View source for Philhellenism

{{Short description|19th-century intellectual movement}}
{{Distinguish|Laconophilia}}
{{Expand Greek|topic=gov|Φιλέλληνες|date=May 2021}}
[[File:Scène des massacres de Scio.jpg|thumb|''[[The Massacre at Chios]]'' by [[Eugène Delacroix]] reflects the attitudes of French philhellenism.]]

'''Philhellenism''' ("the love of Greek culture") was an intellectual movement prominent mostly at the turn of the 19th century. It contributed to the sentiments that led Europeans such as [[Lord Byron]], [[Charles Nicolas Fabvier]] and [[Richard Church (general)|Richard Church]] to advocate for [[Greek War of Independence|Greek independence]] from the [[Ottoman Empire]].

The later 19th-century European philhellenism was largely to be found among the [[Classicists]]. The study of it falls under [[Classical reception studies|Classical Reception Studies]] and is a continuation of the [[Classical tradition]].

==Antiquity==
[[File:MithridatesIParthiaCoinHistoryofIran.jpg|thumb|Coin of [[Mithridates I of Parthia]] from the mint at [[Seleucia on the Tigris]]. [[Inscription of Parthian imperial power|The Greek inscription]] reads ΒΑΣΙΛΕΩΣ ΜΕΓΑΛΟΥ ΑΡΣΑΚΟΥ ΦΙΛΕΛΛΗΝΟΣ ("[coin] of the great king Arsaces, friend of the Greeks")]]
In antiquity, the term ''philhellene'' ("the admirer of Greeks and everything Greek"), from the ({{langx|el|φιλέλλην}}, from ''φίλος'' - ''philos'', "friend", "lover" + ''Ἕλλην'' - ''Hellen'', "Greek")<ref name=":1"/> was used to describe both non-Greeks who were fond of ancient Greek culture and Greeks who patriotically upheld their culture. The [[A Greek-English Lexicon|Liddell-Scott Greek-English Lexicon]] defines 'philhellene' as "fond of the Hellenes, mostly of foreign princes, as [[Amasis II|Amasis]]; of [[Parthian Empire|Parthian]] kings[...]; also of Hellenic tyrants, as [[Jason of Pherae]] and generally of [[Greeks|Hellenic]] (Greek) patriots.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web|last1=Liddell|first1=Henry George|last2=Scott|first2=Robert|title=φιλ-έλλην|url=http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.04.0057:entry=file/llhn|url-status=live|access-date=2021-09-17|website=A Greek-English Lexicon|publisher=Tufts University|via=Perseus Digital Library |archive-date=2021-09-17 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210917125216/http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.04.0057:entry=file/llhn }}</ref> According to [[Xenophon]], an honorable Greek should also be a philhellene.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Xenophon "Agesilaus" (7.4)|url=http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0210:text=Ages.:chapter=7:section=4|access-date=2021-07-08|website=www.perseus.tufts.edu}}</ref>

Some examples:
*[[Evagoras I|Evagoras]] of [[Cyprus]]<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ancientlibrary.com/smith-bio/1162.html |title=Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology, page 54 (V. 2) |access-date=2006-03-06 |url-status=usurped |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20051231183210/http://www.ancientlibrary.com/smith-bio/1162.html |archive-date=2005-12-31 }}</ref> and [[Philip II of Macedon|Philip II]] were both called ''"philhellenes"'' by [[Isocrates]]<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/search?redirect=true&lookup=file/llhn&advanced=1&doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0143&lang=greek&group=bilevel|title=Search Tools|website=www.perseus.tufts.edu}}</ref>
*The early rulers of the [[Parthian Empire]], starting with [[Mithridates I of Parthia|Mithridates I]] ({{nowrap|{{abbr|r.|reigned}} 171–132 BC}}), used the title of philhellenes on their coins, which was a political act done in order to establish friendly relations with their Greek subjects.{{sfn|Dąbrowa|2012|p=170}}
*Following the example of the Parthians, [[Tigranes the Great|Tigranes]] adopted the title of Philhellene (''friend of the Greeks''). The layout of his capital [[Tigranocerta]] was an example of [[Ancient Greek architecture|Greek architecture]].

