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{{Short description|American legal academic (1940–2019)}}
{{Use mdy dates|date=October 2012}}
{{Infobox person
| name               = Phillip E. Johnson
| image              = 
| caption            = 
| birth_date         = {{birth date |mf=yes|1940|6|18}}
| birth_place        = [[Aurora, Illinois]], U.S.
| death_date         = {{death date and age |2019|11||1940|6|18}}
| death_place        = [[Berkeley, California]], U.S.
| other_names        = 
| known_for          = Advocacy of [[intelligent design]]
| notable_works      = ''[[Darwin on Trial]]'' (1991)
| title              = Jefferson E. Peyser Professor of Law
| education          = [[Harvard University]] ([[Bachelor of Arts|BA]])<br />[[University of Chicago]] ([[Juris Doctor|JD]])
| occupation         = {{hlist|Law professor|author}}
}}
'''Phillip E. Johnson''' (June 18, 1940 – November 2, 2019)<ref>{{Cite web |last=Silliman |first=Daniel |date=2019-11-05 |title=Died: Phillip E. Johnson, Lawyer Who Put Darwin on Trial |url=https://www.christianitytoday.com/news/2019/november/died-phillip-e-johnson-intelligent-design-darwin-trial.html |access-date=2024-06-18 |website=News & Reporting |language=en}}</ref> was an American legal scholar who was the Jefferson E. Peyser Professor of Law at the [[University of California, Berkeley]].<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |last=Berring |first=Robert |date=2020 |title=In Memoriam: Phillip E. Johnson |url=https://senate.universityofcalifornia.edu/in-memoriam/files/phillip-johnson.html |access-date=2024-06-18 |website=[[University of California]]}}</ref> He was an opponent of evolutionary science, co-founder of the [[Discovery Institute]]'s [[Center for Science and Culture]] (CSC), and one of the co-founders of the [[intelligent design]] movement, along with [[William A. Dembski|William Dembski]] and [[Michael Behe]].<ref>{{Cite news |last=Glanz |first=James |date=2001-04-08 |title=Darwin vs. Design: Evolutionists' New Battle |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2001/04/08/us/darwin-vs-design-evolutionists-new-battle.html |access-date=2024-06-19 |work=[[The New York Times]] |language=en-US |issn=0362-4331}}</ref> Johnson described himself as "in a sense the father of the [[intelligent design movement]]".<ref name="PBS 2007">{{cite web | title=Defending Intelligent Design - NOVA | website=PBS | date=6 April 2007 | url=https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/article/defense-intelligent-design/ | access-date=7 November 2017}}</ref>

Johnson was an opponent of "fully naturalistic evolution, involving chance mechanisms and natural selection".{{Sfn | Johnson | 1991 | loc = chapter 1}} Johnson argued that scientists accepted the theory of evolution "before it was rigorously tested, and thereafter used all their authority to convince the public that naturalistic processes are sufficient to produce a human from a bacterium, and a bacterium from a mix of chemicals."{{Sfn | Johnson | 1991 | loc = chapter 12}} The scientific community considered Johnson's defense of intelligent design to be [[pseudoscientific]].<ref name="Pseudoscience" /><ref name="DavidMu">{{cite journal |last=Mu |first=David |date=Fall 2005 |title=Trojan Horse or Legitimate Science: Deconstructing the Debate over Intelligent Design |url=http://www.hcs.harvard.edu/~hsr/wp-content/themes/hsr/pdf/fall2005/mu.pdf |journal=[[Harvard College#Publications and media|Harvard Science Review]] |volume=19 |issue=1 |pages=22–25 |access-date=December 26, 2013 |quote=... for most members of the mainstream scientific community, ID is not a scientific theory, but a creationist pseudoscience. |archive-date=October 25, 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121025222110/https://www.hcs.harvard.edu/~hsr/wp-content/themes/hsr/pdf/fall2005/mu.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref name="NSTA">{{cite press release |last= Workosky |first= Cindy |date= August 3, 2005 |title= National Science Teachers Association Disappointed About Intelligent Design Comments Made by President Bush |url= http://old.nsta.org/about/pressroom.aspx?id=50794 |location= Arlington, VA |publisher= [[National Science Teachers Association]] |access-date= December 26, 2013 |quote= 'We stand with the nation's leading scientific organizations and scientists, including Dr. John Marburger, the president's top science advisor, in stating that intelligent design is not science.' ... 'It is simply not fair to present pseudoscience to students in the science classroom.' |archive-date= September 8, 2021 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20210908170615/https://old.nsta.org/about/pressroom.aspx?id=50794 |url-status= dead }}</ref><ref name="JCI">{{cite journal |last1=Attie |first1=Alan D. |last2=Sober |first2=Elliott |author-link2=Elliott Sober |last3=Numbers |first3= Ronald L. |author-link3= Ronald Numbers |last4= Amasino |first4=Richard M. |author-link4= Richard Amasino |last5= Cox |first5= Beth |last6=Berceau |first6= Terese |author-link6=Terese Berceau |last7= Powell |first7= Thomas |last8= Cox |first8=Michael M. |date= May 1, 2006 |title=Defending science education against intelligent design: a call to action |url= |journal= [[Journal of Clinical Investigation]] |volume= 116 |issue= 5 |pages=1134–38 |doi= 10.1172/JCI28449 |issn=0021-9738 |pmid= 16670753 |pmc= 1451210}}</ref>

==Biography==

=== Early life and education ===
Johnson was born in [[Aurora, Illinois]], on June 18, 1940.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Branch |first=Glenn |date=November 5, 2019 |title=Phillip Johnson dies |url=https://ncse.ngo/phillip-johnson-dies |access-date=2024-06-19 |website=[[National Center for Science Education]] |language=en}}</ref> He received a [[Bachelor of Arts]] (B.A.) degree in [[English literature]] from [[Harvard University]] in 1961, then studied law at the [[University of Chicago]], where he graduated at the top of his class with a [[Juris Doctor|J.D.]] degree in 1965.<ref name="Stafford 1997">{{cite web | last=Stafford | first=Tim | title=The Making of a Revolution | website=ChristianityToday.com | date=8 December 1997 | url=https://www.christianitytoday.com/ct/1997/december8/7te016.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/19981203133935/http://www.arn.org/johnson/revolution.htm |archive-date=3 December 1998 | access-date=16 May 2019}}</ref><ref name=":0" /> He served as a [[law clerk]] for Chief Justice [[Roger J. Traynor]] of the [[Supreme Court of California|California Supreme Court]] from 1965–1966, then clerked for Chief Justice [[Earl Warren]] at the [[Supreme Court of the United States]] from 1966–1967.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Johnson |first=Philip E. |date=1997 |title=Inherit the Wind: The Play's the Thing |url=https://www.regent.edu/acad/schlaw/student_life/studentorgs/lawreview/docs/issues/v13n2/13RegentULRev279.pdf |journal=[[Regent University Law Review]] |volume=13 |issue=2 |pages=279–288 |ref=none}}</ref> In January 1966, Johnson became a member of the [[State Bar of California]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Phillip E Johnson |url=http://members.calbar.ca.gov/fal/Member/Detail/37531 |access-date=December 26, 2013 |website=The [[State Bar of California]] |location=San Francisco, CA}}</ref>

