#Egyptian|mꜣꜥt]]), or cosmic order, balance, and justice, and part of this included going to war when necessary to defend the country or attacking others when it was believed that this would contribute to Maat, such as to obtain resources.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.worldhistory.org/pharaoh/ |title=Pharaoh – World History Encyclopedia |last=Mark |first=Joshua |date=2 September 2009 |website=[[World History Encyclopedia]] |access-date=20 December 2017 |archive-date=20 April 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210420234348/https://www.worldhistory.org/pharaoh/ |url-status=live }}</ref>

During the early days prior to the unification of [[Upper and Lower Egypt]], the [[Deshret]] or the "Red Crown", was a representation of the kingdom of Lower Egypt,<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Hagen |first1=Rose-Marie |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ORVIAQAAIAAJ&q=red+crown |title=Egypt Art |last2=Hagen |first2=Rainer |date=2007 |publisher=New Holland Publishers Pty, Ltd. |isbn=978-3-8228-5458-7 |language=en}}</ref> while the [[Hedjet]], the "White Crown", was worn by the kings of Upper Egypt.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The royal crowns of Egypt |url=https://www.ees.ac.uk/the-royal-crowns-of-egypt |access-date=2022-05-02 |website=Egypt Exploration Society |date=7 March 2019 |language=en |archive-date=2022-05-18 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220518104117/https://www.ees.ac.uk/the-royal-crowns-of-egypt |url-status=live }}</ref> After the unification of both kingdoms, the [[Pschent]], the combination of both the red and white crowns became the official crown of the pharaoh.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Gaskell |first=G. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PR24CwAAQBAJ&dq=pschent+crown&pg=PA189 |title=A Dictionary of the Sacred Language of All Scriptures and Myths |date=2016|publisher=Routledge Revivals |isbn=978-1-317-58942-6 |language=en}}</ref> With time new headdresses were introduced during different dynasties such as the [[Khat (apparel)|Khat]], [[Nemes]], [[Atef]], [[Hemhem crown]], and [[Khepresh]]. At times, a combination of these headdresses or crowns worn together was depicted.

== Etymology ==
The word ''pharaoh'' ultimately derives from the [[Egyptian language#History|Egyptian]] compound ''{{lang|egy-Latn|[[wikt:pr ꜥꜣ|pr ꜥꜣ]]}}'', *{{ipa|/ˌpaɾuwˈʕaʀ/}} "great house", written with the two [[Egyptian biliteral signs|biliteral hieroglyphs]] ''{{lang|egy-Latn|[[pr (hieroglyph)|pr]]}}'' "house" and ''{{lang|egy-Latn|ꜥꜣ}}'' "column", here meaning "great" or "high". It was the title of the royal palace and was used only in larger phrases such as ''[[wikt:smr#Etymology 1|smr]] pr-ꜥꜣ'' "Courtier of the High House", with specific reference to the buildings of the court or palace.<ref>A. Gardiner, ''Ancient Egyptian Grammar'' (3rd ed., 1957), 71–76.</ref> From the [[Twelfth Dynasty of Egypt|Twelfth Dynasty]] onward, the word appears in a wish formula "Great House, May it [[Ankh wedja seneb|Live, Prosper, and be in Health]]", but again only with reference to the royal palace and not a person.
[[File:CairoEgMuseumTaaMaskMostlyPhotographed.jpg|left|thumb|The [[Mask of Tutankhamun]] from tomb [[KV62]] in the [[Valley of the Kings]]. Pharaohs' tombs were provided with vast quantities of wealth]]
Sometime during the era of the [[New Kingdom of Egypt|New Kingdom]], ''pharaoh'' became the form of address for a person who was king. The earliest confirmed instance where ''pr ꜥꜣ'' is used specifically to address the ruler is in a letter to the eighteenth dynasty king, [[Akhenaten]] (reigned {{Circa|1353}}–1336 BCE), that is addressed to "Great House, L, W, H, the Lord".<ref>''Hieratic Papyrus from Kahun and Gurob'', F. LL. Griffith, 38, 17.</ref><ref>{{Cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/cu31924086199514|title=Illahun, Kahun and Gurob : 1889–1890|last1=Petrie|first1=W. M. (William Matthew Flinders)|last2=Sayce|first2=A. H. (Archibald Henry)|last3=Griffith|first3=F. Ll (Francis Llewellyn)|date=1891|publisher=London : D. Nutt|others=Cornell University Library|pages=[https://archive.org/details/cu31924086199514/page/n65 50]}}</ref> However, there is a possibility that the title ''pr ꜥꜣ'' first might have been applied personally to [[Thutmose III]] ({{Circa|1479}}–1425 BCE), depending on whether an inscription on the Temple of Armant may be confirmed to refer to that king.<ref>[[iarchive:EXCMEM43 1/page/n2|Robert Mond and O.H. Meyers. ''Temples of Armant, a Preliminary Survey: The Text,'' The Egypt Exploration Society, London, 1940]], 160.</ref> During the [[Eighteenth Dynasty of Egypt|Eighteenth dynasty]] (sixteenth to fourteenth centuries BCE) the title pharaoh was employed as a [[deference|reverential designation]] of the ruler. About the late [[Twenty-first Dynasty of Egypt|Twenty-first Dynasty]] (tenth century BCE), however, instead of being used alone and originally just for the palace, it began to be added to the other titles before the name of the king, and from the [[Twenty-fifth Dynasty of Egypt|Twenty-Fifth Dynasty]] (eighth to seventh centuries BCE, during the declining [[Third Intermediate Period of Egypt|Third Intermediate Period]]) it was, at least in ordinary use, the only [[epithet]] prefixed to the royal appellative.<ref>"pharaoh" in ''[[Encyclopædia Britannica]]. Ultimate Reference Suite''. Chicago: Encyclopædia Britannica, 2008.</ref>