===Roman philhellenes===
{{see also|Scipionic Circle}}

The literate upper classes of [[Ancient Rome]] were increasingly [[Hellenization|Hellenized]] in their culture during the 3rd century BC.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Romans and Aliens|url=https://archive.org/details/romansaliens00bals|url-access=limited|last=Balsdon|first=J. P. V. D.|publisher=Gerald Duckworth & Co Ltd|year=1979|isbn=0715610430|location=London|pages=[https://archive.org/details/romansaliens00bals/page/n38 30]–58}}</ref><ref>A. Momigliano, 1975. Alien Wisdom: The Limits of Hellenization.</ref><ref name=":2">A. Wardman, 1976. ''Rome's debt to Greece''.</ref>

[[File:JulianusII-antioch(360-363)-CNG.jpg|thumb|140px|Emperor [[Julian (emperor)|Julian]]]]
Among Romans the career of [[Titus Quinctius Flamininus]] (died 174 BC), who appeared at the [[Isthmian Games]] in [[Corinth]] in 196 BC and proclaimed the freedom of the Greek states, was fluent in Greek, stood out, according to [[Livy]], as a great admirer of [[Culture of Greece|Greek culture]]. The Greeks hailed him as their liberator.<ref>A modern assessment is E. Badian, 1970. ''Titus Quinctius Flamininus: Philhellenism and Realpolitik''0</ref> There were some Romans during the late Republic, who were distinctly anti-Greek, resenting the increasing influence of Greek culture on Roman life, an example being the Roman Censor, [[Cato the Elder]] and [[Cato the Younger]], who lived during the "Greek invasion" of Rome but towards the later years of his life he eventually became a philhellene after his stay in Rhodes.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Plutarch • Life of Cato the Younger|url=https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/e/roman/texts/plutarch/lives/cato_minor*.html|access-date=2021-06-08|website=penelope.uchicago.edu}}</ref>

The lyric poet [[Quintus Horatius Flaccus]], often anglicized as Horace, was another philhellene. He is notable for his words, "Graecia capta ferum victorem cepit et artis intulit agresti Latio" (Conquered Greece took captive her savage conqueror and brought her arts into rustic Latium), meaning that after the conquest of Greece the defeated Greeks created a cultural hegemony over the Romans.{{Citation needed|date=February 2025}}

Horace's contemporary lyric poets, [[Virgil]] and [[Ovid]], both produced magnum opuses (the [[Aeneid]] and the [[Metamorphoses]], respectively) which were substantially founded upon Hellenic references and culture. Additionally, Virgil's [[Eclogues]] were inspired by [[Theocritus]]' earlier [[pastoral poetry]] in his [[Idyll|idylls.]] The Aeneid, Virgil's story of Rome's founding myth, notably shares several similarities with [[Homer|Homer's]] earlier epics, particularly the [[Odyssey]], one of which being both his epic and the Odyssey follow a [[demigod]] protagonist's military voyage after the [[Trojan War]]. It also was influenced by Homer's [[Iliad]]; for example, the [[ekphrasis]] of [[Achilles]]' divine shield from his mother, [[Thetis]], was mirrored by the ekphrasis of [[Aeneas|Aeneas']] divine shield from his mother, [[Venus (mythology)|Venus]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Kotkin |first=Joshua |date=2001 |title=Shields of Contradiction and Direction: Ekphrasis in the Iliad and the Aeneid |url=https://www.mcgill.ca/classics/files/classics/2001-02.PDF |journal=The McGill Journal of Classical Studies |volume=1 |pages=11–16}}</ref> [[Ovid|Ovid's]] work was perhaps even more influenced by ancient Greek culture than Virgil; his Metamorphoses were inspired by the [[Greek epic poetry|Greek epic]] [[Ancient Greek literature|tradition]] and metamorphosis poetry in the [[Hellenistic period|Hellenistic tradition]], and its content was derived to a large extent from [[Greek mythology|Greek myth]] and folklore, including the Trojan War. Ovid's treatment of Greek myths was so impactful for later Philhellenism, especially during the [[Renaissance]], that the well-known versions of some myths are actually Ovid's versions (e.g. [[Echo and Narcissus]]). Soon after these writers, other Roman lyric poets such as [[Lucan]] (inspired by Greek epics with his [[Pharsalia]]) or [[Persius]] (heavily inspired by Horace with his ''Life'') continued to exhibit strong interests and admirations for Greek literary, artistic, and religious culture.