=== Career ===
From 1967 to 2000, Johnson was an active professor of law at the [[UC Berkeley School of Law|University of California, Berkeley, School of Law]] and retained the title of professor emeritus at the time of his death. Johnson served as deputy [[district attorney]] and held visiting professorships at [[Emory University]] and at [[University College London]].<ref name="BerkeleyLaw">{{cite web |title=Faculty Profiles |url=http://www.law.berkeley.edu/php-programs/faculty/facultyProfile.php?facID=57 |access-date=December 26, 2013 |publisher=[[UC Berkeley School of Law]] |location=Berkeley, CA |archive-date=November 5, 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131105090606/http://www.law.berkeley.edu/php-programs/faculty/facultyProfile.php?facID=57 |url-status=dead }}</ref>

At the age of 38, Johnson became a [[born again]] Christian following a divorce,<ref name= "Forrest2001">{{Harvnb | Forrest| 2001}}</ref> and later became an elder in the [[Presbyterian Church (U.S.A.)|Presbyterian Church (USA)]].<ref name= "Berkeley's_Radical">{{cite interview |last=Johnson |first=Phillip E. |interviewer=James M. Kushiner |title= Berkeley's Radical |url= http://touchstonemag.com/archives/article.php?id=15-05-037-i |journal= [[Touchstone Magazine|Touchstone: A Journal of Mere Christianity]] |publisher=Fellowship of St. James |location= Chicago, IL |date= June 2002 |volume=15 |issue=5 |issn=0897-327X |access-date= December 26, 2013}} Johnson interviewed in November 2000.</ref> Johnson recounted that while on a [[sabbatical]] in England he sought, through prayer, inspiration for what he should do with the rest of his life, and then received an [[Epiphany (feeling)|epiphany]] after he read [[Richard Dawkins]]' ''[[The Blind Watchmaker]]'' (1986) and [[Michael Denton]]'s ''[[Evolution: A Theory in Crisis]]'' (1985). Johnson later said, "Something about the Darwinists' rhetorical style made me think they had something to hide."<ref name= "Dembski2006">{{Harvnb |Dembski | 2006}}</ref> Despite having no formal background in biology, he felt that he could add insight into the premises and arguments.  Johnson stated that he approached the creation evolution dispute not as a scientist but as an academic lawyer by profession, with a specialty in analyzing the logic of arguments and identifying the assumptions that lie behind those arguments. He noted that what people think about evolutionism depends very heavily on the kind of logic they employ and the kind of assumptions they make. Further, he pointed out that four of the eleven members of the special committee appointed by the National Academy of Sciences to prepare its official booklet titled Science and Creationism were lawyers.<ref>[[#Johnson 2010|Johnson 2010]], p. 32, n.3.</ref> (That first edition of the publication, which was finished in 1984, was prepared as an [[Amicus curiae|amicus brief]] in the ''[[Edwards v. Aguillard]]'' case that went before the [[U.S. Supreme Court]].<ref name="CBE">{{cite journal |last1=Labov |first1=Jay B. |last2=Kline Pope |first2=Barbara |title=Understanding Our Audiences: The Design and Evolution of Science, Evolution, and Creationism |journal=CBE: Life Sciences Education |date=March 2008 |volume=7 |issue=1 |pages=20–24 |doi=10.1187/cbe.07-12-0103 |pmid=18316803 |pmc=2262128 |issn=1931-7913}}</ref>) In 1989, ''[[Of Pandas and People]]'' by [[Percival Davis]] and [[Dean H. Kenyon]] was published as the first book to promote intelligent design.<ref name="BlanckeHjermitslev2014">{{cite book|author1=Stefaan Blancke|author2=Hans Henrik Hjermitslev|author3=Peter C. Kjærgaard|title=Creationism in Europe|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-gOhBQAAQBAJ&pg=PT11|date=27 November 2014|publisher=JHU Press|isbn=978-1-4214-1563-5|pages=10–11}} (foreword by [[Ronald Numbers|Ron Numbers]])</ref>

The first edition of ''[[Darwin on Trial]]'' was published in 1991. In notes listing his sources, Johnson said about ''Of Pandas and People'' that "This book is 'creationist' only in the sense that it juxtaposes a paradigm of 'intelligent design' with the dominant paradigm of (naturalistic) evolution, and makes the case for the former. It does not rely on the authority of the Bible."<ref name="BlanckeHjermitslev2014" /> Following that, Johnson sought supporters for his "[[Wedge Strategy]]".<ref name="Forrest2001" />
In the ID blog ''[[Center for Science and Culture#Evolution News & Science Today|Evolution News]]'', [[Casey Luskin]] described him as the godfather of the intelligent design movement,<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://evolutionnews.org/2011/11/the_significance_of_phillip_jo/|title=Why Phillip Johnson Matters: A Biography {{!}} Evolution News|date=2011-11-17|work=Evolution News|access-date=2018-07-01|language=en-US}}</ref> and [[PBS]] said he was "known as the father of intelligent design".<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/article/defense-intelligent-design/|title=Defending Intelligent Design — NOVA|website=www.pbs.org|date=October 2007 |access-date=2018-07-01}}</ref>