From the [[Nineteenth Dynasty of Egypt|Nineteenth dynasty]] onward ''pr-ꜥꜣ'' on its own, was used as regularly as '''''[[wiktionary:ḥm#Egyptian|ḥm]]''''', "Majesty".<ref name="Denise M. Doxey">{{cite book|last=Doxey|first=Denise M.|title=Egyptian Non-Royal Epithets in the Middle Kingdom: A Social and Historical Analysis|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1Jead15xcBQC&pg=PA119|year=1998|publisher=Brill|isbn=90-04-11077-1|page=119}}</ref> The term, therefore, evolved from a word specifically referring to a building to a respectful designation for the ruler presiding in that building, particularly by the time of the [[Twenty-second Dynasty of Egypt|Twenty-Second Dynasty]] and [[Twenty-third Dynasty of Egypt|Twenty-third Dynasty]].{{citation needed|date=October 2010}}

The first dated appearance of the title "pharaoh" being attached to a ruler's name occurs in Year 17 of [[Siamun]] (tenth century BCE) on a fragment from the [[Karnak]] Priestly Annals, a religious document. Here, an induction of an individual to the Amun priesthood is dated specifically to the reign of "Pharaoh [[Siamun]]".<ref>J-M. Kruchten, Les annales des pretres de Karnak (OLA 32), 1989, pp. 474–478.</ref> This new practice was continued under his successor, [[Psusennes II]], and the subsequent kings of the twenty-second dynasty. For instance, the Large Dakhla stela is specifically dated to Year 5 of king "Pharaoh Shoshenq, beloved of [[Amun]]", whom all Egyptologists concur was [[Shoshenq I]]—the founder of the [[Twenty-second Dynasty of Egypt|Twenty-second Dynasty]]—including [[Alan Gardiner]] in his original 1933 publication of this stela.<ref>Alan Gardiner, "The Dakhleh Stela", ''[[Journal of Egyptian Archaeology]]'', Vol. 19, No. 1/2 (May, 1933) pp. 193–200.</ref> Shoshenq I was the second successor of Siamun. Meanwhile, the traditional custom of referring to the sovereign as, ''pr-ˤ3'', continued in official Egyptian narratives.{{citation needed|date=October 2010}}