Roman emperors known for their philhellenism include [[Nero]], [[Hadrian]], [[Marcus Aurelius]] and [[Julian the Apostate]].

==Modern times==
{{See also|Classical tradition|Classics}}
[[File:"Lord Byron à Missolonghi" de T. Vryzakis (musée du Louvre, Paris) (51563019309).jpg|thumb|270px|''[[The Reception of Lord Byron at Missolonghi]]'' by [[Theodoros Vryzakis]]]]
[[File:Victor Hugo by Étienne Carjat 1876 - full.jpg|thumb|200px|[[Victor Hugo]], a well-known philhellene]]
In the period of political reaction and repression after the fall of [[Napoleon]], when the liberal-minded, educated and prosperous middle and upper classes of European societies found the [[Romantic nationalism]] of 1789–1792 repressed by the restoration of [[absolute monarchy]] at home, the idea of the re-creation of a Greek state on the very territories that were sanctified by their view of Antiquity—which was reflected even in the [[neoclassicism|furnishings of their own parlors]] and the contents of their bookcases—offered an ideal, set at a romantic distance. Under these conditions, the [[Greek War of Independence|Greek uprising]] constituted a source of inspiration and expectations that could never actually be fulfilled, disappointing what [[Paul Cartledge]] called "the Victorian self-identification with the Glory that was Greece".<ref>Cartledge</ref> American higher education was fundamentally transformed by the rising admiration of and identification with ancient Greece in the 1830s and afterward.<ref>{{Cite book|title=The Culture of Classicism: Ancient Greece and Rome in American Intellectual Life, 1780-1910|last=Winterer|first=Caroline|publisher=Johns Hopkins University Press|year=2002}}</ref>

Another popular subject of interest in [[Greek culture]] at the turn of the 19th century was the shadowy [[Scythian]] philosopher [[Anacharsis]], who lived in the 6th century BC. The new prominence of Anacharsis was sparked by [[Jean-Jacques Barthélemy]]'s fanciful ''[[Travels of Anacharsis the Younger in Greece]]'' (1788), a learned imaginary [[travel journal]], one of the first [[historical novels]], which a modern scholar has called "the encyclopedia of the new cult of the antique" in the late 18th century. It had a high impact on the growth of philhellenism in France: the book went through many editions, was reprinted in the United States and was translated into German and other languages. It later inspired European sympathy for the Greek War of Independence and spawned sequels and imitations throughout the 19th century.

[[File:Nietzsche187a.jpg|thumb|200px|[[Friedrich Nietzsche]], was one of the most staunch philhellenes.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|last=Whitling|first=Frederick|date=2009|title=Memory, history and the classical tradition|url=https://doi.org/10.1080/13507480902767644|journal=European Review of History: Revue européenne d'histoire|volume=16|issue=2|pages=235–253|doi=10.1080/13507480902767644|s2cid=144461534|issn=1350-7486|url-access=subscription}}</ref> He wrote that: "the Greek is the man who has achieved the most", "the Greek people are the only people of genius in the history of the world", "the Greeks have never been overestimated", "the Greek antiquity is the only true home of culture" and that "the Greek world is seen as the one truly profound possibility of life". Nietzsche was convinced that "the knowledge of the great Greeks" educated him.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Jaspers|first=Karl|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pw5yQXC3wrsC|title=Nietzsche: An Introduction to the Understanding of His Philosophical Activity|date=1997-10-24|publisher=JHU Press|isbn=978-0-8018-5779-9|pages=235|language=en}}</ref>]]

