View source for Philip III of Spain

{{Short description|King of Spain and Portugal from 1598 to 1621}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=November 2025}}
{{Infobox royalty
| name         = Philip III
| image        = Felipe III de España.jpg
| caption      = Portrait by [[Andrés López Polanco]], {{circa|1617}}
| succession   = [[King of Spain]] and [[King of Portugal|Portugal]]
| moretext     = ([[#Further reading|more...]])
| reign        = 13 September 1598 – 31 March 1621
| predecessor  = [[Philip II of Spain]]
| successor    = [[Philip IV of Spain]]
| birth_date   = 14 April 1578
| birth_place  = [[Royal Alcázar of Madrid]], Madrid, [[Crown of Castile]], [[Habsburg Spain|Spain]]
| death_date   = {{death date and age|1621|3|31|1578|4|12|df=y}}
| death_place  = Madrid, Crown of Castile, Spain
| burial_place = [[El Escorial]]
| spouse       = {{marriage|[[Margaret of Austria, Queen of Spain|Margaret of Austria]]|18 April 1599|3 October 1611|end=d}}
| issue        = {{plainlist|
* [[Anne of Austria|Anne, Queen of France]]
* [[Infanta Maria of Spain (1603)|Infanta Maria]]
* [[Philip IV of Spain]]
* [[Maria Anna of Spain|Maria Anna, Holy Roman Empress]]
* [[Infante Carlos of Spain (1607–1632)|Infante Carlos]]
* [[Cardinal-Infante Ferdinand]]
* [[Infanta Margarita of Spain (1610–1617)|Infanta Margarita]]
* [[Infante Alonso of Spain|Infante Alonso]]
}}
| house        = [[Habsburg]]
| father       = [[Philip II of Spain]]
| mother       = [[Anna of Austria, Queen of Spain|Anna of Austria]]
| religion     = [[Catholic Church in Spain|Roman Catholicism]]
| signature    = Firma del Rey Felipe III.svg
}}
'''Philip III''' ({{langx|es|Felipe III}}, [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]]: ''Filipe II''; 14 April 1578 – 31 March 1621) was King of [[Habsburg Spain|Spain]] and [[Kingdom of Portugal|Portugal]] (as '''Philip II''') during the period known as the [[Iberian Union]], reigning from 1598 until his death in 1621. He was also [[King of Naples]] and [[List of Sicilian monarchs|Sicily]], [[List of dukes of Milan|Duke of Milan]], and Lord of the [[Seventeen Provinces]]. A member of the [[House of Habsburg]], he was born in [[Madrid]] to King [[Philip II of Spain]] and his fourth wife, [[Anna of Austria (1549–1580)|Anna of Austria]]. The family was heavily [[Inbreeding|inbred]]; Philip II and Anna were uncle and niece, as well as cousins.

One year after inheriting the throne, he married his Habsburg cousin [[Margaret of Austria, Queen of Spain|Margaret of Austria]], the sister of [[Ferdinand II, Holy Roman Emperor]]. Philip quickly delegated most of his power and duties to his [[chief minister]], the [[Francisco de Sandoval y Rojas, 1st Duke of Lerma|Duke of Lerma]], whose influence shaped much of his reign. In the outskirts of his territories, military power was upheld by successful but capricious proconsuls, such as [[Ambrogio Spinola]] and the [[Pedro Téllez-Girón, 3rd Duke of Osuna|Duke of Osuna]]. Though Philip is associated with a period of relative peace in Western Europe, called the [[Pax Hispanica]] by some historians, his lack of focus contributed to the [[Spanish Empire]]'s gradual decline.

Although known in Spain as "Philip the Pious",<ref>{{harvnb|Stradling|1988|p=9}}</ref> his international political reputation has been negative.<ref name=":5">{{cite web |title=Philip III |url=https://www.britannica.com/biography/Philip-III-king-of-Spain-and-Portugal |website=Encyclopædia Britannica |access-date=16 June 2025}}</ref> Historians [[C. V. Wedgwood]], [[R. A. Stradling]], and [[J. H. Elliott]] have described him as an "undistinguished and insignificant man",<ref name="Wedgwood55">{{harvnb|Wedgwood|1981|p=55}}</ref> a "miserable monarch",<ref name="Stradling18">{{harvnb|Stradling|1988|p=18}}</ref> and a "pallid, anonymous creature, whose only virtue appeared to reside in a total absence of vice."<ref name="Elliott300-301">{{harvnb|Elliott|1963|pages=300–301}}</ref> In particular, Philip's reliance on the Duke of Lerma drew much criticism. Many historians trace Spain's decline to the economic difficulties that began early in its reign. Nonetheless, as the ruler of the Spanish Empire at its height, the king who achieved a [[Twelve Years' Truce|temporary peace]] with the [[Eighty Years' War|Dutch]] (1609–1621), and who brought Spain into the [[Thirty Years' War]] (1618–1648) through an initially successful campaign, his reign remains a pivotal period in [[History of Spain|Spanish history]]. 

==Early life==
[[File:Retrato de Felipe III de España (Palacio Real de Madrid).jpg|thumb|Portrait by Juan Pantoja de la Cruz, {{Circa|1603}}|377x377px]]
Following the death of Philip III's older half-brother [[Don (honorific)|Don]] [[Carlos, Prince of Asturias]], their father [[Philip II of Spain|Philip II]] concluded that Carlos's problems had been exacerbated by exposure to political factions at the Spanish court.<ref name="Feros, p.16">{{harvnb|Feros|2006|p=16}}</ref> He believed that Carlos's education and upbringing had been compromised, contributing to his mental instability and [[disobedience]]. He began to make more serious arrangements for his other sons.<ref name="Feros, p.16"/> Philip II appointed [[Juan de Zúñiga y Requesens|Juan de Zúñiga]], then [[Diego, Prince of Asturias|Prince Diego]]'s governor, to continue this role for Philip, and [[García de Loaysa]] as his tutor.<ref name="Feros, p.16"/> They were assisted by [[Cristóvão de Moura, 1st Marquis of Castelo Rodrigo]], a trusted advisor of Philip II. Philip believed that together they would provide a stable upbringing for Prince Philip and avoid the fate of his older brother Carlos.<ref name="Feros, p.17">{{harvnb|Feros|2006|p=17}}</ref> Philip's education followed guidelines established by Father [[Juan de Mariana]], emphasizing moderation and personal discipline, with the goal of forming a king who was neither tyrannical nor overly influenced by courtiers.<ref name="Feros, p.17"/>

In his youth, "he imitates (as he does) King [[Ferdinand III of Castile|Saint Ferdinand]], displaying in his actions a miraculous combination of valor and holiness."<ref name=":2" /> Prince Philip appears to have been liked by his contemporaries, described as 'dynamic, good-natured, and earnest,' suitably pious, and possessing a 'lively body and a peaceful disposition,' albeit with a relatively weak constitution.<ref name="Feros, p.19">{{harvnb|Feros|2006|p=19}}</ref> Comparisons with the disobedient and ultimately insane Carlos were generally favorable to Prince Philip, although some observers noted that he appeared less intelligent and politically competent than his late brother.<ref name="Feros, p.19" /> Indeed, although Philip was educated in [[Latin]], French, [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]] and [[astronomy]], and appears to have been a competent linguist,<ref name="Feros, p.17" /> recent historians suspect that much of his tutors' focus on Philip's undeniably pleasant, pious and respectful disposition was to avoid reporting that, languages aside, he was not in fact particularly intelligent or academically gifted.<ref name="Williams, p.38">{{harvnb|Williams|2006|p=38}}</ref> Nonetheless, Philip does not appear to have been naïve – his correspondence with his daughters shows a distinctive cautious streak in his advice on dealing with court intrigue.<ref>{{harvnb|Sánchez|1996|p=101}}</ref>

Philip first met the [[Francisco Gómez de Sandoval, 1st Duke of Lerma|Marquis of Denia]] – the future Duke of Lerma – then a gentleman of the King's chamber, in his early teens.<ref name="Williams, p.38" /> Lerma and Philip became close friends, but Lerma was considered unsuitable by the King and Philip's tutors. Lerma was dispatched to [[Kingdom of Valencia|Valencia]] as [[viceroy]] in 1595, with the aim of removing Philip from his influence;<ref name="Williams, p.38" /> but after Lerma pleaded poor health, he was allowed to return two years later.

By then in poor health himself, King Philip II grew deeply troubled over the prince's future, and he attempted to establish de Moura as a future, trusted advisor to his son, appointing his ally, García Loaysa y Girón, as [[Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Toledo|archbishop of Toledo]].<ref name="Williams, p.39">{{harvnb|Williams|2006|p=39}}</ref> The Prince received a new, conservative [[Dominican Order|Dominican]] confessor.<ref name="Williams, p.39"/> The following year, Philip II died, and his son became King Philip III.

==Religion, Philip, and the role of women at court==
Philip married his cousin, [[Margaret of Austria, Queen of Spain|Margaret of Austria]], on 18 April 1599, a year after becoming king. Margaret, the sister of the future [[Emperor Ferdinand II]], would be one of three women at Philip's court who would apply considerable influence over the King.<ref name="Sánchez, p.91">{{harvnb|Sánchez|1996|p=91}}</ref> Margaret was considered by contemporaries to be extremely pious—in some cases, excessively pious, and too influenced by the Church<ref name="Sánchez, p.98">{{harvnb|Sánchez|1996|p=98}}</ref>—'astute and very skillful' in her political dealings,<ref>{{harvnb|Sánchez|1996|p=99}}.</ref> although 'melancholic' and unhappy over the influence of the Duke of Lerma over her husband at court.<ref name="Sánchez, p.98"/> Margaret continued to fight an ongoing battle with Lerma for influence until her death in 1611. Philip had an 'affectionate, close relationship' with Margaret,<ref name="Sánchez, p.100">{{harvnb|Sánchez|1996|p=100}}</ref> and paid her additional attention after they had a son in 1605.<ref name="Sánchez, p.100"/>

Alongside Philip's grandmother and aunt, [[Maria of Austria, Holy Roman Empress|Empress Maria]]—the [[Habsburg monarchy|Austrian]] representative to the Spanish court—and [[Archduchess Margaret of Austria (1567–1633)|Margaret of the Cross]], Maria's daughter, Margaret formed a powerful, uncompromising [[Catholic]] and pro-Austrian voice within Philip's life.<ref name="Sánchez, p.91"/> They were successful, for example, in convincing Philip to provide financial support to Ferdinand from 1600 onward.<ref name="Sánchez, p.100"/>

Philip steadily acquired other religious advisors. Father Juan de Santa Maria—confessor to Philip's daughter, [[Don (honorific)|Doña]] [[Maria Anna of Spain|Maria]]—was felt by contemporaries to have an excessive influence over Philip at the end of his life,<ref name="Sánchez, p.97">{{harvnb|Sánchez|1996|p=97}}</ref> and both he and [[Luis de Aliaga Martínez]], Philip's own [[confessor]], were credited with influencing the overthrow of [[Lerma, Province of Burgos|Lerma]] in 1618. Similarly, Mariana de San Jose, a favored nun of Queen Margaret, was also criticized for her later influence over the King's actions.<ref name="Sánchez, p.97" />

Tomás Fernández de Medrano, in his ''[[República Mista#A contemporary defense of Philip III of Spain|República Mista]]'' (1602)'','' praised Philip III's devotion to religion and the reverence he showed toward all its ministers, noting that he gave 'great examples' of piety and virtues, even suggesting that he would surpass such legendary Christian monarchs as [[Godfrey of Bouillon|Godfrey]], [[Baldwin I of Jerusalem|Baldwin]], and [[Amalric, King of Jerusalem|Amory]].<ref name=":2" />

==Style of government==
[[File:Felipe3-Spain.jpg|thumb|upright|Philip III of Spain]]

The Spanish crown at the time ruled through a [[Polysynodial System|system of royal councils]]. The most significant of these were the [[Council of State]] and its subordinate Council for War, which were in turn supported by the seven professional councils for the different regions, and four specialized councils for the [[Spanish Inquisition|Inquisition]], the [[Military order (religious society)|Military Orders]], Finance and the [[Papal income tax|Crusade tax]].<ref>{{harvnb|Williams|2006|p=35}}</ref> These councils were then supplemented by small committees, or ''juntas'', as necessary, such as the 'junta of the night' through which Philip II exercised personal authority toward the end of his reign.<ref name="Williams, p.34">{{harvnb|Williams|2006|p=34}}</ref> As a matter of policy, Philip II had tried to avoid appointing [[grandee]]s to major positions of power within his government. He relied heavily on the lesser nobles, the so-called 'service' nobility.<ref name="Williams, p.34"/> Philip II had taken the traditional system of councils and applied a high degree of personal scrutiny to them, especially in matters of paperwork, which he declined to delegate—the result was a 'ponderous' process.<ref>{{harvnb|Munck|1990|p=49}}</ref> To his contemporaries, the degree of personal oversight he exercised was considered excessive; his 'self-imposed role as the chief clerk to the Spanish Empire' was not thought entirely appropriate.<ref>{{harvnb|Mattingly|2005|p=74}}</ref>

Numerous memorials emerged in the late 16th and early 17th centuries, condemning his father's policies while commending the new course set by Philip III. Ecclesiastical scholars supported this transition, with Juan de Santa María emphasizing that the Catholic faith was the cornerstone of prosperity, vital for the monarchy, justice, and loyalty to the Pope. Similarly, [[Tomás Fernández de Medrano]] associated this religious foundation with the monarchy's "greatness" and prestige.<ref>{{Cite journal | author=José Martínez Millán | title=The crisis of the «Castilian party» and the transformation of the Spanish Monarchy in the transition from the government of Philip II to the government of Philip III | journal=Cuadernos de Historia Moderna | volume=11 | number=II | year=2003 | pages=11–38 | url=https://revistas.ucm.es/index.php/CHMO/article/download/CHMO0303220011A/22347/23508}}</ref>