Johnson was a critic of [[Naturalism (philosophy)#Methodological naturalism|methodological naturalism]], the basic principle that science can only investigate natural causes for observable phenomena, and espoused a philosophy he called "theistic realism."<ref name="theistic_realism">{{cite journal |last=Johnson |first=Phillip E. |date=May–June 1996 |title=Third-Party Science |url=http://www.ctlibrary.com/bc/1996/mayjun/6b3030.html |journal=[[Christianity Today|Books & Culture]] |type=Book review |volume=2 |issue=3 |access-date=December 26, 2013 |archive-date=February 19, 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140219230949/http://www.ctlibrary.com/bc/1996/mayjun/6b3030.html |url-status=dead }} Article reprinted in full by [[Access Research Network]] [http://www.arn.org/docs/johnson/ratzsch.htm here].</ref> He was the author of several books on intelligent design, science, philosophy, and religion, as well as textbooks on [[criminal law]]. He has appeared on various programs such as [[PBS]]'s ''[[Firing Line (TV series)|Firing Line]]''<ref>{{cite episode |title=A Firing Line Debate: Resolved: That the Evolutionists Should Acknowledge Creation |url=http://hoohila.stanford.edu/firingline/programView2.php?programID=397 |type=Debate special |access-date=December 26, 2013 |series=[[Firing Line (TV series)|Firing Line]] |network=[[PBS]] |airdate=December 19, 1997 |number=203 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131021000249/http://hoohila.stanford.edu/firingline/programView2.php?programID=397 |archive-date=October 21, 2013 |df=mdy-all }} {{YouTube|id=B_NwGKx_0j8|title=Video|link=no}}.</ref> and a ''[[Nova (American TV series)|Nova]]'' episode, "[[Judgment Day: Intelligent Design on Trial]]."<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://evolutionnews.org/2009/02/discovery_institute_responses/|title=Discovery Institute Responses to PBS/NOVA's "Judgment Day: Intelligent Design on Trial" Movie {{!}} Evolution News|date=2009-02-11|work=Evolution News|access-date=2018-07-01|language=en-US}}</ref>

=== Personal life and death ===
Beginning in 2001, Johnson suffered a series of minor right brain [[stroke]]s. His rehabilitations limited his public activities and participation in the debate on intelligent design, because of both their physical effects and Johnson's belief that they were signs from [[God]] urging him to spend more time with his faith and family and less in prideful debate.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Condon |first=Kevin |date=September 1, 2004 |title=The Right Questions |url=https://denverseminary.edu/resources/news-and-articles/the-right-questions/ |journal=Denver Journal |type=Book review |volume=7 |oclc=54379462 |access-date=March 23, 2018 }}</ref> In 2004, he was awarded the inaugural "Phillip E. Johnson Award for Liberty and Truth" by [[Biola University]], a private evangelical Christian college noted for its promotion of intelligent design.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.biola.edu/academics/sas/scienceandreligion/news/antonyflew/ |title= Antony Flew Receives Award From Intelligent Design Community |website= [[Biola University]] | location=La Mirada, CA |access-date=December 26, 2013}}</ref> Johnson had two children and lived with his wife in [[Berkeley, California]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.famous-trials.com/legacyftrials/conlaw/johnsonp.html|title=Biography of Phillip E. Johnson|last=Linder|first=Doug|website=www.famous-trials.com|access-date=2017-06-02|archive-date=May 21, 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170521135542/http://famous-trials.com/legacyftrials/conlaw/johnsonp.html|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.arn.org/docs/johnson/le_berkeleysradical.htm|title=Berkeley's Radical: An Interview with Phillip Johnson|website=www.arn.org|access-date=2017-06-02}}</ref>

Johnson died in early November<!-- ref timestamped Sunday-afternoon 11/3 says "over the weekend"; unclear if it's late Friday night vs Saturday vs early Sunday --> 2019 at his home.<ref>{{cite web |url= https://evolutionnews.org/2019/11/remembering-phillip-e-johnson-1940-2019-the-man-who-lit-the-match/ |title= Remembering Phillip E. Johnson (1940-2019): The Man Who Lit the Match |first= David |last= Klinghoffer |date= November 3, 2019 |newspaper= [[Evolution News]] }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.patheos.com/blogs/eidos/2019/11/gandalf-has-gone-to-the-west-phillip-e-johnson/|title=Gandalf Has Gone to the West (Phillip E. Johnson)|first=John Mark|last=Reynolds|date=November 3, 2019|newspaper=Eidos}}</ref>

==Intelligent design==
{{Intelligent Design}}
Johnson was known as one of the founders of the intelligent design movement, principal architect of the wedge strategy, and the author of the [[Santorum Amendment]].

Johnson rejects [[common descent]] and does not take a position on the age of the Earth.<ref>{{cite news |last=Powell |first=Michael |date=May 15, 2005 |title=Doubting Rationalist |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2005/05/14/AR2005051401222.html |newspaper=The Washington Post |access-date=December 26, 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.worldmagblog.com/blog/archives/000729.html |title=Creationists and Intelligent Design |author=Olasky |date=January 27, 2004 |website=World Magazine Blog |publisher=God's World Publications |location=Asheville, NC |issn=0888-157X |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20041114103830/http://www.worldmagblog.com/blog/archives/000729.html |archive-date=November 14, 2004}}</ref> These concepts are a common theme in his books, including ''Darwin on Trial,'' ''Reason in the Balance: The Case Against Naturalism in Science, Law & Education'' (1995), ''Defeating Darwinism by Opening Minds'' (1997), and ''The Wedge of Truth: Splitting the Foundations of Naturalism'' (2000). [[Eugenie Scott]] wrote that ''Darwin on Trial'' "teaches little that is accurate about either the nature of science, or the topic of evolution. It is recommended neither by scientists nor educators."<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Scott |first1=Eugenie C. |author-link=Eugenie Scott |last2=Sager |first2=Thomas C. |date=Winter 1992 |title=Review Article: ''Darwin on Trial'', by Phillip Johnson |url=http://ncse.com/cej/12/2/review-article-darwin-trial-by-phillip-johnson |journal=Creation/Evolution |volume=12 |issue=31 |pages=47–56 |access-date=July 27, 2008}} {{Verify source|type=Quote not in source:|date=December 2013}}</ref> Working through the Center for Science and Culture, Johnson wrote the early draft language of the Santorum Amendment, which encouraged a "[[Teach the Controversy]]" approach to evolution in public school education.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.pewforum.org/files/2006/03/evolution-creationism-intelligent-design.pdf |title=Biology Wars: The Religion, Science and Education Controversy |last=Larson |first=Edward J. |author-link=Edward J. Larson |date=March 29, 2006 |website=Religion & Public Life Project |publisher=[[Pew Research Center]] |location=Washington, D.C. |access-date=December 26, 2013 |quote=That language, which was penned by Phil Johnson for Rick Santorum, passed the Senate as an amendment to the No Child Left Behind education bill, and eventually became part of the conference report for that legislation. |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131012060109/http://www.pewforum.org/files/2006/03/evolution-creationism-intelligent-design.pdf |archive-date=October 12, 2013 |url-status=dead |df=mdy-all }}</ref>