The title is reconstructed to have been pronounced {{IPA|*[parʕoʔ]}} in the [[Late Egyptian language]], from which the Greek historian [[Herodotus]] derived the name of one of the Egyptian kings, {{langx|grc-x-koine|Φερων}}.<ref>Herodotus, Histories 2.111.1. See {{cite book | publisher=Brill| year=1972 |title=Diodorus Siculus, Book 1: A Commentary |author=Anne Burton}}, commenting on ch. 59.1.</ref> In the [[Hebrew Bible]], the title also occurs as {{langx|he|פרעה}} {{IPA|[parʕoːh]}};<ref name="Pharaoh פרעה">[http://arilipinski.com/pesach-haggadah-abravanel-comment-explained-by-ari-lipinski/ Elazar Ari Lipinski: "Pesach – A holiday of questions. About the Haggadah-Commentary Zevach Pesach of Rabbi Isaak Abarbanel (1437–1508).] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170316024754/http://arilipinski.com/pesach-haggadah-abravanel-comment-explained-by-ari-lipinski/ |date=2017-03-16 }} Explaining the meaning of the name Pharaoh." Published first in German in the official quarterly of the Organization of the Jewish Communities of Bavaria: ''Jüdisches Leben in Bayern. Mitteilungsblatt des Landesverbandes der Israelitischen Kultusgemeinden in Bayern.'' Pessach-Ausgabe Nr. 109, 2009, {{ZDB|2077457-6}}, S. 3–4.</ref> from that, in the [[Septuagint]], {{langx|grc-x-koine|φαραώ|pharaō}}, and then in [[Late Latin]] ''pharaō'', both ''-n'' stem nouns. The [[Qur'an]] likewise spells it {{langx|ar|فرعون}} ''firʿawn'' with ''n'' (here, always referring to the one evil king in the [[Book of Exodus]] story, by contrast to the good king in [[Yusuf (surah)|surah Yusuf]]'s story). The Arabic combines the original [[ayin]] from Egyptian along with the ''-n'' ending from Greek.

In English, the term was at first spelled "Pharao", but the translators for the [[King James Version|King James Bible]] revived "Pharaoh" with "h" from the Hebrew. Meanwhile, in Egypt, {{IPA|*[par-ʕoʔ]}} evolved into [[Coptic language|Sahidic Coptic]] {{coptic|ⲡⲣ̅ⲣⲟ}} ''pərro'' and then ''ərro'' by [[rebracketing]] ''p-'' as the [[definite article]] "the" (from ancient Egyptian ''[[wikt:pꜣ|pꜣ]]'').<ref>Walter C. Till: "Koptische Grammatik". ''[[VEB Verlag Enzyklopädie]]'', Leipzig, 1961. p.&nbsp;62.</ref>

Other notable epithets are ''[[wikt:nswt|nswt]]'', translated to "king"; '''''[[wiktionary:ḥm#Egyptian|ḥm]]''''', "Majesty"; ''[[wikt:jty|jty]]'' for "monarch or sovereign"; ''[[wikt:nb|nb]]'' for "lord";<ref name="Denise M. Doxey"/>{{refn|group="note"|nb.f means "his lord", the monarchs were introduced with (.f) for his, (.k) for your.<ref name="Denise M. Doxey"/>}} and ''[[wikt:ḥqꜣ|ḥqꜣ]]'' for "ruler".

== Functions ==
{{Main|Functions of the Pharaoh}}
{{Unsourced section|date=August 2024}}
[[File:seated Statue of Hatshepsut MET Hatshepsut2012.jpg|right|thumb|[[Hatshepsut]] was the fifth pharaoh of the [[Eighteenth Dynasty of Egypt|Eighteenth Dynasty]] and one the few women pharaohs in Ancient Egypt]]
As a central figure of the state, the pharaoh was the obligatory intermediary between the gods and humans. To the former, he ensured the proper performance of rituals in the [[Egyptian temple|temples]]; to the latter, he guaranteed agricultural prosperity, the defense of the territory and impartial justice.

In the sanctuaries, the image of the sovereign is omnipresent through parietal scenes and [[statue]]s. In this [[iconography]], the pharaoh is invariably represented as the equal of the gods. In the religious speech, he is however only their humble servant, a zealous servant who makes multiple offerings. This piety expresses the hope of a just return of service. Filled with goods, the gods must favorably activate the forces of nature for a common benefit to all Egyptians. The only human being admitted to dialogue with the gods on an equal level, the Pharaoh was the supreme officiant; the first of the priests of the country. More widely, the pharaonic gesture covered all the fields of activity of the collective and ignored the [[separation of powers]]. Also, every member of the administration acts only in the name of the royal person, by delegation of power.

From the ''[[Pyramid Texts]]'', the political actions of the sovereign were framed by a single maxim: "Bring [[Maat]] and repel [[Isfet (Egyptian mythology)|Isfet]]", that is to say, promote harmony and repel chaos. As the nurturing father of the people, the Pharaoh ensured prosperity by calling upon the gods to regulate the waters of the [[Nile]], by opening the granaries in case of famine and by guaranteeing a good distribution of arable land. Chief of the armies, the pharaoh was the brave protector of the borders. Like [[Ra]] who fights the serpent [[Apep|Apophis]], the king of Egypt repels the plunderers of the desert, fights the invading armies and defeats the internal rebels. The Pharaoh was always the sole victor; standing up and knocking out a bunch of prisoners or shooting arrows from his battle [[chariot]]. As the only legislator, the laws and decrees he promulgated were seen as inspired by divine wisdom. This legislation, kept in the archives and placed under the responsibility of the [[Vizier (Ancient Egypt)|vizier]], applied to all, for the common good and social agreement.