Philip first started to become engaged in practical government at the age of 15, when he joined Philip II's private committee.<ref name="Feros, p.19" /> Philip III's reign marked a political shift, establishing the [[Pax Hispanica]] and redefining the monarchy by aligning [[Catholic Church|Roman Catholicism]] with [[Hispanidad]].<ref>Pereña, 1954, p. 108; Martínez Millán, 2003, p. 36</ref> Diplomatically, he authorized the [[Duke of Sessa]] in 1599 to secure Papal [[investiture]] for [[Kingdom of Naples|Naples]] and [[Jerusalem]], reaffirming traditional ties of papal allegiance to [[Pope Clement VIII|Clement VIII]]. In return, the 1603 Papal Brief granted taxation rights, boosting crown revenues to 18 million [[ducat]]s. Philip III also supported the Papacy against [[Venice]], raising an army of 26,000.<ref>Martínez Millán, 2003, p. 37</ref> Courtly memorials and various authors reinforced [[Madrid]]-[[Rome]] ties.<ref>''Santa María'', 1615; ''Fernández de Medrano'', 1602</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Revilla |first=Ignacio Javier Ezquerra |date=20 March 2023 |title=El Fervor Descalzo del Presidente Francisco de Contreras. Su Apoyo al Desierto Carmelita de Bolarque |url=https://revistas.usc.gal/index.php/ohm/article/view/8385 |journal=Ohm: Obradoiro de Historia Moderna |language=es |issue=32 |doi=10.15304/ohm.32.8385 |issn=2340-0013|doi-access=free }}</ref>

=== Influences on Philip III of Spain ===
Philip III may have shared the Duke of Lerma's view that the late-period governmental system of Philip II had become impractical and overly exclusive of the high nobility. Signs of institutional stagnation were evident near the end of [[Philip II of Spain|Philip II's]] reign.<ref name=":3" /> In response, Philip III's approach to governance was rooted in [[king]]ship and [[Delegation|delegated]] rule, grounded in divine order and noble service, and embodied in the [[República Mista#Doctrine of Medrano (Doctrine of Medrar)|Doctrine of Medrano]] codified and etymologically traced to ''medrar'' and the [[Medrano|House of Medrano]]''.''<ref name=":2" /><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Campo-Perales |first=Àngel |date=28 October 2024 |title=Los validos valencianos del valido. Arte y legitimación social en tiempos del Duque de Lerma (1599–1625) |url=https://revistas.uned.es/index.php/ETFVII/article/view/38583 |journal=Espacio Tiempo y Forma. Serie VII, Historia del Arte |language=es |issue=12 |pages=275–296 |doi=10.5944/etfvii.12.2024.38583 |issn=2340-1478}}</ref><ref name=":4">{{Cite web |title=Quadrados magicos, que sobre los que figuraban los egypcios, y pygthagoricos, para la superticiosa [sic] adoración de sus falsos dioses / ha adelantado ... |url=https://hdl.handle.net/2027/ucm.5326183176?urlappend=%3Bseq=17 |access-date=16 June 2025 |website=HathiTrust | hdl=2027/ucm.5326183176?urlappend=%3Bseq=17 |language=en}}</ref><ref>Cristina Borreguero Beltrán, Óscar R. Melgosa Oter, Ángela Pereda López, and Asunción Retortillo Atienza, eds. ''Piedra a piedra: La construcción de la historia moderna a la sombra de las catedrales. XVI Reunión Científica de la Fundación Española de Historia Moderna "A la sombra de las catedrales,"'' Universidad de Burgos, 8–10 de junio de 2021. (2022). Page 137. https://digital.csic.es/bitstream/10261/272239/1/4-SanPedroBezares.pdf</ref>

While certain Italian authors reacting against [[Niccolò Machiavelli|Machiavelli]] found audiences in Spain, they did not shape policy.<ref>{{harvnb|Tuck|1993|p=121}}</ref> Rather, Philip's governance reflected the Doctrine of Medrano, Spain's established system of moral statecraft, noble service, and sacralized sovereignty, codified by the Medranos as a distinctly Spanish alternative to the pragmatic and power-centered maxims of ''The Prince''.<ref name=":2" /> Italian writers such as [[Girolamo Frachetta]], a particular favorite of Philip, promoted a conservative vision of reason of state centered on princely [[prudence]] and just [[obedience]] to the laws and customs of the realm.<ref>{{harvnb|Tuck|1993|p=122}}</ref><ref name=":3">{{harvnb|Williams|2006|pages=47–8}}</ref> 

Philip's disposition, his friendship with Lerma, and the treatise ''[[República Mista]]'' (1602) by [[Tomás Fernández de Medrano]] together shaped the intellectual context of his policy-making.<ref name=":2" /> The result was a marked transformation in the role of the crown, from the direct, centralized governance of [[Philip II of Spain|Philip II]] to a delegated, noble-mediated structure.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Parker |first=Geoffrey |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3O6uBAAAQBAJ |title=Imprudent King: A New Life of Philip II |date=11 November 2014 |publisher=Yale University Press |isbn=978-0-300-21044-6 |language=en}}</ref>

=== Royal seclusion ===
In his 1602 political treatise ''República Mista'', Tomás Fernández de Medrano advised Philip III of Spain that withdrawing from his [[Citizenship|subjects]] might be regarded as 'a form of religion', drawing a comparison between the king's limited interaction with his people and the [[Reverence (emotion)|reverence]] shown to the [[Sacredness|consecrated]] [[Eucharist]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Medrano |first=Juan Fernandez de |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DJ7Uw6xczpEC |title=República Mista |date=1602 |publisher=Impr. Real |pages=32 |language=es}}</ref><ref>FEROS, ''Kingship and Favoritism'', p. 84.</ref> Philip III elevated his father's principles of inaccessibility and invisibility to unprecedented levels. He drastically limited daily access to himself, granting it almost exclusively to his royal favorite, the Duke of Lerma, who managed most audiences to maintain the king's unseen presence.<ref>{{Cite web | title=King as father in Early Modern Spain | author=Luis R. Corteguera | publisher=University of Kansas | url=https://dadun.unav.edu/bitstream/10171/17776/1/47916489.pdf|page=17}}</ref> Medrano, who noted Philip II as "[[justice|just]], for traveling throughout his realm to personally hear and resolve the complaints of his people," advised Philip III that things rarely seen received greater [[respect]] and [[veneration]]; it was according to reason of state that the king's isolation and retreat helped avoid chances that he might show his faults to those who would idealize him while unable to see him.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Wayback Machine. |url=https://cultureandhistory.revistas.csic.es/index.php/cultureandhistory/article/download/125/423/1279 |archive-url=http://web.archive.org/web/20230205074028/https://cultureandhistory.revistas.csic.es/index.php/cultureandhistory/article/download/125/423/1279 |archive-date=5 February 2023 |access-date=17 March 2025 |website=cultureandhistory.revistas.csic.es}}</ref> This model of symbolic kingship, grounded in controlled visibility and mediated power, helped define the role and necessity of the ''valido'' in early 17th-century Spain.<ref name=":2" />

===Duke of Lerma as ''valido''===
[[File:Retrato ecuestre del duque de Lerma (Rubens).jpg|thumb|left|Portrait of the Duke of Lerma by [[Rubens]]]]

Within a few hours of Philip ascending to the throne, [[Francisco Gómez de Sandoval, 1st Duke of Lerma|Lerma]] had been made a royal counsellor by the new king and set about establishing himself as a fully fledged ''[[Favourite|valido]]'', or royal favorite.<ref>{{harvnb|Williams|2006|p=42}}</ref> Philip III's withdrawal from his subjects made the role of the ''valido'' more essential. In 1601, [[Juan Fernández de Medrano y Sandoval#Dedication to the Duke of Lerma|Juan Fernández de Medrano]], a friar at the Monastery of San Prudencio de Monte Laturce, defended the ''valido'' system. Directly addressing the Duke of Lerma, Juan Fernández de Medrano argued, "The ship governed by two captains is endangered even without a storm. An empire that depends on more than one cannot endure, as experience teaches."<ref name=":2">{{Cite book |last=Medrano |first=Juan Fernandez de |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DJ7Uw6xczpEC |title=República Mista |date=1602 |publisher=Impr. Real |language=es}}</ref> Juan Fernández de Medrano presents the ''valido'' as the legitimate and divinely sanctioned delegate of royal authority, emphasizing his central role in the governance of the realm. He declared, "The King, our Lord, made Your Excellency (God made him) the Father of this Ship, the soul of this body, and the Sun that illuminates us," employing a rich tapestry of metaphors to underscore the ''valido''<nowiki/>'s indispensability. Through these analogies—the ''valido'' as captain, soul, and source of light—Medrano aligns political hierarchy with the divine order, portraying the ''valido'' not merely as an advisor but as an extension of the monarch's will and a stabilizing force within the state. By invoking theological and cosmological imagery, he legitimizes the ''valido''<nowiki/>'s authority as essential for the maintenance of order, justice, and the common good, reinforcing the notion that effective governance depends on a divinely guided delegation of power.<ref name=":2" />

Lerma, in due course declared a duke, positioned himself as the gateway to the King. All the business of government, Philip instructed, was to arrive in writing and be channeled through Lerma before reaching him.<ref>{{harvnb|Feros|2006|p=112}}</ref> While Philip was not hugely active in government in other ways, once these memoranda, or ''consulta'', had reached him, he appears to have been assiduous in commenting on them.<ref name="Williams, p.104">{{harvnb|Williams|2006|p=104}}</ref> Debates in royal councils would now only begin upon the written instruction of the king, again, through Lerma.<ref name="Feros, p.113">{{harvnb|Feros|2006|p=113}}</ref> All members of royal councils were under orders to maintain complete transparency with Lerma as the King's personal representative;<ref name="Feros, p.113" /> indeed, in 1612 the councils were ordered by Philip to obey Lerma as if he were the king.<ref name="Williams, p.104" />

The extent of the Duke of Lerma's direct involvement in the governance of Spain has long been a subject of historical debate. Contemporary observers frequently attributed nearly all decisions of state to his influence, perceiving him as the central figure behind the machinery of government during the reign of Philip III. This view cast Lerma as an omnipresent and powerful ''valido'', orchestrating policy and court politics from behind the scenes. However, modern scholarship has offered a more nuanced interpretation, with some historians arguing that Lerma lacked both the temperament and the dynamism necessary to assert a dominant and sustained influence over the daily operations of government. According to this perspective, while Lerma undoubtedly held significant formal power and enjoyed the king's confidence, his effectiveness and initiative as a political actor may have been more limited than his reputation suggests, shaped as much by perception and courtly image as by actual administrative control,<ref>{{harvnb|Williams|2006|p=105}}</ref> still others consider Lerma to have carefully attended only those Councils of State that addressed matters of great importance to the King,<ref name="Feros, p.110">{{harvnb|Feros|2006|p=110}}</ref> creating a space for the wider professionalization of government that had been lacking under Philip II.<ref>{{harvnb|Williams|2006|p=9}}</ref>

This new system of government became increasingly unpopular very quickly. The novel idea of a ''valido'' exercising power went against the long-standing popular conception that the king should exercise his powers personally, not through another.<ref>{{harvnb|Feros|2006|pages=117–8}}</ref> Before long, the apparatus of the Spanish government was packed with Lerma's relatives, Lerma's servants and Lerma's political friends, to the exclusion of others.<ref>{{harvnb|Feros|2006|p=133}}</ref> Lerma responded by further limiting his public visibility in politics, avoiding signing and writing documents personally.<ref name="Williams, p.10">{{harvnb|Williams|2006|p=10}}</ref>

Lerma consistently cultivated the image of a loyal and self-effacing servant, presenting himself as acting solely in the service of his sovereign, King Philip III. This portrayal went beyond mere rhetorical convention; it was carefully reinforced through both personal conduct and public narrative. According to Tomás Fernández de Medrano, Lerma's sense of duty was so profound that he accepted personal sacrifices, including separation from his own family to assume responsibility for managing their estates as part of his obligation to the Crown. Medrano emphasizes that Lerma endured these burdens with dignity and a deep sense of religious devotion, framing his service not only as political responsibility but as a form of spiritual vocation. This depiction served to legitimize Lerma's power by aligning it with ideals of humility, piety, and sacrificial loyalty, thus reinforcing the notion that his authority derived not from personal ambition but from unwavering commitment to the monarch and the divine order.<ref name=":2" /> Writing in ''República Mista'' (1602), well before Lerma's eventual fall from favor, Medrano observed that, rather than succumbing to [[vanity]], Lerma "arranged for his burial, endowing and rebuilding with great magnificence the sumptuous temple of San Pablo in Valladolid of the Order of Preachers, and performing many other magnificent works of great piety," a gesture that, in Medrano's view, reflected the rare virtue of remembering "that men are mortal."<ref name=":2" />

===Imperial proconsuls===
Lerma's role as royal favorite at court was further complicated by the rise of various "[[proconsul]]s" under Philip III's reign—significant Spanish representatives overseas, who came to exercise independent judgement and even independent policies in the absence of strong leadership from the center.<ref name="Polisensky, p.127">{{harvnb|Polisensky|1971|p=127}}</ref> The challenges to government communication during the period encouraged aspects of this, but the phenomenon was much more marked under Philip III than under either the reign of his father or son.