[[Nancy Pearcey]], a Center for Science and Culture fellow and Johnson associate, credits Johnson's leadership of the intelligent design movement in two of her most recent publications. In an interview with Johnson for [[World (magazine)|World]] magazine, Pearcey says, "It is not only in politics that leaders forge movements. Phillip Johnson has developed what is called the 'Intelligent Design' movement ..."<ref>{{cite journal |last=Pearcey |first=Nancy R. |author-link=Nancy Pearcey |date=July 29, 2000 |title=Wedge Issues |url=http://www.worldmag.com/2000/07/wedge_issues |journal=[[World (magazine)|World]] |volume=15 |issue=29 |issn=0888-157X |access-date=December 26, 2013}}</ref> In ''[[Christianity Today]]'', she reveals Johnson's religious beliefs and his criticism of evolution and affirms Johnson as "The unofficial spokesman for ID"<ref>{{cite journal |last=Pearcey |first=Nancy R. |date=May 22, 2000 |title=We're Not in Kansas Anymore |url=http://www.arn.org/docs/pearcey/np_ctoday052200.htm |journal=Christianity Today |type=Reprint |issn=0009-5753 |access-date=December 26, 2013}}</ref> The scientific community views intelligent design as unscientific, pseudoscience and [[junk science]].<ref name="DavidMu" /><ref name="NSTA" /><ref name="JCI" /><ref>See: 1) [[List of scientific societies explicitly rejecting intelligent design]] 2) [[s:Kitzmiller v. Dover Area School District/4:Whether ID Is Science#Page 83 of 139|Kitzmiller v. Dover page 83]]. 3) The Discovery Institute's [[A Scientific Dissent From Darwinism]] petition begun in 2001 has been signed by "over 600 scientists" as of August 20, 2006. 4) A four-day [[A Scientific Support for Darwinism]] petition gained 7,733 signatories from scientists opposing ID. 5) The [[American Association for the Advancement of Science]] (AAAS), the largest association of scientists in the U.S., has 120,000 members, and [https://web.archive.org/web/20021113213410/http://www.aaas.org/news/releases/2002/1106id2.shtml firmly rejects ID]. 6) More than 70,000 Australian scientists and educators [https://web.archive.org/web/20060115091707/http://www.science.unsw.edu.au/news/2005/intelligent.html condemn teaching of intelligent design in school science classes]. 7) [http://ncse.com/media/voices/science List of statements from scientific professional organizations] on the status intelligent design and other forms of creationism.</ref><ref name="Orr">{{cite magazine |last=Orr |first=H. Allen |author-link=H. Allen Orr |date=May 30, 2005 |title=Devolution |url=http://www.newyorker.com/archive/2005/05/30/050530fa_fact?currentPage=all |magazine=[[The New Yorker]] |access-date=December 26, 2013 |quote=Biologists aren't alarmed by intelligent design's arrival in Dover and elsewhere because they have all sworn allegiance to atheistic materialism; they're alarmed because intelligent design is junk science.}}</ref><ref>[[#Pennock 1999|Pennock 1999]]</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Bergin |first=Mark |date=February 25, 2006 |title=Junk science |url=http://www.worldmag.com/2006/02/junk_science |journal=World |volume=21 |issue=8 |issn=0888-157X |access-date=December 26, 2013}}</ref>{{Excessive citations inline|date=August 2022}}

===Darwin on Trial===
{{see also|Darwin on Trial}}{{Expand section|date=April 2019}}
In the book ''Darwin on Trial'', 1991, Johnson disputed the tenets of [[evolution]] and promoted [[Intelligent design]].  He wrote the book with the thesis that evolution could be "tried" like a defendant in court. ''Darwin on Trial'' became a central text of the [[intelligent design movement]].<ref>{{Cite book | last1 = Stewart | first1 = Robert | title = Intelligent design: William A. Dembski Michael Ruse in dialogue | year = 2007 | publisher = Fortress Press | location = Minneapolis, MN | isbn = 978-0-8006-6218-9 | page = 2
| quote = Most observers, both within and without the ID community, recognize University of California Berkeley law professor Phillip E, Johnson as the father of ID, and his 1991 book, ''Darwin on Trial'' [...] as a landmark moment in the history of the movement.
}}</ref>

===Wedge strategy===
{{See also|Wedge strategy}}
In its earliest days the intelligent design movement was called the 'wedge movement'. The wedge metaphor, attributed to Johnson, is that of a metal wedge splitting a log and represents using an aggressive public relations program to create an opening for the supernatural in the public's understanding of science.<ref name="Forrest2007">{{cite web |url=https://centerforinquiry.org/uploads/attachments/intelligent-design.pdf |title=Understanding The Intelligent Design Creationist Movement: Its True Nature and Goals |last=Forrest |first=Barbara |date=May 2007 |website=[[Center for Inquiry]] |publisher=Center for Inquiry |location=Washington, D.C. |access-date=December 26, 2013 |archive-date=May 19, 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110519124655/http://www.centerforinquiry.net/uploads/attachments/intelligent-design.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref> Johnson acknowledges that the goal of the intelligent design movement is to promote a [[theism|theistic]] agenda as a scientific concept.<ref name="Christianity.ca">{{cite news |last=Nickson |first=Elizabeth |author-link=Elizabeth Nickson |date=February 6, 2004 |title=Let's Be Intelligent about Darwin |url=http://elizabethnickson.com/darwin.htm |newspaper=[[National Post]] |type=Reprint |location=Toronto, Ontario |publisher=Postmedia Network |issn=1486-8008 |access-date=December 26, 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131228190939/http://elizabethnickson.com/darwin.htm |archive-date=December 28, 2013 |df=mdy-all }}</ref><ref name="Grelen">{{cite journal |last=Grelen |first=Jay |date=November 30, 1996 |title=Witnesses for the prosecution |url=http://www.worldmag.com/1996/11/witnesses_for_the_prosecution |journal=World |volume=11 |issue=28 |page=18 |issn=0888-157X |access-date=February 16, 2014}}</ref><ref>[[#Buell & Hearn 1994|Buell & Hearn 1994]]</ref>