== Regalia ==
{{Main|Regalia of the Pharaoh}}

=== Scepters and staves ===
[[File:Khasekhemwy-BeadedScepter MuseumOfFineArtsBoston.png|thumb|Beaded scepter of [[Khasekhemwy]], {{Circa|2890}}–2680 BCE, [[Museum of Fine Arts, Boston|Museum of Fine Arts]], [[Boston]]]]
[[Sceptre]]s and staves were a general symbol of authority in [[ancient Egypt]].<ref name="TW158">Wilkinson, Toby A. H. ''Early Dynastic Egypt''. Routledge, 2001, p. 158.</ref> One of the earliest royal scepters was discovered in the tomb of [[Khasekhemwy]] in [[Abydos, Egypt|Abydos]].<ref name="TW158"/> Kings were also known to carry a staff, and [[Anedjib]] is shown on [[Stone vessels in Ancient Egypt|stone vessels]] carrying a so-called ''mks''-staff.<ref name="TW159">Wilkinson, Toby A. H. ''Early Dynastic Egypt''. Routledge, 2001, p. 159.</ref> The scepter with the longest history seems to be the ''heqa''-sceptre, sometimes described as the shepherd's crook.<ref name="TW160">Wilkinson, Toby A. H. ''Early Dynastic Egypt''. Routledge, 2001, p. 160.</ref> The earliest examples of this piece of regalia dates to [[prehistoric Egypt]]. A scepter was found in a tomb at Abydos that dates to [[Naqada III]].

Another scepter associated with the king is the [[was-sceptre|''was''-sceptre]].<ref name="TW160"/> This is a long staff mounted with an animal head. The earliest known depictions of the ''was''-scepter date to the [[First Dynasty of Egypt|First Dynasty]]. The ''was''-scepter is shown in the hands of both kings and deities.

The [[Flail (tool)|flail]] later was closely related to the ''heqa''-scepter (the [[crook and flail]]), but in early representations the king was also depicted solely with the flail, as shown in a late pre-dynastic knife handle that is now in the Metropolitan museum, and on the [[Narmer Macehead]].<ref name="TW161">Wilkinson, Toby A. H. ''Early Dynastic Egypt''. Routledge, 2001, p. 161.</ref>

=== The Uraeus ===
The earliest evidence known of the [[Uraeus]]—a rearing cobra—is from the reign of [[Den (pharaoh)|Den]] from the first dynasty. The cobra supposedly protected the king by spitting fire at its enemies.<ref name="TW162">Wilkinson, Toby A. H. ''Early Dynastic Egypt''. Routledge, 2001, p. 162.</ref>

== Crowns and headdresses ==
{{Main|Crowns of Egypt}}
{{multiple image|align=center|total_width=640
|header=Narmer Palette
|image1=NarmerPalette-CloseUpOfNarmer-ROM.png
|image2=NarmerPalette-CloseUpOfProcession-ROM.png
|caption1= Narmer wearing the white crown |caption2=Narmer wearing the red crown
}}

=== Deshret ===
[[File:GuardianStatueofAmenemhmatII.jpg|thumb|A guardian statue wearing the red crown which reflected the facial features of the reigning king, probably Amenemhat II or Senwosret II, and which functioned as a divine guardian for the [[Imiut fetish|imiut]]. Made of cedar wood and plaster {{circa}} 1919–1885 BCE<ref>{{cite web |title=Guardian Figure |url=https://www.metmuseum.org/art/collection/search/543864 |publisher=[[Metropolitan Museum of Art]] |access-date=9 February 2022 |archive-date=18 January 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220118055621/https://www.metmuseum.org/art/collection/search/543864 |url-status=live}}</ref>]]

The red crown of Lower Egypt, the [[Deshret]] crown, dates back to pre-dynastic times and symbolised chief ruler. A red crown has been found on a pottery shard from [[Naqada]], and later, [[Narmer]] is shown wearing the red crown on both the [[Narmer Macehead]] and the [[Narmer Palette]].

=== Hedjet ===
The white crown of Upper Egypt, the [[Hedjet]], was worn in the Predynastic Period by [[Scorpion II]], and, later, by Narmer.