[[File:Studio of Peter Paul Rubens - Marquis Ambrogio Spinola.jpg|thumb|[[Ambrogio Spinola, 1st Marquess of Los Balbases|Ambrosio Spinola]], one of Philip III's various imperial [[proconsul]]s, by [[Peter Paul Rubens]]]]

In the Netherlands, his father Philip II had bequeathed his remaining territories in the Low Countries to his daughter [[Isabella Clara Eugenia|Isabella of Spain]] and her husband, [[Albert VII, Archduke of Austria|Archduke Albert]], under the condition that if she died without heirs, the province would return to the Spanish Crown. Given that Isabella was notoriously childless, it was clear that this was only intended to be a temporary measure, and that Philip II had envisaged an early revision to Philip III.<ref name="Wedgwood55"/> As a result, Philip's foreign policy in the Netherlands would be exercised through the strong-willed archdukes, but in the knowledge that ultimately the [[Spanish Netherlands]] would return to him as king.{{efn|In reality, the Archdukes outlived Philip, resulting in the reunification occurring under his son, Philip IV.}} Meanwhile, the Italian-born [[Ambrogio Spinola, 1st Marquess of Los Balbases|Ambrosio Spinola]] was to perform a crucial role as a Spanish general in the [[Army of Flanders]]. Having demonstrated his military prowess at the [[siege of Ostend]] in 1603, Spinola rapidly started to propose and implement policies almost independently of the central councils in Madrid,<ref>{{harvnb|Williams|2006|p=127}}</ref> somehow managing to achieve military victories even without central funding from Spain.<ref>{{harvnb|Williams|2006|p=128}}</ref> Lerma was uncertain of how to deal with Spinola; on the one hand, Lerma desperately needed a successful military commander in the Netherlands—on the other, Lerma was contemptuous of Spinola's relatively low origins and cautious of his potential to destabilize Lerma at court.<ref>{{harvnb|Williams|2006|pages=126–7}}</ref> In the years leading to the outbreak of war in 1618, Spinola was working to produce a plan to finally defeat the [[Dutch Republic]], involving an intervention in the Rhineland followed by fresh hostilities aiming to cut the Low Countries in two: portrayed at the time as the 'spider in the web' of Catholic politics in the region, Spinola was operating without significant consultation with Philip in Madrid.<ref name="Wedgwood, pp.113-4">{{harvnb|Wedgwood|1981|pages=113–4}}</ref>

In Italy, a parallel situation emerged. [[Pedro Henriquez de Acevedo, Count of Fuentes]], as governor of the [[Duchy of Milan]], exploited the lack of guidance from Madrid to pursue his own highly interventionist policy across Northern Italy, including making independent offers to support the Papacy by invading the [[Venetian Republic]] in 1607.<ref>{{harvnb|Parker| 1984|pages=153–4}}</ref> Fuentes remained in power and pursued his own policies until his death. [[Pedro de Toledo Osorio, 5th Marquess of Villafranca]], as governor of Milan, similarly exercised his own considerable judgment on foreign policy. [[Pedro Téllez-Girón, 3rd Duke of Osuna]], who had married into the Sandoval family as a close ally of Lerma, again showed significant independence as the Viceroy of [[Kingdom of Naples|Naples]] towards the end of Philip's reign. In conjunction with the Spanish ambassador to Venice, the influential [[Alfonso de la Cueva, 1st Marquis of Bedmar]], Osuna pursued a policy of raising an extensive army, intercepting Venetian shipping, and imposing sufficiently high taxes that threats of a revolt began to emerge. To exacerbate matters, Osuna was found to have prevented the local Neapolitans from petitioning Philip III to complain.<ref name="Williams, p.245">{{harvnb|Williams|2006|p=245}}</ref> Osuna fell from power only when Lerma had lost his royal favor, and Osuna's negative impact on Philip's plans for intervention in Germany had become intolerable.<ref name="Williams, p.245"/>

===Fall of Lerma===
[[File:Rodrigo calderon.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Rodrigo Calderón]], executed by Philip III to satisfy the [[Duke of Lerma]]'s enemies, painted by [[Peter Paul Rubens]]]]

From 1612 onwards, and certainly by 1617, the [[Francisco Gómez de Sandoval y Rojas, Duke of Lerma|Lerma]] administration was crumbling. The monopoly of power in the hands of the Lerma's Sandoval family had generated numerous enemies; Lerma's personal enrichment in office had become a scandal; Lerma's extravagant spending and personal debts were beginning to alarm his own son, [[Cristóbal de Sandoval, Duke of Uceda]]; lastly, ten years of quiet diplomacy by Fathers Luis de Aliaga, Philip's confessor, and Juan de Santa Maria, Philip's daughter's confessor and a former client of [[Margaret of Austria, Queen of Spain|Queen Margaret]],<ref name="Sánchez, p.97"/> had begun to apply personal and religious pressure on the King to alter his method of government.<ref name="Williams, p.241">{{harvnb|Williams|2006|p=241}}.</ref> Philip remained close to Lerma, however, and supported him in becoming a cardinal in March 1618 under [[Pope Paul V]], a position which would offer Lerma some protection as his government collapsed.

Lerma fell to an alliance of interests—Uceda, his son, led the attack, aiming to protect his future interests, allied with [[Baltasar de Zúñiga]], a well-connected noble with a background in diplomacy across Europe, whose nephew, [[Gaspar de Guzmán, Count-Duke of Olivares|Olivares]], was close to the heir to the throne, [[Philip IV of Spain|Prince Philip]]. Lerma departed for his ducal seat, and for six weeks Philip did nothing; then, in October, Philip signed a decree removing the powers of his former ''valido'', and announcing that he would rule in person.<ref name="Williams, p.241"/> Uceda initially took over as the primary voice at court, but without his father's extensive powers; de Zúñiga, meanwhile, became Philip's minister for foreign and military affairs. Philip, while unwilling to move further against Lerma, took politically symbolic action against Lerma's former [[Secretary of State (Ancient Regime in Spain)|secretary]] [[Rodrigo Calderón]], a figure emblematic of the former administration. Calderón, suspected of having killed Philip's wife [[Margaret of Austria, Queen of Spain|Queen Margaret]] by witchcraft in 1611, was ultimately tortured and then executed by Philip for the more plausible murder of the soldier Francisco de Juarez.<ref>{{harvnb|Williams|2006|p=242}}</ref>

==Domestic policy==
[[File:Emanuel van Meteren Historie ppn 051504510 MG 8792 philippus de III.tif|thumb|Philip III of Spain]]

Philip inherited an [[Spanish Empire|empire]] considerably enlarged by his father. On the [[Iberian Peninsula]], Philip II [[Iberian Union|added Portugal to his domains]] in 1580; across Europe, despite the ongoing [[Eighty Years' War|Dutch revolt]], [[Spanish possessions in Italy]] and along the [[Spanish Road]] appeared secure; globally, the combination of Castilian and [[Portuguese Empire|Portuguese colonial territories]] gave a Spanish ruler unparalleled reach from the Americas to the Philippines and beyond, through India to Africa.<ref>{{harvnb|Parker| 1984|page=146}}</ref>

The challenge for such a ruler was that these territories were, in legal terms, distinct entities bound together in [[personal union]] through the royal institutions of the Spanish crown, which relied heavily on the Castilian nobility as a [[ruling class]].<ref>{{harvnb|Zagorin|1992|pages=3–4}}</ref> Even within the peninsula itself, Philip would rule through the kingdoms of [[Crown of Castile|Castile]], [[Crown of Aragon|Aragon]], and [[Kingdom of Portugal|Portugal]], the autonomous provinces of [[Principality of Catalonia|Catalonia]] and [[Four Kingdoms of Andalusia|Andalusia]]—all only loosely joined through the institution of the Castile monarchy and the person of Philip III.<ref>{{harvnb|Parker| 1984|page=61}}</ref> Each part had different taxation, privileges and military arrangements; in practice, the level of taxation in many of the more peripheral provinces was less than in Castile, but the privileged position of the Castilian nobility at all senior levels of royal appointment was a contentious issue for the less favored provinces.

===Expulsion of the Moriscos===
{{main|Expulsion of the Moriscos}}
One of Philip's first domestic changes was the issuing of a decree in 1609 for the expulsion of the [[Morisco]]s from Spain, timed to coincide with the declaration of a [[Twelve Years' Truce|truce]] in the [[Eighty Years' War]].<ref>{{harvnb|Cruz|1999|p=177}}</ref> The Moriscos were the descendants of the Muslims that had converted to Christianity during the [[Reconquista]] of the previous centuries; despite their conversion, they retained a distinctive culture, including many Islamic practices.<ref name="Parker, 1984, p.150">{{harvnb|Parker| 1984|page=150}}</ref> Philip II had made the elimination of the Morisco threat a key part of his domestic strategy in the south, attempting an assimilation campaign in the 1560s, which had resulted in the [[Morisco Revolt]] that concluded in 1570.<ref>{{harvnb|Zagorin|1992|p=15}}</ref> In the final years of his rule, Philip's father had reinvigorated efforts to convert and assimilate the Moriscos, but with almost 200,000 in the south of Spain alone, it was clear by the early years of the new century that this policy was failing.<ref name="Parker, 1984, p.150"/>

[[File:La Expulsión en el Puerto de Denia. Vicente Mostre.jpg|thumb|left|[[Expulsion of the Moriscos]] at the port of [[Dénia]], by Vincente Mostré]]

The idea of completely cleansing Spain of the Moriscos was proposed by [[Juan de Ribera]], the [[Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Valencia in Spain|Archbishop]] and [[Viceroy of Valencia]], whose views were influential with Philip III. Philip's eventual decree to expel a nationality that had lived in Spain for over 800 years and was assimilated within it was based less on doctrinal than financial considerations—confiscating the 'wealth' of the Moriscos, which caused jealousy and resentment by other Christians in Spain, especially in Valencia. Financially, the royal treasury stood to gain by seizing the assets of the removed peoples, while in due course, those close to the crown would benefit from cheap land or gifts of estates. Estimates vary slightly, but between approximately 275,000<ref name="Parker, 1984, p.150"/> to over 300,000<ref name="Perry, p.133">{{harvnb|Perry|2005| p=133}}</ref> Moriscos were forced out of Spain between 1609 and 1614. To accomplish this, the Armada and 30,000 soldiers were mobilized with the mission of transporting the families to [[Ottoman Tunisia|Tunisia]] or [[Saadi Sultanate|Morocco]]. Philip intervened in the problematic decision of what to do with Morisco children. A central question was whether they should be allowed to take them to Islamic countries, where they would be brought up as Muslims, or, if they were to remain in Spain, what should be done with them. Philip paternalistically decreed that Morisco children under the age of seven could not be taken to Islamic countries, but that any children remaining in Valencia should be free from the threat of enslavement,<ref>{{harvnb|Perry|2005| p=148}}</ref> and rejected some of Ribera's more extreme suggestions.<ref>{{harvnb|Perry|2005| p=157}}</ref>

While popular at the time, and in keeping with earlier policies, this measure significantly damaged the economies of the [[Kingdom of Valencia]], [[Kingdom of Aragon|Aragon]], and [[Kingdom of Murcia|Murcia]]. The supply of cheap labor and the number of rent-paying property owners in these areas decreased considerably, as did agricultural outputs.<ref>{{harvnb|De Maddalena|1974|p=286}}</ref> In Valencia, fields were left abandoned and agricultural output decreased significantly.<ref name="lyn49">Lynch, p. 49.</ref>

===Economic decline and failed reform===
[[File:Retrato de Mateo Alemán.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Mateo Alemán]], an [[early modern]] novelist who recorded the terrible 'plague that came down from Castile and the famine that rose from Andalusia' to cripple Philip III's domestic economy. Engraving by [[Pedro Perete]].]]

Philip III's reign was marked by significant economic problems across Spain. [[Famine]] struck during the 1590s through a sequence of bad harvests, while from 1599 to 1600 and for several years afterwards, there was a terrible outbreak of [[bubonic plague]] across Spain, killing over 10% of the population.<ref>{{harvnb|Parker| 1985|page=235}}</ref> [[Mateo Alemán]], one of the first modern novelists in Europe, captured the despondent mood of the period, describing 'the plague that came down from Castile and the famine that rose from Andalusia' to grip the country.<ref>{{harvnb|Parker| 1984|page=147}}</ref> While the failing harvests affected the rural areas most, the plagues reduced the urban population most significantly, in turn reducing the demand for [[manufactured goods]] and undermining the economy further.<ref>{{harvnb|Parker| 1984|pages=146–147}}</ref> The result was an economically weakened Spain with a rapidly falling population.

Financially, Philip's situation did not appear much better. He had inherited huge debts from his father, Philip II, and an unhelpful tradition that the [[Crown of Castile]] bore the brunt of royal taxation—Castile carried 65% of total imperial costs by 1616.<ref name="Munck, p.51">{{harvnb|Munck|1990|p=51}}</ref> Philip III received no money from the ''[[Cortes Generales|cortes]]'', or parliaments, of [[Kingdom of Aragon|Aragon]], the Basque provinces or [[Kingdom of Portugal|Portugal]]; [[Kingdom of Valencia|Valencia]] only provided one contribution, in 1604.<ref name="Munck, p.51"/> Philip did not openly challenge this situation but instead depended more and more heavily on the Castilian ''cortes''; in turn, the ''cortes'' increasingly began to tie new grants of money to specific projects, subtly but steadily altering the relationship between the King and ''cortes''.<ref name="Thompson, p.189">{{harvnb|Thompson|2001|p=189}}</ref> By the financial crisis of 1607, the ''cortes'' had even insisted that it be recalled every three years, and that Philip take an oath—on pain of [[excommunication]]—to promise that he had spent the royal funds in line with the promises made previously to the ''cortes''.<ref name="Thompson, p.189"/>

[[File:Un demi croat à l'effigie de Philippe III.jpg|thumb|left|Philip III of Spain]]

Philip and [[Francisco Gómez de Sandoval, 1st Duke of Lerma|Lerma]]'s attempts to resolve this crisis largely failed, and were not helped by the increasing size of the royal household—an attempt to increase royal prestige and political authority<ref name="Feros, p.110"/>—Philip's own household costs rose enormously at a time of falling income.<ref>Kamen, 1991, p. 200.</ref>{{better source needed |date=February 2024}} Philip's attempts to issue new currency—in particular the issues of the copper ''véllon'' coinage in 1603–04, 1617, and 1621—simply created considerable instability.<ref name="Munck, p.51"/> The costs of the Dutch campaign resulted in Philip's bankruptcy in 1607, and the crown's attempt to resolve this by converting the ''[[Asiento de Negros|asiento]]'' tax system—high-interest loans owed to tax farmers—into longer-term ''juros'' bonds paying a much lower interest, produced a short-term benefit, but at the price of losing financial flexibility during future crises.<ref name="Munck, p.51"/> By 1618, almost all Philip's crown income was already assigned to its various creditors, and he had almost no spending discretion left.<ref name="Munck, p.51"/> Financially, the Spanish state had become dominated by [[Republic of Genoa|Genoese]] bankers and lenders under Philip II, whose lines of credit had allowed the Spanish state to continue during its moments of financial crisis; under Philip III this process remained unchecked, building up considerable resentment against this foreign influence,<ref>{{harvnb|Cruz|1999|p=102}}</ref> some going so far as to term the bankers 'white moors'.<ref>{{harvnb|Cruz|1999|p=103}}</ref>

Throughout Philip's reign, a body of analysis of Spain's condition began to emerge through the work of the numerous ''arbitristas'', or commentators, that dominated public discussions from around 1600 through to the 1630s.<ref>{{harvnb|Parker| 1984|pages=147–8}}</ref> These different voices focused heavily on the [[political economy]] of Spain—the rural depopulation, the diverse and bureaucratic administrative methods, the social hierarchies and corruption, offering numerous, if often contradictory, solutions.<ref>{{harvnb|Parker|1984|page=148}}</ref> Nonetheless, through most of Philip's reign, there was no significant attempt at economic reform—Philip continued to rule in line with local laws and customs. Philip encouraged the consolidation of noble estates, selling off large quantities of crown lands to favored nobles and creditors.<ref name="Munck, p.50">{{harvnb|Munck|1990|p=50}}</ref> There were no attempts to create an equivalent to the French ''[[intendant]]'' position—the closest equivalent, the ''[[Corregidor (position)|corregidor]]'', lacked the strong links to the crown required to overcome local opposition.<ref name="Munck, p.50"/> Only in Philip's final years did reform begin to gain momentum; a reform committee, or ''Junta de Reformación'', was established in Lerma's final months in 1618.<ref>{{harvnb|Kamen|2005|p=214}}</ref> Under the incoming administration, including the reformist [[Baltasar de Zúñiga]], this committee ground on, but would only deliver substantial, if ill-fated, results when rejuvenated under Philip IV's reign.