According to Johnson, the wedge movement, if not the term, began in 1992:
{{blockquote|The movement we now call the wedge made its public debut at a conference of scientists and philosophers held at Southern Methodist University in March 1992, following the publication of my book ''Darwin on Trial''. The conference brought together as speakers some key Wedge figures, particularly Michael Behe, Stephen Meyer, William Dembski, and myself.<ref name="Johnson_wedge">{{cite journal |last=Johnson |first=Phillip E. |date=July–August 1999 |title=The Wedge: Breaking the Modernist Monopoly on Science |url=http://www.touchstonemag.com/archives/article.php?id=12-04-018-f |journal=Touchstone: A Journal of Mere Christianity |volume=12 |issue=4 |issn=0897-327X |access-date=December 26, 2013}}</ref>}}

[[Rob Boston]] of [[Americans United for Separation of Church and State]] described the wedge strategy:
{{blockquote|The objective [of the wedge strategy] is to convince people that Darwinism is inherently atheistic, thus shifting the debate from creationism vs. evolution to the existence of God vs. the non-existence of God. From there people are introduced to 'the truth' of the Bible and then 'the question of sin' and finally 'introduced to Jesus.'<ref>{{cite journal |last=Boston |first=Rob |author-link=Rob Boston |date=April 1999 |title=Missionary Man |url=https://www.au.org/church-state/april-1999-church-state/featured/missionary-man |journal=Church & State |issn=2163-3746 |access-date=December 26, 2013}}</ref>}}

Johnson is one of the authors of the Discovery Institute's [[Wedge strategy|Wedge Document]] and its "Teach the Controversy" campaign, which attempts to cast doubt on the validity of the theory of evolution, its acceptance within the scientific community, and reduce its role in public school science curricula while promoting intelligent design. The "Teach the Controversy" campaign portrays evolution as "a theory in crisis."{{Citation needed|date=June 2024}}

In his 1997 book ''Defeating Darwinism by Opening Minds'' Johnson summed up the underlying philosophy of his advocacy for intelligent design and against methodological and philosophical naturalism:
{{blockquote|If we understand our own times, we will know that we should affirm the reality of God by challenging the domination of materialism and naturalism in the world of the mind. With the assistance of many friends I have developed a strategy for doing this, ... We call our strategy the "wedge".<ref name= "Johnson_1997_p91–92">{{Harvnb |Johnson | 1997 | pp = [https://books.google.com/books?id=BcSd4SFbTxMC&pg=PA91  91–92]}}</ref>}}

Johnson has described the wedge strategy as:
* "We are taking an intuition most people have [the belief in God] and making it a scientific and academic enterprise. We are removing the most important cultural roadblock to accepting the role of God as creator."<ref>{{cite news |last=Watanabe |first=Teresa |date=March 25, 2001 |title=Enlisting Science to Find the Fingerprints of a Creator |url=https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-2001-mar-25-mn-42548-story.html |newspaper=[[Los Angeles Times]] |access-date=December 26, 2013}}</ref>
* "Our strategy has been to change the subject a bit, so that we can get the issue of intelligent design, which really means the reality of God, before the academic world and into the schools."<ref name="Christianity.ca"/>
* "This isn't really, and never has been, a debate about science. It's about religion and philosophy."<ref name="Grelen" />
* "So the question is: 'How to win?' That's when I began to develop what you now see full-fledged in the 'wedge' strategy: 'Stick with the most important thing' —the mechanism and the building up of information. Get the Bible and the Book of Genesis out of the debate because you do not want to raise the so-called Bible-science dichotomy. Phrase the argument in such a way that you can get it heard in the secular academy and in a way that tends to unify the religious dissenters. That means concentrating on, 'Do you need a Creator to do the creating, or can nature do it on its own?' and refusing to get sidetracked onto other issues, which people are always trying to do."<ref name="Berkeley's_Radical" />

When asked how best to raise doubts and question evolution with non-believers, Johnson responded:
{{blockquote|What I am ''not'' doing is bringing the Bible into the university and saying, "We should believe this." Bringing the Bible into question works very well when you are talking to a Bible-believing audience. But it is a disastrous thing to do when you are talking, as I am constantly, to a world of people for whom the fact that something is in the Bible is a reason for not believing it.

You see, if they thought they had good evidence for something, and then they saw it in the Bible, they would begin to doubt. That is what has to be kept out of the argument if you are going to do what I to do, which is to focus on the defects in their [the evolutionist's] case—the bad logic, the bad science, the bad reasoning, and the bad evidence.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.kennedycommentary.org/default.asp?pg=topicmessage&id=666 |title=How to Debate the Issue |last=Johnson |first=Phillip E. |website=The Kennedy Commentary |publisher=Coral Ridge Ministries |location=Fort Lauderdale, FL |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070313172232/http://www.kennedycommentary.org/default.asp?pg=topicmessage&id=666 |archive-date=March 13, 2007 |access-date=December 26, 2013}}</ref>}}

===Wedge of Truth===
{{Expand section|date=April 2019}}
The book ''Wedge of Truth'', published by Johnson in 2000, is an expansion of the Wedge Document. He states that truth has the ability to speak for itself.<ref>{{harvnb |Johnson |2000|p= 13}}</ref>

===Criticism===
Johnson has been accused of being [[Intellectual dishonesty|intellectually dishonest]] in his arguments advancing intelligent design and attacking the scientific community.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.talkorigins.org/origins/postmonth/feb04.html#run |title=Another Dishonest Creationist Quote |last=Pieret |first=John |date=February 16, 2004 |website=[[TalkOrigins Archive]] |publisher=The TalkOrigins Foundation, Inc. |location=Houston, TX |access-date=December 26, 2013}}</ref><ref name="Talkreason">{{cite web |url=http://www.talkreason.org/articles/honesty.cfm |title=The Truth, the Whole Truth, and Nothing But the Truth? |last=Spitzer |first=Brian |date=August 4, 2002 |website=Talk Reason |access-date=December 26, 2013}}</ref> Johnson has employed numerous [[equivocation]]s regarding the term "naturalism," failing to distinguish between [[Naturalism (philosophy)#Methodological naturalism|methodological naturalism]] (in which science is used to study the natural world and says nothing about the supernatural) versus [[Metaphysical naturalism|philosophical naturalism]] (the philosophical belief that nothing exists but the natural world, and adopts as a premise the idea that there is no supernatural world or deities).<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.talkdesign.org/faqs/naturalism.html |title=A Philosophical Premise of 'Naturalism'? |last=Isaak |first=Mark |date=September 24, 2002 |website=Talkdesign.org |publisher=[[Wesley R. Elsberry]] |location=Concord, CA |access-date=December 26, 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Scott |first1=Eugenie C.|author-link=Eugenie Scott|date=Winter 1993 |title=Darwin Prosecuted: Review of Johnson's Darwin on Trial |url=http://ncse.com/cej/13/2/darwin-prosecuted-review-johnsons-darwin-trial |journal=Creation/Evolution |volume=13 |issue=33 |pages=36–47 |access-date=December 26, 2013}}</ref> In fact-checking Johnson's books ''Darwin on Trial'' and ''Defeating Darwinism by Opening Minds'', Brian Spitzer, an associate professor of biology at the [[University of Redlands]], argued that almost every scientific source Johnson cited had been misused or distorted, from simple misinterpretations and innuendos to outright fabrications. Spitzer described ''Darwin on Trial'' as the most deceptive book he had ever read.<ref name="Talkreason"/>