In [[German culture]] the first phase of philhellenism can be traced in the careers and writings of [[Johann Joachim Winckelmann]], one of the inventors of art history, [[Friedrich August Wolf]], who inaugurated modern [[Homeric scholarship]] with his ''Prolegomena ad Homerum'' (1795) and the enlightened bureaucrat [[Wilhelm von Humboldt]]. It was also in this context that [[Johann Wolfgang von Goethe]] and [[Friedrich Hölderlin]] were to compose poetry and prose in the field of literature, elevating Hellenic themes in their works. One of the most renowned German philhellenes of the 19th century was [[Friedrich Nietzsche]].<ref name=":0"/> In the [[German states]], the private obsession with ancient Greece took public forms, institutionalizing an elite philhellene [[ethos]] through the ''[[Gymnasium (Germany)|Gymnasium]]'', to revitalize [[German education]] at home, and providing on two occasions high-minded philhellene German princes ignorant of modern-day Greek realities, to be Greek sovereigns.<ref>The history of pedagogically conservative philhellenism in German high academic culture has been examined in [[Suzanne L. Marchand]], ''Down from Olympus: Archaeology and Philhellenism in Germany, 1750–1970'' ([[Princeton University Press]], 1996); she begins with Winckelmann, Wolf and von Humboldt.</ref>

During the later 19th century the new studies of archaeology and anthropology began to offer a quite separate view of ancient Greece, which had previously been experienced second-hand only through [[Ancient Greek literature|Greek literature]], [[Ancient Greek sculpture|Greek sculpture]] and [[Architecture of ancient Greece|architecture]].<ref>S. L. Marchand, 1992. ''Archaeology and Cultural Politics in Germany, 1800–1965: The Decline of Philhellenism'' (University of Chicago).</ref> Twentieth-century heirs of the 19th-century view of an unchanging, immortal quality of "Greekness" are typified in J. C. Lawson's ''Modern Greek Folklore and Ancient Greek Religion'' (1910) or R. and E. Blum's ''The Dangerous Hour: The lore of crisis and mystery in rural Greece'' (1970).<ref name="doi.org">Cartledge, Paul. "The Greeks and Anthropology." Anthropology Today, vol. 10, no. 3, 1994, pp. 3–6. JSTOR, https://doi.org/10.2307/2783476. Accessed 9 June 2023.</ref>

According to the Classicist [[Paul Cartledge]], they "represent this ideological construction of Greekness as an essence, a Classicizing essence to be sure, impervious to such historic changes as that from [[Greek paganism|paganism]] to [[Eastern Orthodox Church|Orthodox Christianity]], or from [[Subsistence agriculture|subsistence peasant agriculture]] to more or less internationally [[Industrial agriculture|market-driven capitalist farming]]."<ref name="doi.org"/>

The Philhellenic movement led to the introduction of [[Classics]] or ''Classical studies'' as a key element in education, introduced in the [[Gymnasium (school)|Gymnasien]] in [[Prussia]]. In [[England]] the main proponent of Classics in schools was [[Thomas Arnold]], headmaster at [[Rugby School]].{{Citation needed|date=December 2011}}

[[Nikos Dimou]]'s ''The Misfortune to be Greek''<ref>''Η δυστυχία του να είσαι Έλληνας'', 1975.</ref> argues that the Philhellenes' expectation for the modern [[Greek people]] to live up to their ancestors' allegedly glorious past has always been a burden upon the Greeks themselves.<ref name="doi.org"/> In particular, Western Philhellenism focused exclusively on the heritage of Classical Greece, while negating or rejecting the heritage of the [[Byzantine Empire]] and the [[Greek Orthodox Church]], which for the Greek people are at least as important.
{{clear}}