=== Pschent ===
This is the combination of the Deshret and Hedjet crowns into a double crown, called the [[Pschent]] crown. It is first documented in the middle of the [[First Dynasty of Egypt]]. The earliest depiction may date to the reign of [[Djet]], and is otherwise surely attested during the reign of [[Den (pharaoh)|Den]].<ref name="TW">Wilkinson, Toby A. H. ''Early Dynastic Egypt''. Routledge, 2001 {{ISBN|978-0-415-26011-4}}</ref>

=== Khat ===
[[File:IvoryLabelOfDen-BritishMuseum-August19-08.jpg|thumb|right|Uraeus depicted on king [[Den (pharaoh)|Den]], ivory label found at his tomb in [[Abydos, Egypt|Abydos]], {{Circa|3000 BCE}}, [[British Museum]], [[London]]]]
The [[Khat (apparel)|''khat'']] headdress consists of a kind of "kerchief" whose end is tied similarly to a [[ponytail]]. The earliest depictions of the ''khat'' headdress comes from the reign of [[Den (pharaoh)|Den]], but is not found again until the reign of [[Djoser]].

=== Nemes ===
The [[Nemes]] headdress dates from the time of [[Djoser]]. It is the most common type of royal headgear depicted throughout Pharaonic Egypt. Any other type of crown, apart from the Khat headdress, has been commonly depicted on top of the Nemes. The statue from his [[Serdab]] in [[Saqqara]] shows the king wearing the ''nemes'' headdress.<ref name="TW"/>
[[File:Kneeling Statuette of Pepy I, ca. 2338-2298 B.C.E., 39.121.jpg|left|thumb|Statuette of [[Pepi I Meryre|Pepy I]] ({{circa|2338}}–2298 BCE) wearing a nemes headdress [[Brooklyn Museum]], New York ]]

=== Atef ===
[[Osiris]] is shown to wear the [[Atef]] crown, which is an elaborate [[Hedjet]] with feathers and disks. Depictions of kings wearing the Atef crown originate from the Old Kingdom.

=== Hemhem ===
The [[Hemhem crown]] is usually depicted on top of [[Nemes]], [[Pschent]], or [[Deshret]] crowns. It is an ornate, triple [[Atef]] with corkscrew sheep horns and usually two uraei. The depiction of this crown begins among New Kingdom rulers during the Early [[Eighteenth Dynasty of Egypt]].

=== Khepresh ===
[[File:Kestner Museum 07.jpg|thumb|150px|Khepresh crown on [[Akhenaten]], 18th dynasty. [[Museum August Kestner|Kestner Museum, Hannover]]]]
Also called the blue crown, the [[Khepresh]] crown has been depicted in art since the New Kingdom. It is often depicted being worn in battle, but it was also frequently worn during ceremonies. It used to be called a war crown by many, but modern historians refrain from defining it thus.

=== Physical evidence ===
Egyptologist [[Bob Brier]] has noted that despite their widespread depiction in royal portraits, no ancient Egyptian crown has ever been discovered. The tomb of [[Tutankhamun]] that was discovered largely intact, contained such royal regalia as a [[crook and flail]], but no crown was found among his funerary equipment. Diadems have been discovered.<ref>Shaw, Garry J. ''The Pharaoh, Life at Court and on Campaign''. Thames and Hudson, 2012, pp.&nbsp;21, 77.</ref> It is presumed that crowns would have been believed to have magical properties and were used in rituals. Brier's speculation is that crowns were religious or state items, so a dead king likely could not retain a crown as a personal possession. The crowns may have been passed along to the successor, much as the crowns of modern monarchies.<ref>Bob Brier, ''The Murder of Tutankhamen'', 1998, p. 95.</ref>

== Titles ==
{{main|Ancient Egyptian royal titulary}}
During the [[Early Dynastic Period (Egypt)|Early Dynastic Period]] kings had three titles. The [[Horus name]] is the oldest and dates to the late pre-dynastic period. The Nesu Bity name was added during the [[First Dynasty of Egypt|First Dynasty]]. The [[Two Ladies#Nebty name|Nebty name]] (Two Ladies) was first introduced toward the end of the First Dynasty.<ref name="TW" /> The Golden falcon (''bik-nbw'') name is not well understood. The [[Prenomen (Ancient Egypt)|prenomen]] and [[Nomen (Ancient Egypt)|nomen]] were introduced later and are traditionally enclosed in a [[Cartouche (hieroglyph)|cartouche]].<ref name="DH"/> By the [[Middle Kingdom of Egypt|Middle Kingdom]], the official [[Ancient Egyptian royal titulary|titulary]] of the ruler consisted of five names; Horus, Nebty, Golden Horus, nomen, and prenomen <ref>Ian Shaw, ''The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt'', Oxford University Press 2000, p.&nbsp;477</ref> for some rulers, only one or two of them may be known.