In 1993 the [[American Scientific Affiliation|ASA's]] ''[[Perspectives on Science and Christian Faith]]'' published a review of ''Darwin on Trial'' by [[Nancey Murphy]], an associate professor of Christian philosophy at [[Fuller Theological Seminary]], who described Johnson's arguments as "dogmatic and unconvincing", primarily because "he does not adequately understand scientific reasoning."<ref name="Nancey Murphy PJ on Trial">{{cite web |first=Nancey |last=Murphy |author-link=Nancey Murphy | title=Phillip Johnson on Trial: A Critique of His Critique of Darwin | website=American Scientific Affiliation | url=https://www.asa3.org/ASA/PSCF/1993/PSCF3-93Murphy.html | access-date=16 June 2019}}, [https://www.fuller.edu/wp-content/uploads/2017/12/2016_Nancey_Murphy.pdf CV]</ref>
In a later interview she said she faced a campaign to get her fired after she expressed her view that intelligent design was not only poor theology, but "so stupid, I don't want to give them my time." Murphy, who accepts the validity of evolution, said that Johnson called a trustee in an attempt to get her fired and stated "His tactic has always been to fight dirty when anyone attacks his ideas." Johnson admits he had spoken with a former trustee of the seminary who was himself upset with Murphy, but denies any responsibility for action taken against her. He said: "It's the Darwinists who hold the power in academia and who threaten the professional status and livelihoods of anyone who disagrees ... They feel to teach anything but their orthodoxy is an act of professional treason."<ref>{{cite news |last=Vedantam |first=Shankar |date=February 5, 2006 |title=Eden and Evolution |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2006/02/03/AR2006020300822_pf.html |newspaper=[[The Washington Post]] |page=W08 |access-date=May 17, 2008}}</ref>

Since Johnson is considered by those both inside and outside the movement to be the father and architect of the intelligent design movement and its strategies,<ref>[[#Stewart 2007|Stewart 2007]], p. 2</ref> his statements are often used to validate the criticisms leveled by those who allege that the Discovery Institute and its allied organizations are merely stripping the obvious religious content from their anti-evolution assertions as a means of avoiding the legal restrictions of the [[Establishment Clause]], a view reinforced by the December 2005 ruling in the ''[[Kitzmiller v. Dover Area School District]]'' trial which found that intelligent design is not science and is essentially religious in nature. They argue that ID is an attempt to put a patina of secularity on top of what is a fundamentally religious belief and thus that the "Teach the Controversy" exhortation is disingenuous, particularly when contrasted to his statements in ''[[The Wall Street Journal]]'' and other secular media. Critics point out that contrary to the Discovery Institute's and Johnson's claims, the [[Evidence of common descent|theory of evolution]] is well-supported and accepted within the scientific community, with debates regarding ''how'' evolution occurred, not ''if'' it occurred. Popular disagreement with evolutionary theory should not be considered as a reason for challenging it as a scientifically valid subject to be taught, they contend.{{citation needed|date=January 2018}}

Critics of Johnson point to his central role in the Discovery Institute's carefully orchestrated campaign known as the wedge strategy. The wedge strategy, as envisioned by the Discovery Institute, is designed to leave the science establishment looking close-minded in the short term with a long-term goal being a redefinition of science that centers on the removal of methodological naturalism from the philosophy of science and the scientific method, thereby allowing for [[Theistic science|supernatural explanation]]s to be introduced as science. Critics note that Johnson, as a principal officer of the Discovery Institute, often cites an overall plan to put the United States on a course toward the theocracy envisioned in the wedge strategy, and that the Discovery Institute as a matter of policy intentionally obfuscates its agenda.<ref name="ForrestGross2007">{{cite book|first1=Barbara|last1=Forrest|first2=Paul R.|last2=Gross|title=Creationism's Trojan Horse: The Wedge of Intelligent Design|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7mMSDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA11|year=2007|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-531973-6|page=11}}</ref> According to Johnson, "The movement we now call the wedge made its public debut at a conference of scientists and philosophers held at [[Southern Methodist University]] in March 1992."<ref name="Johnson_wedge" />