===Art===
Philhellenism also created a renewed interest in the artistic movement of [[Neoclassicism]], which idealized fifth-century Classical Greek art and architecture,<ref>It often selected for its favoured models third- and second-century sculptures that were actually [[Hellenistic]] in origin, and appreciated through the lens of Roman copies: see Francis Haskell and Nicholas Penny, ''Taste and the Antique: The Lure of Antique Sculpture 1500–1900'' (1981).</ref> very much at second hand, through the writings of the first generation of art historians, like [[Johann Joachim Winckelmann]] and [[Gotthold Ephraim Lessing]].

The groundswell of the Philhellenic movement was result of two generations of intrepid artists and amateur treasure-seekers, from Stuart and Revett, who published their measured drawings as ''The Antiquities of Athens'' and culminating with the removal of sculptures from [[Aegina]] and the [[Parthenon]] (the [[Elgin Marbles]]), works that inspired the British Philhellenes, many of whom, however, deplored their removal.

===Greek War of Independence and later===
{{main|Greek War of Independence#Philhellenism}}
Many well-known philhellenes supported the Greek Independence Movement such as [[Percy Bysshe Shelley|Shelley]], [[Thomas Moore]], [[Leigh Hunt]], [[Cam Hobhouse]], [[Walter Savage Landor]] and [[Jeremy Bentham]].<ref>{{Cite book | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=M3L_icA5UEEC&q=London+Philhellenic+Committee+shelley&pg=PA92 |title = In Byron's Shadow: Modern Greece in the English and American Imagination|isbn = 9780198032908|last1 = Roessel|first1 = David|date = 2001-11-29| publisher=Oxford University Press }}</ref>

Some, notably [[Lord Byron]], even took up arms to join the Greek revolutionaries. Many more financed the revolution or contributed through their artistic work.

Throughout the 19th century, philhellenes continued to support Greece politically and militarily. For example, [[Ricciotti Garibaldi]] led a volunteer expedition (''Garibaldini'') in the [[Greco-Turkish War (1897)|Greco-Turkish War of 1897]].<ref name="RG">Gilles Pécout, "Philhellenism in Italy: political friendship and the Italian volunteers in the Mediterranean in the nineteenth century", ''Journal of Modern Italian Studies'' '''9''':4:405–427 (2004) {{doi|10.1080/1354571042000296380}}</ref> A group of Garibaldini, headed by the Greek poet [[Lorentzos Mavilis]], fought also with the Greek side during the [[Balkan Wars]].

<gallery class="center">
File:Une Assemblée d’Officiers Européens, accourus au secours de la Grèce en 1822.jpg|Depiction of Philhellenes in Greece in 1822
File:Zografos-Makriyannis 24 I Ellas evgomonousa List of Philhellenes.jpg|List of philhellenes who contributed during the [[Greek War of Independence]] ([[National Historical Museum, Athens|National Historical Museum]]). The first two columns from the left are the names of those having died.
File:Dupre-Salona-1821.jpg|[[Louis Dupré (painter)|Louis Dupré]]'s depiction of Greek irregulars hoisting the flag at [[Amfissa|Salona]]
File:Panagiotis Kefalas by Hess.jpg|''Panagiotis Kephalas plants the flag of liberty upon the walls of Tripolizza'' ([[Siege of Tripolitsa]])" by [[Peter von Hess]]
File:Pushkin Alexander, 1826 by Vivien.jpg|[[Alexander Pushkin]]
File:Athens, George Gordon Byron 02.JPG|A statue of [[Lord Byron]] in Athens
File:Santorre di Santarosa.jpg|[[Annibale Santorre di Rossi de Pomarolo, Count of Santarosa]]
File:Karl von Normann-Ehrenfels.jpg|[[Karl von Normann-Ehrenfels]]
File:Portrait de Charles Nicolas Fabvier.jpg|[[Charles Nicolas Fabvier]]
File:Rosaroll, Giuseppe.jpg|[[Giuseppe Rosaroll]]
File:Ricciotti Garibaldi.jpg|[[Ricciotti Garibaldi]]
File:Peppino Garibaldi.jpg|[[Giuseppe Garibaldi II]]
File:Henry Morgenthau crop.jpg|[[Henry Morgenthau Sr.]]
File:David Lloyd George.jpg|[[David Lloyd George]]
</gallery>