==Foreign policy==
[[File:The Somerset House Conference 19 August 1604.jpg|thumb|The ''[[Somerset House Conference (painting)|Somerset House Conference]]'' depicting a meeting between English and Spanish diplomats that brought an end to the [[Anglo–Spanish War (1585)|Anglo–Spanish War]] (1585–1604)]]

Upon his accession, Philip inherited two major conflicts from his father. The first, the prolonged [[Eighty Years' War|Dutch revolt]], posed a significant challenge to Spanish power from the Protestant [[Dutch Republic|United Provinces]], a crucial region of the [[Spanish Empire]]. The second, the [[Anglo-Spanish War (1585–1604)|Anglo–Spanish War]], was a more recent and less critical conflict with the Protestant [[Kingdom of England|England]], characterized by the Spanish failure to effectively leverage its vast military resources against the smaller English forces.

Philip's own foreign policy can be divided into three phases. For the first nine years of his reign, he pursued a highly aggressive set of policies, aiming to deliver a 'great victory'.<ref name="Williams, p.125">{{harvnb|Williams|2006|p=125}}</ref> His instructions to [[Francisco Gómez de Sandoval, 1st Duke of Lerma|Lerma]] to wage a war of 'blood and iron' on his rebellious subjects in the Netherlands reflects this.<ref name="Williams, p.10"/> After 1609, when it became evident that Spain was financially exhausted and Philip sought a truce with the Dutch, there followed a period of retrenchment; in the background, tensions continued to grow, however, and by 1618 the policies of Philip's 'proconsuls'—men like [[Ambrogio Spinola, 1st Marquess of Los Balbases|Spinola]], [[Pedro Henriquez de Acevedo, Count of Fuentes|Fuentes]], [[Pedro de Toledo Osorio, 5th Marquess of Villafranca|Villafranca]], [[Pedro Téllez-Girón, 3rd Duke of Osuna|Osuna]] and [[Alfonso de la Cueva, 1st Marquis of Bedmar|Bedmar]]—were increasingly at odds with Lerma's policy from Madrid.<ref name="Polisensky, p.127"/> The final period, in which Philip intervened in the [[Holy Roman Empire]] to secure the [[1619 imperial election|election]] of [[Ferdinand II, Holy Roman Emperor|Ferdinand II]] as [[Holy Roman Emperor]] and in which preparations were made for renewed conflict with the Dutch, largely occurred after the fall of Lerma and the rise of a new, more aggressive set of advisors in the Madrid court.

===Eighty Years' War, Anglo-Spanish War, and the Pax Hispanica===
{{further|Pax Hispanica}}
Philip's initial aim was to achieve a decisive "great victory"<ref name="Williams, p.125"/> in the [[Eighty Years' War|long-running war]] against the rebellious [[Spanish Netherlands]] while placing renewed pressure on [[Elizabethan era|Elizabethan England]], in an effort to terminate English support for the Dutch. The [[Spanish Armada]], rebuilt in the 1590s, remained effective against the English.<ref>See Goodman (2002) for a thorough account of this revival.</ref> However, after the failure of the [[4th Spanish Armada|Spanish invasion of Ireland]] at the [[Battle of Kinsale]], Philip reluctantly accepted that further attacks on England were unlikely to succeed.<ref name="Williams, p.125"/> In the Netherlands, a new war strategy resulted in the re-establishment of Spanish power on the north side of the major rivers [[Meuse]] and [[Rhine]], strengthening the military pressure on the rebel provinces. The "great victory" strategy, however, began to descend into a financial war of attrition: the [[Southern Netherlands]], still under Spanish control, and the [[Dutch Republic]] in the north—dominated by [[Calvinist]] Protestants—were both exhausted, and after the 1607 financial crisis, Spain was also unable to pursue the war. Philip thus turned to peace negotiations instead; with the accession to the throne of [[James I of England]], it became possible to terminate both the war and English support to the Dutch via the [[Treaty of London (1604)|Treaty of London]].<ref>{{harvnb|Parker| 2004|page=212}}</ref> This would start the Pax Hispanica, a period of peace which lasted until the Spanish entry into the [[Thirty Years' War]]. Spain and the Netherlands, although now at peace, rearmed themselves in preparation for another war. Spain developed political hegemony and general stability to Spain and let the [[Spanish Golden Age]] happen. Spain also developed some cultural values, for example, making Castilian the ''lingua franca''.

The [[Twelve Years' Truce]] with the Dutch followed in 1609 and enabled the Southern Netherlands to recover, but was a de facto recognition of the [[Dutch Republic]]’s independence, with whom many European powers established diplomatic relations. The truce did not halt Dutch commercial and [[Evolution of the Dutch colonial empire|colonial expansion]] into the Caribbean and the East Indies, although Spain had demanded the [[Dutch East India Company]] be liquidated as a treaty condition. Minor Dutch concessions included scrapping the plan for a [[Dutch West India Company]] and stopping the harassment of the Portuguese in Asia. Both concessions were temporary as the Dutch soon recommenced preying upon Portuguese interests, which had already led to the [[Dutch–Portuguese War]] in 1602 and would continue until 1654. The Twelve Years' Truce handed Philip's regime an opportunity to begin to recover its financial position.
[[File:Velazquez-felipeIII (cropped).jpg|thumb|Portrait by [[Diego Velázquez]] (1634–5)]]
A period of instability commenced in the [[Kingdom of France]] with the death of [[Henry IV of France|Henry IV]], who supported the war against Spain. In a sequence of aggressive policy moves, and largely without firm direction from Philip, his two regional [[proconsul]]s (the [[Pedro Téllez-Girón, 3rd Duke of Osuna|Duke of Osuna]], viceroy of [[Kingdom of Naples|Naples]] and the [[Pedro Álvarez de Toledo, 5th Marquis of Villafranca|Marquis of Villafranca]], the Governor of [[Duchy of Milan|Milan]]) directed the Spanish policy in Italy, encountering resistance from the [[Duchy of Savoy]] and the Republic of Venice. To secure the connection between Milan and the Netherlands, a new route for the [[Spanish Road]] was opened through [[Valtellina#History|Valtellina]], then part of the independent state of the [[Three Leagues]] (the present-day canton of [[Graubünden]], Switzerland), and in 1618 the plot of Venice occurred, in which the authorities engaged in the persecution of pro-Spanish agents.

During this time of truce with the Dutch and the English, the [[Spanish match]] was proposed. This marriage between [[Charles I of England]] and [[Infanta Maria Anna of Spain]] was to ensure an Anglo-Iberian alliance against the [[Dutch East India Company]], their common enemy. This would serve as a prelude for the [[Anglo–Dutch wars]] and also an attempt to reconcile Catholic Spain with Protestant England. However, the proposal stirred internal tensions within the [[Iberian Union]] between the [[Council of Portugal|Portuguese]] and the [[Council of Castile|Castilians]], as the former opposed close ties between the [[Portuguese Empire]] and the [[English East India Company]]. This was because the Portuguese wanted to maintain their monopoly on the Indian Ocean permitted by the [[Treaty of Tordesillas]]. Instead, the Portuguese pushed to start a new Anglo-Spanish War. The Council of Castile had a more pragmatic perspective about the changes in the balance of power since the consolidation of the Anglo-Dutch naval presence in the [[East Indies]], and felt the necessity to develop an alliance with one power against the other. This stemmed from the impossibility of an Iberian-Dutch alliance due to the lack of a formal treaty between the two parties and the threat of Dutch independence to Habsburg power within the [[Holy Roman Empire]]. Thus, the Council of Castile argued that allowing English trade in Asia would be better for the protection of the [[Spanish East Indies]] and [[Portuguese Colonial|Portuguese Colonies]] than a two-front war— owing to the current [[Dutch–Portuguese War|Dutch-Portuguese war]]. They also claimed that it was idealistic to fight for a monopoly over the Indian Ocean, as it had not been a reality since the [[Eighty Years' War, 1599–1609|Eighty Years' War]]. However, the Portuguese argued that such concessions to the English would damage the trade between the [[Luso-Asians]] and the Portuguese. They also feared that the reputation of Portugal might suffer and that local powers in Asia, as well as those in Europe, would see Portugal as weak and unable to defend itself against its enemies, thus opening the door to competition in the area. In the end, the English rejected the proposal due to conflicts between the king and [[Parliament of England|Parliament]], the refusal of English traders to compensate Iberians from previous attacks on their territories, and mutual hostility stemming from religious differences between Iberia and England.<ref>{{Cite web| title=The Iberian Union and the Portuguese Overseas Empire, 1600–1625: Ormuz and the Persian Gulf in the Global Politics of the Hispanic Monarchy | url=https://www.brown.edu/Departments/Portuguese_Brazilian_Studies/ejph/html/issue24/pdf/v12n2a01.pdf | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150907223513/http://www.brown.edu/Departments/Portuguese_Brazilian_Studies/ejph/html/issue24/pdf/v12n2a01.pdf | archive-date=7 September 2015}}</ref>

=== Policy in Asia ===
Philip III's global policy prioritized the East Indies over the West Indies, primarily because he inherited the colonial possessions of the Portuguese Empire. His rule was marked by ongoing conflicts such as the [[Ottoman–Portuguese confrontations]] and the [[Eighty Years' War]] with the Dutch in the East Indies. Under increasing pressure, Philip aimed to integrate Indo-Mediterranean trade routes by securing Spanish-Portuguese holdings along the African and Asian coasts. This strategy sought to prevent the expansion of Dutch and English forces, which threatened the monopoly established by the [[Treaty of Tordesillas]]. Philip also promoted the spread of [[Catholic Church|Catholicism]] through missionary efforts, particularly by the [[Jesuits]] and other [[mendicant orders]]. To strengthen the Iberian Union against rival powers such as the [[Dutch colonial empire|Dutch]], [[British Empire|British]], and [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman]] Empires, he prioritized the economic interests of the [[Portuguese Empire]] and encouraged collaboration in overseas trade. Under his reign, the Iberian Union forged alliances with [[Safavid Iran]] and [[Mughal India]].<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |last=de Guzmán Centenero de Arce |first=Domingo |date=December 2019 |title=La política asiática de Felipe III: Los intereses cruzados de los socorros a Filipinas (1610–1624) |journal=Historia (Santiago) |volume=52 |issue=2 |pages=409–438 |doi=10.4067/S0717-71942019000200409 |issn=0717-7194 |doi-access=free}}</ref> A secondary objective of Philip's policy was to uphold the Portuguese commercial monopoly in the Indian Ocean. However, after the [[Twelve Years' Truce]], the Spanish court deemed this monopoly unfeasible and instead focused on preserving Iberian dominance against rising competitors like the East India Company, the Dutch East India Company, and newer European challengers such as the [[Danish East India Company]] and the [[Swedish West India Company]].<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal |last=Rubiés |first=Joan-Pau |date=15 November 2018 |title=1622 y la crisis de Ormuz |url=https://journals.openedition.org/mcv/9047 |journal=Mélanges de la Casa de Velázquez |series=Nouvelle série |language=es |issue=48–2 |pages=121–151 |doi=10.4000/mcv.9047 |issn=0076-230X |doi-access=free}}</ref>

{{Blockquote|text=The Spanish Crown paid close attention to the proposals of Sevillian elites, viewing them as opportunities to strengthen the Royal Treasury and improve Spain's position in Asia. As noted in the introduction, this approach required halting the deployment of extraordinary armadas from Lisbon in favor of four priorities: first, redirecting aid to Manila; second, fostering cooperation in Asia among the forces of the Iberian Union; third, reinforcing Iberian positions along the African coasts to deter the arrival of Dutch and English forces; and fourth, pursuing an alliance with the Safavid Empire to enhance Spain's position in the Mediterranean. However, this policy led to tensions with the Portuguese Crown, which opposed many of these initiatives.|author=[[Domingo de Guzmán Centenero de Arce]] (historian)}}
[[File:16th century Portuguese Spanish trade routes.png|thumb|324x324px|Trade Routes of the [[Iberian Union]] around the world]]
To achieve these objectives, Philip III first dispatched military [[Armada of Spain|armadas]] to [[Portuguese India]] between 1605 and 1608, followed by military support to the [[Spanish Philippines|Philippines]] from 1610 to 1624, to reinforce Iberian fortifications in the Far East. Simultaneously, [[diplomatic mission]]s were initiated across Asia, including the first [[Persian embassy to Europe (1599–1602)|Persian embassy to Europe]], the missions of [[Antonio de Gouvea|Gouvea's]] and [[Don Garcia de Silva Figueroa|Figueroa]] to Iran, the [[Hasekura Tsunenaga#The 1613 embassy project|second Japanese embassy to Europe]], and [[Sebastián Vizcaíno]]'s mission to Japan.
[[File:Embajada Keichō.jpg|left|thumb|Keichō Embassy in Spain, a [[Japan–Spain relations|Japan–Spain]] diplomatic mission to develop the economical [[Japan–Mexico relations]].<ref>{{Cite web | url=https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/161457422.pdf | title=Circling the Waters: The Keichō Embassy and Japanese-Spanish Relations in the Early Seventeenth Century | website=core.ac.uk | author=Joshua Batts}}</ref>]]
Similarly, he developed an alternative trade route to the [[Spanish East Indies]] that connected [[Seville]] directly to [[Manila]], bypassing the traditional path through [[Acapulco]] and [[Veracruz (city)|Veracruz]] used by the [[Manila galleon]]. This initiative aimed to increase profits for [[Peninsular Spain]] and streamline the distribution of goods from China, India, and [[Indonesia]] throughout Europe.