=== Horus name ===
The Horus name was adopted by the king, when taking the throne. The name was written within a square frame representing the palace, named a [[serekh]]. The earliest known example of a serekh dates to the reign of king [[Ka (pharaoh)|Ka]], before the First Dynasty.<ref>Toby A. H. Wilkinson, ''Early Dynastic Egypt'', Routledge 1999, pp.&nbsp;57f.</ref> The Horus name of several early kings expresses a relationship with [[Horus]]. [[Hor-Aha|Aha]] refers to "Horus the fighter", [[Djer]] refers to "Horus the strong", etc. Later kings express ideals of kingship in their Horus names. [[Khasekhemwy]] refers to "Horus: the two powers are at peace", while [[Nebra (Pharaoh)|Nebra]] refers to "Horus, Lord of the Sun".<ref name="TW" />

=== Nesu Bity name ===
The ''Nesu Bity'' name, also known as [[Prenomen (ancient Egypt)|prenomen]], was one of the new developments from the reign of [[Den (pharaoh)|Den]]. The name would follow the glyphs for the "Sedge and the Bee". The title is usually translated as king of Upper and Lower Egypt. The ''nsw bity'' name may have been the birth name of the king. It was often the name by which kings were recorded in the later annals and king lists.<ref name="TW"/>

=== Nebty name ===
The earliest example of a ''Nebty'' ([[Two Ladies]]) name comes from the reign of king [[Hor-Aha|Aha]] from the [[First Dynasty of Egypt|First Dynasty]]. The title links the king with the goddesses of Upper and Lower Egypt, [[Nekhbet]] and [[Wadjet]].<ref name="TW"/><ref name="DH"/> The title is preceded by the vulture (Nekhbet) and the cobra (Wadjet) standing on a basket (the neb sign).<ref name="TW"/>

=== Golden Horus ===
The [[Golden Horus name|Golden Horus]] or Golden Falcon name was preceded by a falcon on a gold or ''nbw'' sign. The title may have represented the divine status of the king. The Horus associated with gold may be referring to the idea that the bodies of the deities were made of gold and the [[Egyptian pyramids#Pyramid symbolism|pyramid]]s and [[obelisk]]s are representations of (golden) [[sun]]-rays. The gold sign may also be a reference to Nubt, the city of Set. This would suggest that the iconography represents Horus conquering Set.<ref name="TW"/>

=== Nomen and prenomen ===
The [[Prenomen (ancient Egypt)|prenomen]] and [[Nomen (ancient Egypt)|nomen]] were contained in a cartouche. The prenomen often followed the King of Upper and Lower Egypt (''nsw bity'') or Lord of the Two Lands (''nebtawy'') title. The prenomen often incorporated the name of [[Ra|Re]]. The nomen often followed the title, Son of Re (''sa-ra''), or the title, Lord of Appearances (''neb-kha'').<ref name="DH">Dodson, Aidan and Hilton, Dyan. ''The Complete Royal Families of Ancient Egypt''. Thames & Hudson. 2004. {{ISBN|0-500-05128-3}}</ref>
[[File:S F-E-CAMERON EGYPT 2005 RAMASEUM 01360.JPG|thumb|upright=2.05|center|Nomen and prenomen of [[Ramesses III]] ]]