=== Notable 20th- and 21st-century philhellenes ===
* [[Albert Einstein]], a German-born theoretical physicist widely acknowledged to be one of the greatest physicists of all time<ref>{{cite news |last1=Tucci |first1=Nicolo |date=15 November 1947 |title=The Great Foreigner |newspaper=[[The New Yorker]] |url=https://www.newyorker.com/magazine/1947/11/22/the-great-foreigner |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210101135908/https://www.newyorker.com/magazine/1947/11/22/the-great-foreigner |archive-date=2021-01-01}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://shc.stanford.edu/sites/default/files/CLASSICS_broch_web_11_13.pdf |title=Classics |website=Stanford University }}</ref>
* [[Stephen Fry]], English actor and writer<ref>{{Cite tweet |author=Stephen Fry |authorlink=Stephen Fry |user=stephenfry |number=1384924734186532881 |title=Truly, one of the great honours of my life. With thanks to the Ambassador, to President Sakellaropoulou and to the people of Greece}}</ref>
* [[Giuseppe Garibaldi II]], Italian soldier and revolutionary, grandson of [[Giuseppe Garibaldi]] and son of Ricciotti Garibaldi<ref name="RG"/>
* [[Ricciotti Garibaldi]], Italian soldier, son of Giuseppe Garibaldi<ref name="RG"/>
* [[David Lloyd George]], [[Prime Minister of the United Kingdom]]<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.thenationalherald.com/opinions_columnists/arthro/hail_lloyd_george-9404/|title=Hail, Lloyd George|newspaper=The National Herald|first=Stavros T.|last=Stavridis|date=2019-07-09|access-date=2021-08-13|archive-date=2020-08-09|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200809231238/https://www.thenationalherald.com/opinions_columnists/arthro/hail_lloyd_george-9404/|url-status=dead}}</ref>
* [[Matthias Laurenz Gräff]], austrian-greek painter, historian and politician (representative of the austrian governing party [[NEOS (Austria)|NEOS]] for Greece and whole [[Cyprus]])<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20180925012908/https://www.poets-radio.net/exclusive-interview-matthias-laurenz-graeff-%ce%b6%cf%89%ce%b3%cf%81%ce%b1%cf%86%ce%af%ce%b6%ce%bf%ce%bd%cf%84%ce%b1%cf%82/ POETS Radio. Irene Gavala, Exclusive interview | Matthias Laurenz Graeff | Ζωγραφίζοντας., 2018]</ref><ref>[https://hephaestuswien.com/de/inter-matthias-laurenz-graff-04-24/ Matthias Laurenz Gräff, NEOS Repräsentant für Griechenland im Interview – Hephaestus Wien]</ref><ref>[https://international.neos.eu/personen/matthias-laurenz-graeff NEOS International, Representative Matthias Laurenz Gräff]</ref>
* [[Boris Johnson]], former Prime Minister of the United Kingdom<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.independent.co.uk/voices/elgin-marbles-british-museum-greece-britain-stolen-art-history-a9201011.html|title=Will Boris Johnson right our colonial wrongs and return the Elgin Marbles? Don't make me laugh|website=Independent|date=13 November 2019}}</ref>
* [[Dilys Powell]], film critic, author of several books about Greece, and president of the [[Classical Association]] 1966–1967
* [[Gough Whitlam]], 21st [[Prime Minister of Australia]]<ref>{{Cite web|date=2014-10-21|title=Former Australian MP, and noted philhellene Gough Whitlam passes|url=https://www.thetoc.gr/eng/people/article/former-australian-mp-and-noted-philhellene-gough-whitlam-passes|access-date=2020-07-03|website=The TOC|language=en|archive-date=2020-07-04|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200704030841/https://www.thetoc.gr/eng/people/article/former-australian-mp-and-noted-philhellene-gough-whitlam-passes|url-status=dead}}</ref>
* [[Christopher Hitchens]], British-American author and journalist<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://greekreporter.com/2011/12/20/philhellene-writer-christopher-hitchens-passes-away/|title=Philhellene Writer Christopher Hitchens Passes Away|date=20 December 2011|access-date=31 December 2021}}</ref>