To finance these projects, members of the [[Sephardic Jews|Sephardic]] [[Marrano|Jewish minority who had converted to Christianity]], many of whom still resided in Portugal and served as [[Court Jew]]s, were [[pardon]]ed, allowing the Crown to assert greater control over the [[Atlantic slave trade|Brazil-Angola slave trade]]. Additionally, investors from allied [[Italian states]] were invited to participate and offered support during various royal audiences. The [[Viceroyalty of Peru]] also proposed extending the trade route to establish a direct connection between [[Manila]] and [[Callao]], and from there to Spain or Angola.

Improvements to Asian fortifications were financed through trade with Japan. To strengthen economic and political control over overseas territories, the Crown removed powerful but uncooperative elites, including many Novohispanas who favored a triangular trade system between Mexico, the Philippines, and Japan or the [[Maluku Islands|Maluku]] Islands, [[Council of Portugal|Portuguese]] officials who resisted [[Crown of Castile|Castilian]] involvement in the Indian Ocean and sought to maintain a strict separation between the [[Portuguese Empire|Portuguese]] and [[Spanish Empire|Spanish]] empires, and [[Jesuits]], who opposed the expansion of the Spanish [[Patronato real]] at the expense of [[Papal primacy]].

These changes led to the creation of the Castilian ''Estanco de Pimienta'' (Pepper Monopoly) in 1605 and the short-lived ''Conselho da Índia'' (Council of the Indies) between 1604 and 1614. The [[Crown of Castile]] also began negotiating with the [[Papal States]] to allow its own missionaries, primarily from mendicant orders, to travel from the Philippines to Japan and China, thereby ending the Portuguese Jesuits' monopoly on missionary work in East Asia.<ref name=":0" />

In 1601, [[Shah Abbas I]] of Persia and his ambassador [[Hossein Ali Beg Bayat]] proposed a complementary initiative: diverting the Persian raw silk trade through the [[Cape Route|Cape]] of Good Hope rather than overland via the [[Ottoman Empire]]. This route aimed to undermine the common enemy, the Turks, and pressure the [[Republic of Venice|Venetians]] into joining a [[Habsburg–Persian alliance]]. The proposal also promised to make the Spanish Asian trade project more profitable by granting the Iberian Union a commercial monopoly on [[Persian Gulf]] goods in Europe, which in turn could make the direct Seville–Manila route more attractive to merchants who had previously doubted its viability due to the absence of the Mexican crossing.<ref name=":1" />{{Blockquote|text="It is in the service of His Majesty that the said contract between New Spain and the Philippine Islands cease, and that it be done from Spain, since the Dutch and foreigners do it very easily, as is well known."|source=Archivo de Indias}}

However, the project ultimately failed due to a combination of [[technological]] shortcomings, such as the lack of experienced [[Crown of Castile|Castilian]] [[Marine Pilots]] and willing personnel for long, dangerous voyages; persistent Anglo-Dutch [[piracy]]; resistance from the local elite in the Philippines who preferred the [[Manila galleon]] route; and the [[Portuguese Kingdom]]'s reluctance to cooperate. These obstacles, along with the eventual breakdown of relations with both Persia and Japan, and the broader conflict sparked by the [[Thirty Years' War]], brought Philip III's eastern geopolitical strategy to an end.<ref name=":0" />

==== Ormus Crisis ====
{{See also|Anglo-Persian capture of Qeshm|Anglo-Persian capture of Hormuz|Portuguese–Safavid wars}}
Despite efforts to strengthen [[Spain-Iran relations|Spain-Safavid relations]], the [[Portuguese–Safavid wars|Portuguese–Safavid Conflicts]] escalated during the later years of Philip III's reign. This was partly due to the rising authority of [[Abbas the Great|Shah Abbas]] I, who increased military and strategic pressure in the Persian Gulf, ultimately ending any Iberian hopes of controlling the key arrival points of overland caravans in the region. The entry of the [[English East India Company]] into the [[Persian Gulf]] further undermined Portuguese naval dominance. Portuguese authorities in the [[Kingdom of Ormus]] viewed the Mocarrarias tributes paid by an Arab [[Chieftain]] to the [[Persian shah]] as merely transactional payments ensuring the safe passage of caravans and ships through [[Safavids]] territory. However, the Safavid court considered Ormus a vassal state and rejected the idea that Portugal had a legitimate [[right of conquest]] over territories under Persian [[suzerainty]]. The handling of these tributes fluctuated depending on the balance of power when Persia appeared militarily dominant, the tributes were paid in full; when Portuguese control was stronger, they were reduced or ignored.

Initially, Portuguese authorities remained confident in their [[naval superiority]], believing it sufficient to counter any pressure from [[Safavid Persia]]. Maritime dominance was central to Portugal's strategy for controlling trade routes and maintaining influence in the Persian Gulf. However, the arrival of the English dramatically shifted the regional balance of power. Their presence forced the Portuguese to redirect their focus toward protecting sea lanes from corsair attacks and addressing the threat of [[Anglo-Persian Agreement|Anglo-Persian cooperation]]. This realignment strained Portuguese resources and introduced new strategic concerns, particularly the potential loss of maritime supremacy. As [[Abbas the Great|Shah Abbas I]] continued to consolidate military power and pursue increasingly assertive territorial and commercial ambitions, the longstanding Portuguese dominance in the Persian Gulf was increasingly challenged. The combination of rising Safavid strength and European intervention exposed the vulnerabilities of [[Portuguese Empire|Portugal's imperial]] presence in the region.

The fate of Hormuz during Philip III's reign was closely linked to a potential [[Habsburg–Persian alliance|Habsburg–Safavid]] military alliance proposed by Shah Abbas I against the [[Ottoman Empire]], which had been at [[Ottoman–Safavid war (1603–1612)|war with Persia since 1603]]. However, by that time, the Spanish–Ottoman Wars had already ended, and Philip III was reluctant to enter new military conflicts, preferring instead to take advantage of the existing peace. Despite this hesitation, the Spanish ambassador Don [[García de Silva Figueroa|García de Silva]] met with Abbas in 1618–1619 to discuss the proposed alliance. Negotiations were hindered by disputes over the [[Capture of Cambarão]] and by Abbas's perception that the Iberians were demanding too much such as severing ties with the [[English East India Company]] in exchange for limited Spanish commitments, including no clear military action against the Ottomans (such as the proposed blockade of the [[Red Sea]]). 

Internal disagreements further complicated matters. The Portuguese favored prioritizing the Indian Ocean and were wary of making concessions that could undermine their prestige in [[Portuguese India]], while the Castilians focused on Mediterranean interests. They hoped to use Persia as a distraction against the Ottomans, buying time and extending Spanish influence in Europe, with the security of Ormus seen as a secondary benefit. After diplomatic talks failed, [[Philip III of France|Philip III]] dispatched an armada led by Ruy Freire in 1619 to expel the English and reinforce the Portuguese position. The mission was unsuccessful and ultimately triggered an Anglo-Persian alliance, which later joined with the Dutch and [[Omani Sultanate|Omanis]]. This coalition drove the Iberians out of the Persian Gulf, culminating in the [[Anglo-Persian capture of Qeshm]] and [[Anglo-Persian capture of Hormuz|Hormuz]] and the Spanish loss in the [[Battle off Hormuz (1625)|Battle off Hormuz]] in 1625.<ref name=":1" /><ref>{{Cite web |title=Las Fortalezas Ibéricas en la Península Arábiga (1507–1650) |url=https://seguridadinternacional.es/resi/html/las-fortalezas-ibericas-en-la-peninsula-arabiga-1507-1650/ |access-date=7 March 2025 |website=Revista de Estudios en Seguridad Internacional |language=es}}</ref>

===Entry to the Thirty Years' War===
In the final years of Philip's reign, Spain entered the initial part of the conflict that would become known as the [[Thirty Years' War]] (1618–48). The result was a decisive Spanish victory in the [[Holy Roman Empire]] that would lead to a recommencement of the [[Eighty Years' War|war with the Dutch]] shortly after Philip's death. Europe was anticipating a fresh [[Imperial election]] for the position of [[Holy Roman Emperor]] upon the likely death of [[Matthias, Holy Roman Emperor|Matthias]], who was heir-less. Spain and [[Habsburg monarchy|Austria]]'s common [[Habsburg]] ancestry influenced Spain's involvement in the convoluted politics of the Empire: on the one hand, Philip had a vested interest in the success of his cousin [[Ferdinand II, Holy Roman Emperor|Ferdinand of Bohemia]], who intended to follow Matthias to the throne; on the other, Philip had hopes of electing one of his own family, such as [[Philip IV of Spain|Prince Philip]], to the Imperial throne<ref name="Wedgwood, p.75">{{harvnb|Wedgwood|1981|p=75}}</ref> and worried that a failed bid by Ferdinand might reduce collective Habsburg prestige.<ref>{{harvnb|Wedgwood|1981|p=89}}</ref>

[[File:Schlacht am Weißen Berg C-K 063.jpg|thumb|The [[Battle of White Mountain]], 1620, a triumph for the later foreign policy of Philip III]]

Philip finally chose to intervene behind Ferdinand. Prince Philip had been rejected as unacceptable to the German nobility.<ref name="Wedgwood, p.75"/> Philip had also been increasingly influenced over the years by first [[Margaret of Austria, Queen of Spain|Queen Margaret]], and later the other, powerful Habsburg women at court, while the incoming set of advisors that replaced Lerma, especially de Zúñiga, also saw Spain's future as part of a strong alliance with a Habsburg Holy Roman Empire.<ref>{{harvnb|Ringrose|1998|p=320}}</ref> Finally, by the [[Oñate treaty]] of 29 July 1617, Ferdinand made a successful appeal to Philip's self-interest by promising Spain the Habsburg lands in [[Upper Alsace|Alsace]] in return for Spanish support for his election.<ref>{{harvnb|Wedgwood|1981|p=57}}.</ref>

Crisis broke out in Ferdinand's [[Kingdom of Bohemia]] during 1618–19, with a confrontation between Catholic and Protestant factions. Ferdinand asked Spain for help to put down the rebellion; the Protestant rebels turned to [[Frederick V, Elector Palatine]] as their new king. The situation in the Empire was in many ways auspicious for Spanish strategy; in the [[Spanish Netherlands]] [[Ambrosio Spinola, marqués de los Balbases|Ambrosio Spinola]] had been conspiring to find an opportunity to intervene with the [[Army of Flanders]] into the [[Electoral Palatinate]]. The Palatinate was a vital, Protestant set of territories along the Rhine threatening the [[Spanish Road]], the main route for reinforcements from other Spanish territories to arrive into the rebellious Dutch provinces (through Genoa).<ref name="Wedgwood, pp.113-4"/> France, assumed bound to support Frederick against Ferdinand, was in fact inclined to remain neutral.<ref>{{harvnb|Wedgwood|1981|pages=110–1}}</ref> The Spanish troops headed by Spinola in the Palatinate and by [[Johann Tserclaes, Count of Tilly]] in Bohemia achieved a decisive victory against the Czechs in the [[Battle of White Mountain]] in 1620. With the Dutch now vulnerable to a strike through the Rhine valley, a renewed war against the Provinces, with the aim of forcing the Dutch to a more suitable permanent peace, appeared inevitable.

Philip died in 1621 shortly before the recommencement of war—his son, [[Philip IV of Spain|Philip IV]], retained his chief foreign policy advisor, [[Baltasar de Zúñiga|de Zúñiga]], and an initially highly successful campaign against the Dutch began the same year.