== Divinity ==

=== Ancient Egypt ===
{{multiple image|perrow=2|total_width=270|caption_align=center
| align    = right
| direction =horizontal
| image1   = Tell el-Farkha golden figurine (60cm tall).jpg
| image2   = Male figurine from Tell el-Farkha. Late Predynastic period (Naqada IIIB, c. 3200–3000 BCE). Egyptian Museum (Cairo). 30cm height (cropped).jpg
| footer=Oldest known representations of ancient Egyptian rulers, from [[Tell el-Farkha]]. [[Naqada III|Naqada IIIB]], {{circa}} 3200–3000 BC.<ref name="MUS">{{cite web |title=tell el-farkha |url=https://egypt-museum.com/tag/tell-el-farkha/ |website=Egypt Museum}}</ref><ref name="PER">{{cite journal |last1=Ciałowicz |first1=Krzysztof M. |title=Votive figurines from Tell el-Farkha and their counterparts |journal=Archéo-Nil |date=2012 |volume=22 |issue=1 |pages=88–90 |doi=10.3406/arnil.2012.1044 |url=https://www.persee.fr/doc/arnil_1161-0492_2012_num_22_1_1044}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |title=The Wisdom of Thoth: Magical Texts in Ancient Mediterranean Civilisations |date=2016 |publisher=Archaeopress Publishing Ltd |isbn=978-1784912475 |page=27 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=aRteEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA27 |quote=Golden figures depicting most probably a Pre-dynastic ruler and his son and heir, which are the oldest known in Egypt.}}</ref>
}}
In [[Ancient Egypt]], the Pharaoh was often considered to be divine. This precept originated before 3000 BCE and the Egyptian office of divine kingship would go on to influence many other societies and kingdoms, surviving into the [[modern era]]. The Pharaoh also became a mediator between the gods and man. This institution represents an innovation over that of [[Sumer|Sumerian]] city-states where, though the clan leader or king mediated between his people and the gods, did not himself represent a god on Earth. The few Sumerian exceptions to this would post-date the origins of this practice in ancient Egypt. For example, the legendary king [[Gilgamesh]], thought to have reigned in Uruk as a contemporary of the Egyptian ruler [[Djoser]], was cast as having had his mother as the Mesopotamian goddess [[Ninsun]] alongside his father, the previous human ruler of Uruk. Another Mesopotamian example of a god-king was [[Naram-Sin of Akkad]]. During the [[Early Dynastic Period (Egypt)|Early Dynastic Period]], the Pharaoh was represented as the divine incarnation of [[Horus]], and the unifier of Upper and Lower Egypt. By the time of [[Djedefre]] (26th century BCE), the Pharaoh also ceased to have a father, as his mother was magically impregnated by the solar deity [[Ra]]. According to Pyramid Text Utterance 571, "... the King was fashioned by his father Atum before the sky existed, before earth existed, before men existed, before the gods were born, before death existed ..." According to an inscription on the statue of [[Horemheb]] (14th–13th centuries BCE): "he [Horemheb] already came out of his mother's bosom adorned with the prestige and the divine color ..."<ref>{{Cite book |last=Najovits |first=Simson R. |title=Egypt, trunk of the tree. 1: The contexts |date=2003 |publisher=Algora Publ |isbn=9780875862347 |location= |pages=151–157}}</ref> Inscriptions regularly described the Pharaoh as the "good god" or "perfect god" (''nfr ntr''). By the time of the [[New Kingdom]], the divinity of the king was imbued as he possessed the manifestation of the god [[Amun-Re]]; this was referred to as his 'living royal ''ka''<nowiki/>' which he received during the coronation ceremony. The divinity of Pharaoh was still held to during the period of [[Persia|Persian]] domination of Egypt. The Persian emperor [[Darius the Great]] (522–486 BCE) was referred to as a divine being in Egyptian temple texts. Such descriptions continued and were designated to [[Alexander the Great]] after his conquest of Egypt, and later still for the rulers of the [[Ptolemaic Kingdom]] that succeeded Alexander's rule.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |last=Collins |first=Andrew |date=2014 |title=The Divinity of the Pharaoh in Greek Sources |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/classical-quarterly/article/abs/divinity-of-the-pharaoh-in-greek-sources/10B843BD8305A47AFB789F70AF0E7D11 |journal=The Classical Quarterly |language= |volume=64 |issue=2 |pages=841–844, also see n. 1 |doi=10.1017/S000983881400007X |issn=0009-8388|url-access=subscription }}</ref>

=== Classical Greece ===
Descriptions of the divinity of the Pharaoh are much more infrequent in sources from [[Classical Greece]]. One Ptolemaic-era hymn describes the divinity of the Pharaoh, though this may reflect Greek notions of divine kingship just as much as it could reflect Egyptian ones. The historian [[Herodotus]] explicitly denies this, claiming that Egyptian priests rejected any notion of the divinity of the king. The only explicit classical Greek source which describes the divinity of Pharaoh is contained in the writings of [[Diodorus Siculus]] in the 1st century BCE, who in turn relies on [[Hecataeus of Abdera]] as his source of information. Diodorus slightly contradicts himself in a different passage where he asserts that Darius I was the first ruler of Egypt to be honored as a king.<ref name=":0" />