During the 1990s, Johnson and several others challenged the scientific consensus by claiming that HIV tests do not detect HIV,<ref name="ScienceRA" /> AIDS statistics are grossly exaggerated,<ref name="Johnson_overestimating">{{cite journal |last=Johnson |first=Phillip E. |date=October 2004 |title=Overestimating AIDS |url=http://www.touchstonemag.com/archives/article.php?id=17-08-012-c |journal=Touchstone: A Journal of Mere Christianity |volume=17 |issue=8 |issn=0897-327X |access-date=December 26, 2013}}</ref> and that HIV is not the cause of AIDS.<ref name="Epstein1996">[[#Epstein 1996|Epstein 1996]]</ref><ref name="VirusMyth_Johnson_index">{{cite web |url=http://www.virusmyth.com/aids/index/pjohnson.htm |title=HIV & AIDS - Phillip Johnson |website=VirusMyth: A Rethinking AID$ Website |publisher=Robert Laarhoven |location=Hilversum, Netherlands |type=Index of articles |access-date=December 26, 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last=Quittman |first=Beth |date=September 8, 2006 |title=Undercover at the Discovery Institute |url=http://www.seattlest.com/archives/2006/09/08/undercover_at_the_discovery_institute.php |work=Seattlest |type=Blog |location=New York |publisher=[[Gothamist|Gothamist LLC]] |access-date=July 17, 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061020210815/http://www.seattlest.com/archives/2006/09/08/undercover_at_the_discovery_institute.php |archive-date=October 20, 2006 |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref name="DenialismSun">{{cite news |author=<!--Staff writer(s); no by-line.--> |title=Aids 'denialism' gathers strange bedfellows |url=http://www.canada.com/vancouversun/columnists/story.html?id=b0cb194b-51d3-4140-88f7-e4099445c554 |newspaper=[[The Vancouver Sun]] |location=Vancouver, BC |publisher=[[Postmedia Network]] |date=June 17, 2006 |access-date=July 17, 2008 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140730105830/http://www.canada.com/vancouversun/columnists/story.html?id=b0cb194b-51d3-4140-88f7-e4099445c554 |archive-date=July 30, 2014 |df=mdy-all }}</ref><ref name="science_yet">{{cite journal |doi=10.2139/ssrn.590882 |title=Is it Science Yet?: Intelligent Design Creationism and the Constitution |year=2004 |last1=Gey |first1=Steven G. |last2=Brauer |first2=Matthew J. |last3=Forrest |first3=Barbara |url=https://openscholarship.wustl.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1229&context=law_lawreview|journal=Washington University Law Review|volume=83|issue=1 }}</ref> As a member of The Group for the Scientific Reappraisal of the HIV/AIDS Hypothesis, a prominent [[HIV/AIDS denialism|AIDS denialist]] group,<ref name= "ScienceRA">{{cite journal |doi= 10.1126/science.7863334|bibcode=1995Sci...267..945B |title=AIDS Proposal |journal=Science |volume=267 |issue=5200 |pages=945–6 |last1=Baumann |first1=Eleen |last2=Bethell |first2=Tom |last3=Bialy |first3=Harvey |last4=Duesberg |first4=Peter H. |last5=Farber |first5=Celia |last6=Geshekter |first6=Charles L. |last7=Johnson |first7=Phillip E. |last8=Maver |first8=Robert W. |last9=Schoch |first9=Russell |last10=Stewart |first10=Gordon T. |last11=Strohman |first11=Richard C. |last12=Thomas |first12=Charles A. |year=1995 |pmid=7863335 |s2cid=45222215 }}</ref> Johnson questioned if [[HIV]] caused [[HIV/AIDS|AIDS]].<ref name= "Reason">{{cite journal |last1=Thomas
|first1=Charles |last2=Mullis
|first2=Karen |last3=Johnson
|first3=Phillip |date=June 1994
|title=What causes AIDS? |url=http://reason.com/archives/1994/06/01/what-causes-aids |journal=[[Reason (magazine)|Reason]] |issn=0048-6906
|access-date=December 26, 2013}}</ref><ref name=Denialism>{{Cite news |last=Young |first=Craig |title=AIDS Denialism: A South African Tragedy |work=GayNZ |location=Auckland, NZ |publisher=J&N Infolink |date=July 1, 2009 |url=http://www.gaynz.com/articles/publish/26/article_7636.php |access-date=December 26, 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131228161653/http://www.gaynz.com/articles/publish/26/article_7636.php |archive-date=December 28, 2013 |df=mdy-all }}</ref><ref name="Pseudoscience">{{Cite news |last=Shallit |first=Jeffrey |author-link=Jeffrey Shallit |title= AIDS conference proves pseudoscience can kill you |newspaper=[[Waterloo Region Record]] |location=Ontario, [[Canada|CA]] |publisher=[[Metroland Media Group]] |date=August 9, 2000 |issn=0824-5150}}</ref><ref name= "AIDSgrouppeition">{{cite web |url= http://www.virusmyth.com/aids/group.htm |title=The Group |website= VirusMyth: A Rethinking AID$ Website |publisher= Robert Laarhoven |location= Hilversum, [[Netherlands|NL]] |access-date=December 26, 2013}}</ref> He wrote several articles about the subject, including a piece in ''[[Reason (magazine)|Reason]]'' magazine.<ref name="Reason" /> He was one of the 12 founding members of The Group for the Scientific Reappraisal of the HIV/AIDS Hypothesis and signatory to the group's letter to the editor of ''[[Science (journal)|Science]]'' asserting that HIV is only tautologically associated with AIDS and that HIV tests are inaccurate.<ref name="ScienceRA" /> Johnson, along with others, have been criticized for their questioning of the scientific and medical consensus that HIV causes AIDS.<ref>{{cite news|title=Aids 'denialism' gathers strange bedfellows |url=http://www.canada.com/vancouversun/columnists/story.html?id=b0cb194b-51d3-4140-88f7-e4099445c554 |newspaper=[[The Vancouver Sun]] |location=Vancouver, BC |publisher=Postmedia Network Inc. |date=June 17, 2006 |access-date=2008-07-17 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140730105830/http://www.canada.com/vancouversun/columnists/story.html?id=b0cb194b-51d3-4140-88f7-e4099445c554 |archive-date=July 30, 2014 }}</ref> In the ''[[Washington University Law Review]]'', Matthew J. Brauer, [[Barbara Forrest]], and [[Steven Gey|Steven G. Gey]] faulted Johnson, Wells and others for denying the HIV/AIDS connection and promoting [[denialism]] via a petition designed to garner publicity but which did not have any scientific support.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Brauer |first1=Matthew J. |last2=Forrest |first2=Barbara |last3=Gey |first3=Steven G. |author-link3=Steven Gey |year=2005 |title=Is It Science Yet?: Intelligent Design Creationism and the Constitution |url=http://digitalcommons.law.wustl.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1229&context=lawreview |format=PDF |journal=[[Washington University Law Review]] |volume=83 |issue=1 |pages=79–80 |issn=2166-7993 |access-date=2009-06-23 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131220073757/http://digitalcommons.law.wustl.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1229&context=lawreview |archive-date=2013-12-20 }}</ref>