==Colonial policy==
===Chile===
[[File:-The Armor of Philip III- MET DP138041.jpg|thumb|Armour of Philip III]]
In the Americas, Philip inherited a difficult situation in [[Colonial Chile|Chile]], where the [[Arauco War]] raged and the local [[Mapuche]] succeeded in [[Destruction of the Seven Cities|razing seven Spanish cities]] (1598–1604). An estimate by [[Alonso González de Nájera]] put the toll at 3,000 Spanish settlers killed and 500 Spanish women taken into captivity by Mapuche.<ref name="Luz2013">{{Cite journal|title=Las cautivas de las Siete Ciudades: El cautiverio de mujeres hispanocriollas durante la Guerra de Arauco, en la perspectiva de cuatro cronistas (s. XVII)|journal=Intus-Legere Historia|last=Guzmán|first=Carmen Luz|volume=7|pages=77–97|issue=1|doi=10.15691/07176864.2014.0.94 |year=2013|doi-broken-date=6 July 2025|language=es|trans-title=The captives of the Seven Cities: The captivity of hispanic-creole women during the Arauco's War, from the insight of four chroniclers (17th century)}}</ref> In retaliation, the proscription against [[Mapuche slavery|enslaving Indians]] captured in war was lifted by Philip in 1608.<ref>{{cite book |quote=Philip III, had taken the drastic step of stripping indigenous "rebels" of the customary royal protection against enslavement in 1608, thus making Chile one of the few parts of the empire where slave taking was entirely legal. |last=Reséndez |first=Andrés |title=The Other Slavery: The Uncovered Story of Indian Enslavement in America |pages=127–128 |publisher=Houghton Mifflin Harcourt. |edition=Kindle}}</ref><ref name=Valenzuela231-233>{{cite book |last=Valenzuela Márquez |first=Jaime |editor-last1=Gaune |editor-first1=Rafael |editor-last2=Lara |editor-first2=Martín |title=Historias de racismo y discriminación en Chile |date=2009 |pages=231–233 |chapter=Esclavos mapuches. Para una historia del secuestro y deportación de indígenas en la colonia|language=es}}</ref> This decree was abused when Spanish settlers in [[Chiloé Archipelago]] used it to justify slave raids against groups such as the [[Chono people]] of northwestern Patagonia, who had never been under Spanish rule and never rebelled.<ref name=UrbinaRod2007>{{Cite book|chapter=El pueblo chono: de vagabundo y pagano a cristiano y sedentario mestizado|url=http://www.turismocientifico.cl/admin/apps/filemanager/repository/%C3%A1reas%20del%20conocimiento/Poblamiento,%20historia%20y%20cultura/Antropologia/Etnias/Al%20Pueblo%20Chono.pdf|last=Urbina Burgos|first=Rodolfo|pages=325–346|title=Orbis incognitvs: avisos y legados del Nuevo Mundo|year=2007|publisher=Universidad de Huelva|location=Huelva|isbn=9788496826243|language=es|access-date=1 September 2019|archive-date=31 October 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211031163524/http://www.turismocientifico.cl/admin/apps/filemanager/repository/%C3%A1reas%20del%20conocimiento/Poblamiento,%20historia%20y%20cultura/Antropologia/Etnias/Al%20Pueblo%20Chono.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref>

Jesuit missionary [[Luis de Valdivia]] believed the Mapuche could be voluntarily converted to Christianity only if there was peace.<ref name=JRP1993>{{cite journal |title=Jesuitas, Franciscanos y Capuchinos italianos en la Araucanía (1600–1900) |journal=[[Revista Complutense de Historia de América]] |year=1993 | pages = 109–147 |volume=19 |last1=Pinto Rodríguez |first1=Jorge |author-link=Jorge Pinto Rodríguez |language=es}}</ref><ref name=MCLmisioneros>{{Cite journal| url = http://www.memoriachilena.cl/602/w3-article-3615.html
| title = Misioneros y mapuche (1600–1818)
| journal = Memoria Chilena
| publisher = [[Biblioteca Nacional de Chile]]
| access-date = 30 January 2014
| language = es
}}</ref> To diminish hostilities Valdivia proposed a [[Defensive War]] in a letter to Philip. The King supported the idea, issuing a decree that established the Defensive War as an official policy in 1612.<ref name=MemCh-GD>{{cite Memoria Chilena
 |id = 602
 |title = Guerra Defensiva
 |access-date = 3 August 2019
|url = http://www.memoriachilena.gob.cl/602/w3-article-92262.html
 |language=es
}}</ref> By the time Defensive War was established, war between the Spanish and the Mapuche had been going on for 70 years.<ref name=MemCh-GD/>

These policies were not without criticism. [[Maestre de campo]] and [[corregidor (position)|corregidor]] of [[Concepción, Chile|Concepción]], Santiago de Tesillo claimed the Defensive War gave the Mapuche a much-needed respite to replenish their forces that should have been denied.<ref name=Bara>{{cite journal |last=Baraibar |first=Alvaro |date=2013 |title=Chile como un "Flandes indiano" en las crónicas de los siglos VI y VII |url=http://www.scielo.cl/scielo.php?pid=S0718-22952013000300007&script=sci_arttext |journal=[[Revista Chilena de Literatura]] |language=es |volume=85 |access-date=30 January 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170126133000/http://www.scielo.cl/scielo.php?pid=S0718-22952013000300007&script=sci_arttext |archive-date=26 January 2017 |url-status=live }}</ref> The [[Real Audiencia of Santiago]] opined in the 1650s that the [[Mapuche slavery|slavery of Mapuche]] was one of the reasons for constant state of war between the Spanish and the Mapuche.<ref name=Barana342>{{cite book
 | last       = Barros Arana
 | first      = Diego
 | author-link1 = Diego Barros Arana
 | title      = Historia General de Chile
 | volume     = IV
 | url        = http://www.memoriachilena.gob.cl/602/w3-article-7987.html
 | year       = 2000
 | orig-year   = 1884
 | edition    = 2
 | publisher  = Editorial Universitaria
 | location   = Santiago, Chile
 | isbn       = 956-11-1535-2
 | language   = es
 | page       = 341
 }}</ref>

===Philippines===
[[File:Imperio Español en Asia y Oceanía.png|thumb|[[Spanish East Indies]] (red) and [[Portuguese Empire in the Indonesian Archipelago]] (light purple). Dark purple represents the territories to be conquered.]]
Philip III sought to strengthen the Spanish position in the Philippines in response to increasing threats from English and Dutch naval forces challenging the former Spanish-Portuguese monopoly over the [[East Indies]]. The Spanish response became more urgent after a Spanish-Dutch naval battle near [[Manila]] in 1600. Philip III also aimed to conquer the [[Ternate Sultanate|Sultanate of Ternate]] and its vassal kingdoms, fearing that Dutch expansion in the North Pacific could jeopardize Spanish trade with China and the security of [[New Spain]].

To deter future attacks, he expanded the fleet of galleys and organized a military expedition to Ternate. As part of this effort, [[Pedro Bravo de Acuña|Pedro de Acuña]] prepared a series of reports on the political and military situation in the [[Spanish East Indies]] and Portuguese Indonesia, particularly focusing on relations between the [[Dutch East India Company]] and the [[Sultanate of Ternate]]. These reports were sent to the [[Council of the Indies]] in 1602.

As a result, both the [[Captaincy General of the Philippines]] and [[Portuguese India]] decided to launch a joint expedition to the Philippines, carrying Spanish and Mexican troops, funds, and supplies to put an end to Dutch-Ternatean raids. However, the [[Council of Portugal]] hesitated to cooperate with the [[Council of Castile]], preferring to uphold the territorial boundaries established by the [[Treaty of Zaragoza]], rather than allow the [[Spice islands]], then controlled by Ternate and the Dutch East India Company, to fall under Spanish influence.

Despite Portuguese reluctance, Spanish forces succeeded in capturing Ternate in 1606. However, they failed to eliminate Dutch influence entirely. The Dutch continued to support Ternatean resistance and eventually succeeded in expelling the Spanish from the islands.<ref name=":6">{{Cite thesis |last=Valpuesta Villa |first=Iñigo |title=Política y enfrentamiento en las Islas Filipinas durante el reinado de Felipe III (Resumen) |date=2023 |publisher=UNED. Universidad Nacional de Educación a Distancia |url=https://portalcientifico.uned.es/documentos/649dc42ba3a4af6c6b6260e4}}</ref>

{{Blockquote|text=At the Spanish court, Acuña's plans were assessed and approved for implementation. However, there was a key issue: the Moluccas were [[Council of Portugal|Portuguese]] territory while the ministers who studied Acuña's proposals were [[Crown of Castile|Castilian]]. Philip III did not want a confrontation between kingdoms over this issue and asked for a joint assessment of the Moluccas problem, but the ideas of both sides seemed irreconcilable. The Castilian advisors understood that if there was intervention from the Philippine Islands, as Acuña proposed, the Moluccas should come under Castilian control, since politically and militarily it made more sense. The Portuguese did not view this manoeuvre favourably and hoped that Ternate would return to Portuguese control, even if the Castilians had recovered it. In the end, there was no understanding, and the king opted for the Castilian position, and at the end of 1602, he approved Acuña's proposal (...) The governor's plan was first to regain control of Ternate, the most important kingdom with a great influence over the other local powers, and then to gain the loyalty of the other kingdoms. With their firm support, Acuña hoped to be able to cut off the clove trade to the Dutch, so that they would have no interest in returning to the islands. Finally, once the Spanish had settled in the Moluccas, he hoped to be able to make the leap to the islands of Ambon and Banda, where the Dutch maintained trade and had prominent forces. In a few years, the Spice Islands could be sealed off from the Batavian passage and thus deal a great blow to their economy and overseas prestige (...) After the initial success of the conquest of Ternate, a relief effort was organised from the Philippines, intended to make up for the losses of the day and the resources expended. This was not very extensive, but according to the original plan, this was not important, since the Spanish troops were going to rely on local troops in their fight against the Dutch. However, events did not go according to plan, and there was no clear alternative response to this relief (...) Essentially, the relief system devised by the Spanish for the Moluccas allowed them to supply the garrison with the money, men, and resources that the garrison might need to recover its losses and watch over the Moluccas, but it could not compete with the large forces that a VOC squadron could deploy on the ground.|author=[[Íñigo María Valpuesta Villa]] (historian)}} 

In 1604, Philip III restricted Chinese trade exclusively to New Spain (Mexico), limiting it strictly to the [[Manila galleon]] route, due to concerns that transpacific commerce was undermining the transatlantic trade system. This policy ended the flow of Asian goods and silver between [[Ming China]], the [[Captaincy General of the Philippines|Philippines]], and the broader western fringe of [[Spanish America]] including Mexico, Central America, [[Peru]], and Chile which had previously been authorized by [[Philip II of Spain|Philip II]] in 1579.

The decision caused resentment in the [[Viceroyalty of Peru]], as it formally excluded the region from engaging in direct or indirect trade with the Far East, including stopovers at [[Acapulco]]. In response, smuggling among South American merchants increased as they sought to evade the restrictions.

[[Juan de Mendoza y Luna, Marquis of Montesclaros]], who served as Viceroy of both [[New Spain]] and of [[Viceroyalty of Peru|Peru]] at different times, supported these efforts under the informal policy of "[[Obedezco pero no cumplo]]" (literally, "I obey but I do not comply"). He believed it unwise to damage the commercial interests of merchants in [[Lima]] and [[Mexico City]], who had already developed a triangular trade network with [[Manila]]. This network even facilitated migration from East and Southeast Asia including Chinese, Japanese, [[Filipinos]], [[Indonesians]], Indian, and [[Luso-Asians|Luso-Asian]] populations to [[Spanish America]].

Nonetheless, Montesclaros did not intend to disobey the king or promote corruption. Instead, he proposed legalizing the Manila–Acapulco–Callao trade route so that the [[Spanish crown]] could regulate and tax it officially.<ref name=":6" />

===Hispaniola===
[[File:Devastationsroyaldecree.jpg|thumb|First page of the [[Real cédula|royal decree]] issued by Philip, ordering Antonio de Osorio to carry out the devastations.<ref>[[Manuel Arturo Peña Batlle]], ''Historia de la cuestión fronteriza dominico-haitiana'', segunda edición, Editora Amigo del Hogar, 1988. Libro I: Época colonial, páginas 73–84. book saved on the [[Internet Archive]]. See book [https://archive.org/details/historia-de-la-cuestion-fronteriza-dominico-haitiana here].</ref> The seven-page decree is registered in the [[General Archive of the Indies]] in [[Seville]], Andalusia, Spain.]]

Phillip III's decision to depopulate the western part of the island of [[Hispaniola]], or Santo Domingo, to eliminate the smuggling that took place in those areas, was considered controversial albeit little-known.<ref>[[Council of the Indies|Royal and Supreme Council of the Indies]], ''"Royal Decree to Antonio Osorio, president of the Court of Santo Domingo, ordering the transfer of the towns in Puerto de Plata, Monte Cristi, Bayajá and La Yaguana, located in the Northern Strip of the island of Hispaniola, inland, reducing them to two towns, and establishing the pardon of the guilty parties who are reduced to them.",'' Published on 6 August 1603, saved on the [[Archivo General de Indias|Archivo general de las Indias]] web page (See details [https://pares.mcu.es/ParesBusquedas20/catalogo/description/404389?nm here]), see the complete document [https://web.archive.org/web/20250522043308/https://pares.mcu.es/ParesBusquedas20/catalogo/description/404389?nm here]</ref>

This action, known in [[History of the Dominican Republic|Dominican history]] as the [[Devastations of Osorio]], proved catastrophic for [[Hispaniola]]. The island went from being a valuable resource for Spain in the Caribbean to the most impoverished territory of the Spanish empire.<ref>{{Cite journal|url=https://journals.iai.spk-berlin.de/index.php/iberoamericana/article/view/1541|title=Las Devastaciones de Osorio y los situados novohispanos para Santo Domingo durante los reinados de la casa de Habsburgo|first=Rafal|last=Reichert|date=16 November 2016|journal=IBEROAMERICANA. América Latina – España – Portugal|volume=16|issue=63|pages=131–147|via=journals.iai.spk-berlin.de|doi=10.18441/ibam.16.2016.63.131-147}}</ref>

Furthermore, the depopulated territories in the west of the island were eventually occupied by the French (who were enemies of Spain at that time).

==Spanish Golden Age==
{{main|Spanish Golden Age}}
Between the end of Philip II's reign and during that of Philip III's, the Spanish Golden Age happened mostly in two cities: Seville and Madrid. Seville was the home of [[Diego Velázquez]], and Madrid was the site of the [[Plaza Mayor, Madrid|Plaza Mayor]], where a statue of Philip III was built.

In 1599, [[Mateo Alemán]] published the [[picaresque novel]] ''[[Guzmán de Alfarache]]'' to critical acclaim.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Correal |first=Francisco |date=22 November 2014 |title="Lope era el más voraz, no dejaba rabo sin desollar" |trans-title="Lope was the most voracious, he left no tail unskinned" |url=https://www.diariodesevilla.es/sevilla/Lope-voraz-dejaba-rabo-desollar_0_864514185.html |access-date=8 October 2025 |website=es}}</ref> In 1605, [[Miguel de Cervantes]] published the first part of [[Don Quixote]], which he developed while he was incarcerated,<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Márquez |first=Teodoro |date=10 September 1996 |title=La Cárcel Real de Sevilla |journal=Laboratorio de Arte |pages=157–170 |doi=10.12795/LA.1996.i09.10 |trans-title=The Royal Jail of Seville |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.12795/LA.1996.i09.10 |access-date=8 October 2025}}</ref> and in 1615 he published the second part. Cervantes also shared a neighborhood with [[Lope de Vega]], who wrote around 1,000 plays, more than 400 of which survive today. Also during this era, [[Luis de Góngora]] and [[Francisco de Quevedo]] wrote during this time, and Velázquez painted his first paintings.