== See also ==
* [[Laconophilia]]

==Notes==
{{Reflist}}

==References==
*[http://www.ucd.ie/classics/classicsinfo/95/Cartledge95.html Paul Cartledge, Clare College Cambridge, "The Greeks and Anthropology"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061022071351/http://www.ucd.ie/classics/classicsinfo/95/Cartledge95.html |date=2006-10-22 }} in ''Classics Ireland'' 2 (Dublin 1995)
* {{cite book |first1=Edward |last1=Dąbrowa |editor1-last=Daryaee |editor1-first=Touraj |editor1-link=Touraj Daryaee |title=The Oxford Handbook of Iranian History |date=2012 |publisher=Oxford University Press |chapter=The Arsacid Empire |pages=1–432 |isbn=978-0-19-987575-7 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=K-poAgAAQBAJ |access-date=2019-12-01 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190101051501/https://books.google.dk/books?id=K-poAgAAQBAJ&pg |archive-date=2019-01-01 |url-status=dead }}

==Further reading==
* [[Thomas Cahill]], ''Sailing the Wine-Dark Sea: Why the Greeks Matter'' (Nan A. Talese, 2003)
* Stella Ghervas, « Le philhellénisme d'inspiration conservatrice en Europe et en Russie », in ''Peuples, Etats et nations dans le Sud-Est de l'Europe'', (Bucarest, Ed. Anima, 2004.)
* Stella Ghervas, « Le philhellénisme russe : union d'amour ou d'intérêt? », in ''Regards sur le philhellénisme'', (Genève, Mission permanente de la Grèce auprès de l'ONU, 2008).
* Stella Ghervas, ''Réinventer la tradition. [[Alexandre Stourdza]] et l'Europe de la Sainte-Alliance'' (Paris, Honoré Champion, 2008). {{ISBN|978-2-7453-1669-1}}
* Konstantinou, Evangelos: [http://nbn-resolving.de/urn:nbn:de:0159-2012112304 ''Graecomania and Philhellenism''], [[European History Online]], Mainz: [[Institute of European History]], 2010, retrieved: December 17, 2012.
* Emile Malakis, ''French travellers in Greece (1770–1820): An early phase of French Philhellenism''
* Suzanne L. Marchand, 1996. ''Down from Olympus : Archaeology and Philhellenism in Germany, 1750–1970''
* M. Byron Raizis, 1971. ''American poets and the Greek revolution, 1821–1828;: A study in Byronic philhellenism'' (Institute of Balkan Studies)
* [http://deniseharveypublisher.gr/books/fair-greece-sad-relic Terence J. B Spencer, 1973. ''Fair Greece! Sad relic: Literary philhellenism from Shakespeare to Byron'']
* Caroline Winterer, 2002. ''The Culture of Classicism: Ancient Greece and Rome in American Intellectual Life, 1780–1910''. Johns Hopkins University Press.

==External links==
*[http://www.hri.org/nodes/grinst.html Hellenic Resources Network]

{{Greek War of Independence|state=collapsed}}
{{Greece topics}}
{{Cultural appreciation}}

[[Category:Philhellenism| ]]
[[Category:Admiration of foreign cultures]]
[[Category:Ancient Greece studies]]
[[Category:Greek nationalism]]
[[Category:Theories of aesthetics]]
[[Category:Politics of the Greek War of Independence]]