=== Rabbinic literature ===
Even after the reign of the Egyptian kings and pharaohs, the notion of Pharaoh's self-notion as a divine being survived and is described in [[rabbinic literature]]. In these sources, the Pharaoh is described as hubristically asserting his own divinity and yet, compared to the one true God, is no more than an impotent human. ''[[Mekhilta of Rabbi Ishmael]]'', Shirah 8:32 names Pharaoh among those who proclaimed themselves as gods, alongside [[Sennacherib]] and [[Nebuchadnezzar]].<ref>{{Cite thesis |last=Patmore |first=Hector M. |title=Adam, Satan, and the King of Tyre: The Reception of Ezekiel 28:11-19 in Judaism and Christianity in Late Antiquity |date=2008 |access-date=2024-12-18 |degree=PhD |publisher=Durham University |url=https://etheses.dur.ac.uk/2381/1/2381_391.pdf |page=170}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Litwa |first=M. David |title=Desiring Divinity: Self-deification in Early Jewish and Christian Mythmaking |date=2016 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn= |location= |pages=33}}</ref> ''[[Genesis Rabbah]]'' 89:3 invokes Pharaoh describing himself as the god over the [[Nile]] river. In ''[[Exodus Rabbah]]'' 10:2, Pharaoh boasts that he is the creator and owner of the Nile. God is then said to have responded to this statement by challenging the Pharaoh over who owns the Nile, as God proceeds to create a disaster by bringing forth frogs from it that consume Egypt's agriculture. In other midrashic texts, Pharaoh asserts himself as the creator of the universe and even of himself.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Ulmer |first=Rivka |title=Egyptian Cultural Icons in Midrash |year=2009 |publisher=Walter De Gruyter |isbn=978-3-11-022392-7 |series=Studia Judaica |location=Berlin |pages=74–76}}</ref> In the ''[[Tanhuma]]'', in commentary on Ezekiel 29:9, Pharaoh is said to have proclaimed himself as lord of the universe. Pharaoh is represented as a heretical figure who presents himself as divine, and these texts then claim that his claims were exposed when he had to go to the Nile to relieve himself.<ref>{{Cite book |editor-last=Kalimi |editor-first=Isaac |title=Bridging Between Sister Religions: Studies of Jewish and Christian Scriptures Offered in Honor of Prof. John T. Townsend |year=2016 |publisher=Brill |isbn=978-90-04-32454-1 |series=The Brill Reference Library of Judaism |location=Leiden |pages=208 |chapter=Egyptian Motifs in Late Antique Mosaics and Rabbinic Texts |last=Ulmer |first=Rivka}}</ref>

== See also ==
{{Portal|Ancient Egypt|Monarchy}}
{{cols}}
* [[List of pharaohs]]
* [[Roman pharaoh]]
* [[Coronation of the pharaoh]]
* [[Curse of the pharaohs]]
* [[Egyptian chronology]]
* [[Pharaohs in the Bible]]
{{colend}}

== Notes ==
{{notelist}}
{{Reflist|group="note"}}

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

== Bibliography ==
* Shaw, Garry J. ''The Pharaoh, Life at Court and on Campaign'', Thames and Hudson, 2012.
* Sir [[Alan Gardiner]] ''Egyptian Grammar: Being an Introduction to the Study of Hieroglyphs'', Third Edition, Revised. London: Oxford University Press, 1964. Excursus A, pp.&nbsp;71–76.
* Jan Assmann, "Der Mythos des Gottkönigs im Alten Ägypten", in Christine Schmitz und Anja Bettenworth (hg.), ''Menschen – Heros – Gott: Weltentwürfe und Lebensmodelle im Mythos der Vormoderne'' (Stuttgart, Franz Steiner Verlag, 2009), pp.&nbsp;11–26.

== External links ==
{{Sister project links|wikt=pharaoh|commons=Category:Pharaohs|v=no|n=no|q=no|b=Ancient History/Egypt/Pharaohs}}
* [http://www.digitalegypt.ucl.ac.uk/Welcome.html Digital Egypt for Universities]

{{Ancient Egypt topics}}
{{Pharaohs}}
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{{Ancient Egyptian royal titulary}}
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[[Category:Ancient Egyptian titles]]
[[Category:Heads of state]]
[[Category:Royal titles]]
[[Category:Noble titles]]
[[Category:Pharaohs| ]]
[[Category:Positions of authority]]
[[Category:Monarchs in the Torah]]
[[Category:Titles of national or ethnic leadership]]
[[Category:Egyptian royal titles]]