==Death==

[[File:Estatua de Felipe III de España - Plaza Mayor de Madrid.JPG|thumb|left|upright|Statue of Philip III in Madrid, by [[Giambologna]], finished by [[Pietro Tacca]] (1616)]]

To improve relations, Philip undertook a trip to Portugal in 1619, which was applauded by the new minister and valido, the Duke of Uzeda, son of the Duke of Lerma. He was received with enthusiasm, with councils and corporations spending enormous sums during his reception. He was suggested to make [[Lisbon]] the capital of the Spanish monarchy. Noblemen and jurisconsults complained that they neither received favors nor were employed in courts, embassies, or Spanish universities. The Duke of Uceda treated [[Teodósio II, Duke of Braganza]], a potential leader of opposition to Spanish rule, who had come to pay homage, harshly.

After months in Lisbon, Philip left in October, leaving the country dissatisfied, especially after the reappointment of the Marquess of Alenquer as Viceroy. His son, the future [[Philip IV of Spain|Philip III of Portugal]], was sworn as the legitimate heir by the Portuguese. In the rest of Portugal's domains, the Dutch had tried to take the [[Portuguese Empire in the Indonesian Archipelago|Moluccas]], [[Portuguese Malacca|Malacca]] and [[Portuguese Mozambique|Mozambique]], being defeated by [[André Furtado de Mendonça]] and Estêvão de Ataíde.

The reform of the kingdom's Ordinances was published in Portugal in 1603, which the King addressed at the beginning of his reign. These are the well-known ordinations called the Philippine Ordinances, which were preceded by the Alfonsine and [[Manueline Ordinances]].

This King became known in Portugal by the nickname ''The Pious''. Upon leaving Portugal in 1619, he fell seriously ill in [[Covarrubias, Province of Burgos|Covarrubias]] and never recovered, dying within a year. For 53 days, he was bedridden, covered in sores and abscesses. He died at the age of 42 due to pulmonary thromboembolism caused by prolonged immobilization.<ref>Magazine Sábado n.º 547 (23 to 29 October 2014). How could an orange kill a king?, Vanda Marques.</ref>

It is said that his last words were: "Oh! If at that time I had been in a desert to become a saint! Now I would appear with more confidence at the judgment seat of Jesus Christ!"<ref>Afonso de Ligório, ''Santuário'', p. 122.</ref>


==Legacy==
[[File:EscorialAustria.jpg|thumb|Philip III's tomb, between those of his grandfather, father and son]]
Philip III died in Madrid on 31 March 1621, and was succeeded by his son, [[Philip IV of Spain|Philip IV]], who swiftly removed the last remnants of the Sandoval family regime from court. According to the memoirs of the French ambassador [[François de Bassompierre]], the claim that he was killed by the heat of a ''brasero'' (a pan of hot charcoal), due to the absence of the proper official is a humorous exaggeration of the court etiquette.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Philip III of Spain – 1911 Encyclopedia Britannica |url=https://studylight.org/encyclopedias/eng/bri/p/philip-iii-of-spain.html |access-date=31 July 2025 |website=StudyLight.org |language=en}}</ref>

Philip has generally left a poor legacy with historians. Three major historians of the period have described an 'undistinguished and insignificant man',<ref name="Wedgwood55"/> a 'miserable monarch',<ref name=Stradling18/> whose 'only virtue appeared to reside in a total absence of vice'.<ref name="Elliott300-301"/> More generally, Philip has largely retained the reputation of 'a weak, dim-witted monarch who preferred hunting and traveling to governing'.<ref name="Sánchez, p.92">{{harvnb|Sánchez|1996|p=92}}</ref>

Unlike Philip IV, whose reputation has improved significantly in the light of recent analysis, Philip III's reign has been relatively unstudied, possibly because of the negative interpretation given to the role of Philip and Lerma during the period.<ref name="Sánchez, p.92"/> Traditionally, the decline of Spain has been placed from the 1590s onward; [[Historical revisionism|revisionist historians]] from the 1960s, however, presented an alternative analysis, arguing that in many ways Philip III's Spain of 1621—reinforced with new territories in Alsace, at peace with France, dominant in the Holy Roman Empire, and about to begin a successful campaign against the Dutch—was in a much stronger position than in 1598, despite the poor personal performance of her king during the period.<ref>{{harvnb|Parker| 1984|page=145}}</ref> Philip's use of Lerma as his ''valido'' has formed one of the key historical and contemporary criticisms against him; recent work{{efn|In particular, Feros (2006) and Williams' (2006) recent extensive studies of the period, and Sánchez's (1996) analysis of the role of powerful women, often under-reported in historical documents, at Philip's court.}} has perhaps begun to present a more nuanced picture of the relationship and the institution that survived for the next forty years in Spanish royal government.

==Family tree==
Like many [[Habsburg]]s, Philip III was the product of extensive [[Human inbreeding|inbreeding]]. His father, [[Philip II of Spain|Philip II]], a product of [[cousin marriage|marriage between first cousins]], married his niece, [[Anna of Austria (1549–1580)|Anna of Austria]], herself the product of a cousin couple. Philip III, in turn, married his first cousin once removed, [[Margaret of Austria, Queen of Spain|Margaret of Austria]]. This pattern would continue in the next generation, ultimately culminating in the end of the Spanish Habsburg line in the person of Philip's feeble grandson, [[Charles II of Spain|Charles II]].

{{chart top| Ancestors of Philip III and his relationship with his wife}}
|-
|{{tree chart/start|style=font-size:90%; line-height: 120%; margin:1em;|align=center|}}
{{tree chart|boxstyle=border-width:1px;border-radius: 0.5em| | | | |Ferdinand|y|Isabella| |Ferdinand=[[Ferdinand II of Aragon|'''Ferdinand II'''<br />King of Aragon]]<br /><small>1452–1516</small>|Isabella=[[Isabella I of Castile|'''Isabella I'''<br />Queen of Castile]]<br /><small>1451–1504</small>}}
{{tree chart|boxstyle=border-width:1px;border-radius: 0.5em| | | | | |,|-|^|-|.| }}
{{tree chart|boxstyle=border-width:1px;border-radius: 0.5em|Manuel|y|Maria| |JoaCa|y|Phil1| |Manuel=[[Manuel I of Portugal|'''Manuel&nbsp;I'''<br />King of Portugal]]<br /><small>1469–1521</small>|Maria=[[Maria of Aragon, Queen of Portugal|'''Maria'''<br />of Aragon]]<br /><small>1482–1517</small>|Phil1=[[Philip I of Castile|'''Philip&nbsp;I'''<br />King of Castile]]<ref group=lower-roman name="Britannia-Charles V">{{Britannica|107009|Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor}}</ref><ref group=lower-roman name="1911-Joanna">{{cite EB1911 |wstitle=Joanna |volume=15}}</ref><ref group=lower-roman name="BLKO-Isabella">{{BLKO |wstitle=Habsburg, Elisabeth (eigentlich Isabella von Oesterreich) |volume=6 |page=167}}</ref><br />{{smaller|{{nowrap|1478–1506}}}}| JoaCa=[[Joanna of Castile|'''Joanna'''<br />Queen of Castile]]<ref group=lower-roman name="Britannia-Charles V"/><ref group=lower-roman name="1911-Joanna"/><ref group=lower-roman name="BLKO-Isabella"/><br />{{smaller|{{nowrap|1479–1555}}}}}}
{{tree chart|boxstyle=border-width:1px;border-radius: 0.5em| | | |!| | | |,|-|-|-|^|-|-|-|.| }}
{{tree chart|boxstyle=border-width:1px;border-radius: 0.5em| | |IsaPo|y|Char5| | | | | |Ferd1|y|AnnBo| | | | IsaPo=[[Isabella of Portugal|'''Isabella'''<br />of Portugal]]<ref group=lower-roman name="CathEncy-Philip II"/><ref group=lower-roman name="BLKO-Maria von Spanien"/><br />{{smaller|{{nowrap|1503–39}}}}| Char5=[[Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor|'''Charles&nbsp;V'''<br />Holy Roman Emperor]]<ref group=lower-roman name="CathEncy-Philip II">{{CathEncy |wstitle=Philip II |volume=12|first=Godefroid |last=Kurth}}</ref><ref group=lower-roman name="BLKO-Maria von Spanien">{{BLKO |wstitle=Habsburg, Maria von Spanien |volume=7 |page=19}}</ref><br />{{smaller|{{nowrap|1500–58}}}}| Ferd1=[[Ferdinand I, Holy Roman Emperor|'''Ferdinand&nbsp;I'''<br />Holy Roman Emperor]]<ref group=lower-roman name="BLKO-Karl II">{{BLKO|wstitle=Habsburg, Karl II. von Steiermark|volume=6 |page=352}}</ref><ref group=lower-roman name="NDB-Maximilian II">{{NDB|16|471|475|Maximilian II.|Press, Volker|11857938X}}</ref><ref group=lower-roman name="BLKO-Anna von Oesterreich">{{BLKO|wstitle=Habsburg, Anna von Oesterreich (1528–1587) |volume=6 |page=151}}</ref><br />{{smaller|{{nowrap|1503–64}}}}| AnnBo=[[Anna of Bohemia and Hungary|'''Anna'''<br />of Bohemia<br />and Hungary]]<ref group=lower-roman name="BLKO-Karl II"/><ref group=lower-roman name="NDB-Maximilian II"/><ref group=lower-roman name="BLKO-Anna von Oesterreich"/><br />{{smaller|{{nowrap|1503–47}}}}| IsaAu=[[Isabella of Austria|'''Isabella'''<br />of Austria]]<ref group=lower-roman name="Cartwright1913"/><br />{{smaller|{{nowrap|1501–26}}}}| Chri2=[[Christian II of Denmark|'''Christian&nbsp;II'''<br />of Denmark]]<ref group=lower-roman name="Cartwright1913"/><br />{{smaller|{{nowrap|1481–1559}}}}}}
{{tree chart|boxstyle=border-width:1px;border-radius: 0.5em| | | |,|-|^|-|.| | | |,|-|-|-|v|-|^|-|.| | | | | | | | | }}
{{tree chart|boxstyle=border-width:1px;border-radius: 0.5em| | | |!| | |MarS1|y|Maxi2| | |!| | |AnnA1| | | MarS1=[[Maria of Austria, Holy Roman Empress|'''Maria'''<br />of Spain]]<ref group=lower-roman name="BLKO-Anna"/><br />{{smaller|{{nowrap|1528–1603}}}}| Maxi2=[[Maximilian II, Holy Roman Emperor|'''Maximilian&nbsp;II'''<br />Holy Roman Emperor]]<ref group=lower-roman name="BLKO-Anna">{{BLKO |wstitle=Habsburg, Anna von Oesterreich (Königin von Spanien) |volume=6 |page=151}}</ref><br />{{smaller|{{nowrap|1527–76}}}}| AnnA1=[[Archduchess Anna of Austria|'''Anna'''<br />of Austria]]<ref group=lower-roman name="ADB-Wilhelm V">{{cite ADB|42|717|723|Wilhelm V. (Herzog von Bayern)|Sigmund Ritter von Riezler|ADB:Wilhelm V. (Herzog von Bayern)}}</ref><br />{{smaller|{{nowrap|1528–90}}}}| Albe5=[[Albert V, Duke of Bavaria|'''Albert&nbsp;V'''<br />Duke of Bavaria]]<ref group=lower-roman name="ADB-Wilhelm V"/><ref group=lower-roman name="BLKO-Maria von Bayern">{{BLKO|wstitle=Habsburg, Maria von Bayern |volume=7 |page=20}}</ref><br />{{smaller|{{nowrap|1528–1579}}}}| ChrDe=[[Christina of Denmark|'''Christina'''<br />of Denmark]]<ref group=lower-roman name="Cartwright1913"/><br />{{smaller|{{nowrap|1522–90}}}}| Fran1=[[Francis I, Duke of Lorraine|'''Francis&nbsp;I'''<br />Duke of Lorraine]]<ref group=lower-roman name="Cartwright1913">{{Cite book |url=https://archive.org/details/christinaofdenma00adyj |title=Christina of Denmark, Duchess of Milan and Lorraine, 1522–1590 |last=Cartwright |first=Julia Mary |publisher=E. P. Dutton |year=1913 |location=New York |pages=[https://archive.org/details/christinaofdenma00adyj/page/536 536]–539}}</ref><br />{{smaller|{{nowrap|1517–45}}}}}}
{{tree chart|boxstyle=border-width:1px;border-radius: 0.5em| | | |!| | | | | |!| | | | | |!| | | |!| | | | | | | |}}
{{tree chart|boxstyle=border-width:1px;border-radius: 0.5em| | |Phil2|~|y|~|AnnA2| | | |Cha2A|y|MarB1| | | |Phil2=[[Philip II of Spain|'''Philip&nbsp;II'''<br />King of Spain]]<ref group=lower-roman name="BLKO-Philip III">{{BLKO |wstitle=Habsburg, Philipp III. |volume=7 |page=120}}</ref><br />{{smaller|{{nowrap|1527–98}}}}|Cha2A=[[Charles II, Archduke of Austria|'''Charles&nbsp;II'''<br />Archduke of Austria]]<ref group=lower-roman name="NDB-Ferdinand II">{{NDB|5|83|85|Ferdinand II.|Eder, Karl|118532510}}</ref><ref group=lower-roman name="BLKO-Margaretha">{{BLKO |wstitle=Habsburg, Margaretha (Königin von Spanien) |volume=7 |page=13}}</ref><br />{{smaller|{{nowrap|1540–90}}}}|AnnA2=[[Anna of Austria, Queen of Spain|'''Anna'''<br />of Austria]]<ref group=lower-roman name="BLKO-Philip III"/><br />{{smaller|{{nowrap|1549–80}}}}| MarB1=[[Maria Anna of Bavaria (1551–1608)|'''Maria Anna'''<br />of Bavaria]]<ref group=lower-roman name="NDB-Ferdinand II"/><ref group=lower-roman name="BLKO-Margaretha"/><br />{{smaller|{{nowrap|1551–1608}}}}| Will5=[[William V, Duke of Bavaria|'''William&nbsp;V'''<br />Duke of Bavaria]]<ref group=lower-roman name="BLKO-Maria Anna von Bayern">{{BLKO|wstitle=Habsburg, Maria Anna von Bayern|volume=7 |page=23}}</ref><br />{{smaller|{{nowrap|1548–1626}}}}| RenLo=[[Renata of Lorraine|'''Renata'''<br />of Lorraine]]<ref group=lower-roman name="BLKO-Maria Anna von Bayern"/><br />{{smaller|{{nowrap|1544–1602}}}}}}
{{tree chart|boxstyle=border-width:1px;border-radius: 0.5em| | | | | | |!| | | | | | | | | | |!| | | | | | | |}}
{{tree chart|boxstyle=border-width:1px;border-radius: 0.5em| | | | | |Phil3|~|~|~|~|~|~|~|~|MarA1| | | Phil3='''Philip&nbsp;III'''<br />King of Spain<ref group=lower-roman name="BLKO-Maria Anna von Spanien">{{BLKO |wstitle=Habsburg, Maria Anna von Spanien |volume=7 |page=23}}</ref><ref group=lower-roman name="BLKO-Philipp IV">{{BLKO |wstitle=Habsburg, Philipp IV. |volume=7 |page=122}}</ref><br />{{smaller|{{nowrap|1578–1621}}}}| MarA1=[[Margaret of Austria, Queen of Spain|'''Margaret'''<br />of Austria]]<ref group=lower-roman name="BLKO-Maria Anna von Spanien"/><ref group=lower-roman name="BLKO-Philipp IV"/><br />{{smaller|{{nowrap|1584–1611}}}}| Ferd2=[[Ferdinand II, Holy Roman Emperor|'''Ferdinand&nbsp;II'''<br />Holy Roman Emperor]]<ref group=lower-roman name="BLKO-Mariana"/><br />{{smaller|{{nowrap|1578–1637}}}}| MarB2=[[Maria Anna of Bavaria (1574–1616)|'''Maria Anna'''<br />of Bavaria]]<ref group=lower-roman name="BLKO-Mariana"/><br />{{smaller|{{nowrap|1574–1616}}}}}}
{{tree chart/end}}
|-
|style="text-align: left;"|'''Notes:'''
{{notelist-lr}}<!--- use either{{Efn-lr}} and/or <ref group=lower-roman/> To fill this notelist -->
{{chart bottom}}

==Family==
Philip married [[Margaret of Austria, Queen of Spain|Margaret of Austria]], his first cousin. They had 8 children, five of whom survived to adulthood.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Mutschlechner |first=Martin |title=Philip III: marriage and offspring |url=https://www.habsburger.net/en/chapter/philip-iii-marriage-and-offspring |access-date=15 October 2025 |website=The World of the Habsburgs}}</ref>

{| class="wikitable"
|-
!Name!!Birth!!Death!!Notes
|-
|colspan=4|'''By [[Margaret of Austria, Queen of Spain|Margaret of Austria]]''' (25 December 1584 – 3 October 1611; married in 1599)
|-
|[[Anne of Austria|Anne]]|| 22 September 1601&nbsp;|| 20 January 1666|| Queen of France. Married [[Louis XIII]]
|-
|[[Infanta Maria of Spain (1603)|Maria]]|| 1 February 1603|| 1 March 1603|| Died young
|-
|[[Philip IV of Spain|Philip IV]]|| 8 April 1605|| 17 September 1665|| King of Spain. Married 1) [[Elisabeth of France (1602–1644)]] and 2) [[Mariana of Austria]]
|-
|[[Maria Anna of Spain|Maria Anna]]|| 18 August 1606|| 13 May 1646||Holy Roman Empress. Married [[Ferdinand III, Holy Roman Emperor]]
|-
|[[Infante Carlos of Spain (1607–1632)|Charles]]|| 15 September 1607|| 30 July 1632||Died unmarried
|-
|[[Cardinal-Infante Ferdinand of Austria|Ferdinand]]|| 16 May 1609|| 9 November 1641|| A military general and Cardinal
|-
|[[Infanta Margarita of Spain (1610–1617)|Margaret]]|| 24 May 1610|| 11 March 1617|| Died young
|-
|[[Infante Alonso of Spain|Alfonso]]|| 22 September 1611|| 16 September 1612||Died young
|}

==Male-line family tree==
{{Habsburg family tree}}

==See also==
* [[Palacio de la Ribera]]

==Notes==
{{notelist}}

==References==
{{reflist|colwidth=30em}}

==Bibliography==
* {{cite journal |last=Carter |first= Charles H. |title=The Nature of Spanish Government After Philip II |journal=The Historian |year=1963 |pages=1–18 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/24442462 |volume=26 |number=1|doi= 10.1111/j.1540-6563.1963.tb00234.x |jstor= 24442462 |url-access=subscription }}
* {{cite book |editor-last=Cipolla |editor-first=Carlo M. |title=The Fontana Economic History of Europe: The Sixteenth and Seventeenth Centuries |publisher=Fontana |location= London |year=1974}}
* {{cite book |last=Cruz |first= Anne J. |title=Discourses of Poverty: Social Reform and the Picaresque Novel |location= Toronto |publisher=University of Toronto Press |year=1999}}
* {{cite book |last=Davenport |first=Frances G. |title=European Treaties Bearing on the History of the United States and Its Dependencies |publisher=The Lawbook Exchange, Ltd. |year=2004}}
* {{cite book |last=Elliott|first=J. H.|author-link=John Elliott (historian) |title=Imperial Spain: 1469–1716 |location= London |publisher= Penguin |year=1963}}
* {{cite book |last=Feros |first= Antonio. |title=Kingship and Favouritism in the Spain of Philip III, 1598–1621 |location= Cambridge |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2006}}
* {{cite book |last=Goodman |first= David |title=Spanish Naval Power, 1589–1665: Reconstruction and Defeat |location=Cambridge |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2002}}
* {{cite book |last=Kamen |first= Henry |title=Spain, 1469–1714: A Society of Conflict |location= Harlow |publisher= Pearson Education |year=2005}}
* {{cite book |last=Harvey |first=Leonard Patrick |title=Muslims in Spain, 1500–1614 |location= Chicago |publisher=University of Chicago Press |year=2005}}
* {{cite book |editor-last1=Hoffman |editor-first1= Philip T. |editor-first2= Kathyrn |editor-last2= Norberg |title=Fiscal Crises, Liberty, and Representative Government 1450–1789 |publisher=Stanford University Press |year=2001}}
* {{cite book |last=Lynch |first=John |title=Spain Under the Habsburgs |volume=2 |series=Spain and America |year=1969 |location=New York |publisher=Oxford University Press |url=https://archive.org/details/spainunderhabsbu0002unse/page/n5/mode/2up |pages=14–61|isbn=978-0-631-08030-5 }}
* {{cite book |last=De Maddalena |first= Aldo |title=Rural Europe, 1500–1750 |editor=Cipolla |year= 1974}}
* {{cite book |last=Mattingly |first=Garrett |title=The Armada |location= New York |publisher= Mariner Books |year=2005}}
* {{cite book |last=Munck |first=Thomas |title=Seventeenth Century Europe, 1598–1700 |location= London |publisher=Macmillan |year=1990}}
* {{cite book |last=Parker |first=Geoffrey |title=Europe in Crisis, 1598–1648 |location=London |publisher=Fontana |year=1984}}
* {{cite book |last=Parker |first=Geoffrey |title=The Dutch Revolt |location=London |publisher=Pelican Books |year=1985}}
* {{cite book |last=Parker |first=Geoffrey |title=The Army of Flanders and the Spanish Road, 1567–1659 |location= Cambridge |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2004}}
* {{cite book |last=Perry |first= Mary Elizabeth |title=The Handless Maiden: Moriscos and the politics of religion in early modern Spain |location=Princeton |publisher=Princeton University Press |year=2005}}
* {{cite book |last=Polisensky |first= J. V. |title=The Thirty Years War |location= London |publisher= NEL |year=1971}}
* {{cite book |last=Ringrose |first= David |title=Spain, Europe and the "Spanish Miracle", 1700–1900 |location=Cambridge |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=1998}}
* {{cite book |last=Sánchez |first= Magdalena S. |chapter=Pious and Political Images of a Habsburg Woman at the Court of Philip III (1598–1621) |title=Spanish women in the golden age: images and realities|editor1=Sánchez |editor-first2=Alain |editor-last2=Saint-Saëns |year=1996 |publisher= Greenwood Publishing Group}}
* {{cite book |last=Stradling |first=R. A. |title=Philip IV and the Government of Spain, 1621–1665 |location= Cambridge |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=1988}}
* {{cite book |last=Thompson |first=I. A. A. |title=Castile, Constitionalism and Liberty |editor1= Hoffman |editor2= Norburg |year=2001}}
* {{cite book |last=Tuck |first=Richard |title=Philosophy and government, 1572–1651 |year=1993 |location=New York City |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-43885-8 |url=https://archive.org/details/philosophygovern0000tuck/page/122/mode/2up}}
* {{cite book |last=Wedgwood |first=C.V. |author-link=C. V. Wedgwood |title=The Thirty Years War |location=London |publisher=Methuen |year=1981}}
* {{cite book |last=Williams |first= Patrick |title=The Great Favourite: the Duke of Lerma and the court and government of Philip III of Spain, 1598–1621 |location=Manchester |publisher=Manchester University Press |year=2006}}
* {{cite book |last=Zagorin |first= Perez |title=Rebels and Rulers, 1500–1660 |volume= II Provincial rebellion: Revolutionary civil wars, 1560–1660 |location=Cambridge |publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=1992}}

==Further reading==
{{Commons category|Philip III of Spain}}
* {{cite EB9 |wstitle = Philip III. of Spain |volume= XVIII |author-link= | page=746 |short=1}}
* {{EB1911|wstitle = Philip III., king of Spain|volume=21}}
* See also Paul C. Allen, ''Philip III and the Pax Hispanica: The Failure of Grand Strategy'' (Yale UP: 2000) for an extensive discussion of the foreign policy of Philip III. Allen's is a revisionist work that also argues for a greater role played in international affairs by the Council of State and its leaders in this period rather than by Lerma.

{{s-start}}
{{s-hou|[[Habsburg Spain|House of Habsburg]]|14 April|1578|31 March|1621}}
{{s-reg}}
{{s-bef|before=[[Philip II of Spain]]}}
{{s-ttl|title=[[King of Spain]], [[King of Portugal|Portugal]], [[List of monarchs of Sardinia|Sardinia]], [[List of monarchs of Naples|Naples]], and [[List of monarchs of Sicily|Sicily]];<br />[[Duke of Milan]]|years=1598–1621}}
{{s-aft|after=[[Philip IV of Spain]]}}
|-
{{s-roy|es}}
{{s-bef|rows=2|before=[[Diego, Prince of Asturias|Diego]]}}
{{s-ttl|title=[[Prince of Asturias]] | years=1582–98}}
{{s-aft|after=[[Philip IV of Spain|Philip]] }}
{{s-ttl |title=[[Prince of Portugal]]| years=1582–98}}
{{s-aft |after=[[Anne of Austria|Anne]] }}
{{s-end}}

{{Monarchs of Spain}}
{{Aragonese monarchs}}
{{Castilian monarchs}}
{{Navarrese monarchs}}
{{Spanish Empire}}
{{Monarchs of Portugal}}
{{Kings of Naples}}
{{Monarchs of Sicily}}
{{Infantes of Spain}}
{{Portuguese infantes}}
{{Princes of Asturias}}
{{Princes of Girona}}
{{Austrian archdukes}}
{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Philip 03 Of Spain}}
[[Category:Philip III of Spain| ]]
[[Category:Philippine dynasty]]
[[Category:1578 births]]
[[Category:1621 deaths]]
[[Category:16th-century Spanish monarchs]]
[[Category:17th-century Spanish monarchs]]
[[Category:16th-century Portuguese monarchs]]
[[Category:17th-century Portuguese monarchs]]
[[Category:16th-century Castilian monarchs]]
[[Category:17th-century Castilian monarchs]]
[[Category:16th-century Aragonese monarchs]]
[[Category:17th-century Aragonese monarchs]]
[[Category:16th-century kings of Sicily]]
[[Category:17th-century kings of Sicily]]
[[Category:16th-century monarchs of Naples]]
[[Category:17th-century monarchs of Naples]]
[[Category:16th-century Navarrese monarchs]]
[[Category:17th-century Navarrese monarchs]]
[[Category:16th-century House of Habsburg]]
[[Category:17th-century House of Habsburg]]
[[Category:16th-century dukes of Milan]]
[[Category:17th-century dukes of Milan]]
[[Category:Spanish Baroque people]]
[[Category:Spanish people of the Eighty Years' War]]
[[Category:Spanish Roman Catholics]]
[[Category:People of the Anglo-Spanish War (1585–1604)]]
[[Category:Nobility from Madrid]]
[[Category:Princes of Asturias]]
[[Category:Dukes of Montblanc]]
[[Category:Princes of Portugal]]
[[Category:Spanish infantes]]
[[Category:Portuguese infantes]]
[[Category:Knights of Santiago]]
[[Category:Knights of the Golden Fleece]]
[[Category:Burials in the Pantheon of Kings at El Escorial]]
[[Category:Grand masters of the Order of the Golden Fleece]]
[[Category:Children of Philip II of Spain]]
[[Category:People of the Thirty Years' War]]
[[Category:Italian people of the Thirty Years' War]]
[[Category:Sons of counts]]