==Selected works==

===Criminal law===
{{refbegin |2}}
* {{cite book |last=Johnson |first= Phillip E. |year=1975 | author-link = Phillip E. Johnson |title= The Elements of Criminal Due Process: Cases, Materials, and Text |series= Criminal Justice Series |location= St. Paul, MN |publisher= [[West (publisher)|West Pub Co]] |lccn= 75026046 |oclc=1914558 |ref= Johnson 1975a}}
* {{cite book |last=Johnson |first= Phillip E. |year=1975 |title= Criminal Law: Cases, Materials, and Text on the Substantive Criminal Law in its Procedural Context |series=American Casebook Series |location= St. Paul, MN |publisher=West Pub Co |lccn= 75005083 |oclc= 1529179 |author-mask= 3 |ref=Johnson 1975b}}
* {{cite book |last=Johnson |first= Phillip E. |year=1976 |title=1976 Supplement to Criminal Law: Cases, Materials, and Text on the Substantive Criminal Law in its Procedural Context |series= American Casebook Series |location= St. Paul, MN |publisher= West Pub |lccn= 77354635 |oclc= 2607013 |author-mask=2 }}
* {{cite book |last=Johnson |first= Phillip E. |year=1977 |title= 1977 Supplement to Criminal Law: Cases, Materials, and Text on the Substantive Criminal Law in its Procedural Context |series= American Casebook Series |location= St. Paul, MN |publisher= West Pub Co |lccn = 77354398 |oclc= 3670876 |author-mask= 3 }}
* {{cite book |last=Johnson |first= Phillip E. |year= 1980 |title= Criminal Law: Cases, Materials, and Text on the Substantive Criminal Law in its Procedural Context |series= American Casebook Series |others= Problems by the author and Myron Moskovitz |edition=2nd |location= St. Paul, MN |publisher= West Pub Co |lccn=80014283 |oclc= 22560980 |author-mask=3 }}
* {{cite book |last=Johnson |first= Phillip E. |year= 1985 |title= Criminal Law: Cases, Materials, and Text |url=https://archive.org/details/criminallawcases0000john |url-access=registration |series=American Casebook Series |others= Problems by the author and Myron Moskovitz |edition=3rd |location= St. Paul, MN |publisher= West Pub Co |isbn= 9780314896827 |lccn= 85005079 |oclc= 12120243 |author-mask= 3 }}
* {{cite book |last=Johnson |first= Phillip E. |year=1988 |editor-last= Goldenberg |editor-first=Norman S. |title= Casenote Legal Briefs. Criminal Law: Adaptable to Courses Utilizing Johnson's Casebook on Criminal Law |others= Staff writers, Richard A. Lovich, Kemp Richardson |location= Beverly Hills, CA |publisher= Casenotes Pub. Co. |isbn= 978-0-87457-093-9 |lccn=89117347 |oclc=20391227 |author-mask= 3 |ref=Johnson 1988a}}
* {{cite book |last=Johnson |first= Phillip E. |year=1988 |title= Cases and Materials on Criminal Procedure |series= American Casebook Series |location= St. Paul, MN |publisher= West Pub Co |isbn=978-0-314-60025-7 | lccn= 87025297 |oclc= 16684338 |author-mask= 3 |ref=Johnson 1988b}}
* {{cite book |last=Johnson |first=Phillip E. |year=1990 |title=Criminal Law: Cases, Materials, and Text |series=American Casebook Series |edition=4th |location=St. Paul, MN |publisher=West Pu Co |isbn=978-0-314-72635-3 |lccn=90035247 |oclc=21375540 |author-mask=2 |ref=Johnson 1990a |url=https://archive.org/details/criminallawcases0000john_e9t3 }}
* {{cite book |last=Johnson |first= Phillip E. |year=1991 |editor1-last= Goldenberg |editor1-first=Norman S. |editor2-last=Tenen |editor2-first= Peter |editor3-last=Switzer |editor3-first= Robert J. |title= Casenote Legal Briefs. Criminal Law: Adaptable to Courses Utilizing Johnson's Casebook on Criminal Law |others= Staff writers, Richard A. Lovich, Kemp Richardson |location=Santa Monica, CA |publisher= Casenotes Pub. Co. |isbn= 978-0-87457-156-1 |lccn=92124154 |oclc= 26128520 |author-mask= 3 |ref=none}}
* {{cite book |last=Johnson |first= Phillip E. |year=1994 |title= Cases and Materials on Criminal Procedure |series= American Casebook Series |edition= 2nd |location=St. Paul, MN |publisher= West Pub Co |isbn= 978-0-314-03584-4 |lccn=94013551 |oclc= 30156868 |author-mask= 3 }}
* {{cite book |last=Johnson |first= Phillip E. |year= 1995 |title= Criminal Law: Cases, Materials, and Text |series=American Casebook Series |edition= 5th |location= St. Paul, MN |publisher= West Pub Co |isbn= 978-0-314-06410-3 |lccn=95022555 |oclc= 32664822 |author-mask=2 |ref=Johnson 1995a}}
* {{cite book |last=Johnson |first= Phillip E. |year=2000 |title= Cases and Materials on Criminal Procedure |series= American Casebook Series |edition= 3rd |location=St. Paul, MN |publisher= [[West (publisher)|West Group]] |isbn=978-0-314-24119-1 |lccn= 00702489 |oclc=44547056 |author-mask= 3 |ref=Johnson 2000a}}
* {{cite book |last=Johnson |first= Phillip E. |year= 2000 |title= Criminal Law: Cases, Materials, and Text |series=American Casebook Series |edition= 6th |location= St. Paul, MN |publisher= West Group |isbn= 978-0-314-24091-0 |lccn=00697867 |oclc= 45223793 |author-mask= 3 |ref=Johnson 2000b}}
* {{cite book |last1=Johnson |first1= Phillip E. |last2=Cloud |first2= Morgan |year=2002 |title= Criminal Law: Cases, Materials, and Text |series= American Casebook Series |edition= 7th |location=St. Paul, MN |publisher= West Group |isbn= 978-0-314-25649-2 |lccn=2003267475 |oclc= 50390778 |author-mask= 3 |ref=Johnson & Cloud 2002a}}
* {{cite book |last1=Arnold |first1= Brian G. |last2=Caves |first2=Amy Melissa |last3=Rose |first3=Paul |last4= Johnson |first4=Phillip E. |year= 2002 |editor-last= Blatt |editor-first= Dana L. |title=West Group High Court Case Summaries. Criminal Law: Keyed to Johnson's Casebook on Criminal Law | edition = 7th |location=Eagan, MN |publisher= West Group |isbn= 978-0-314-14529-1 |lccn= 2003265465 |oclc=56517350 |ref= Johnson, et al. 2002}}
* {{cite book |last1=Johnson |first1= Phillip E. |last2=Cloud |first2= Morgan |year=2005 |title= Constitutional Criminal Procedure: From Investigation to Trial |series= American Casebook Series |edition=4th |location= St. Paul, MN |publisher= [[West (publisher)|Thomson/West]] |isbn= 978-0-314-25660-7 |lccn= 2005282241 |oclc= 61330436 |ref=Johnson & Cloud 2005}}
{{refend}}

===Darwinism===
{{refbegin|2}}
* {{cite book |last=Johnson |first= Phillip E. |year=1990 |title= Evolution as Dogma: The Establishment of Naturalism |location=Dallas, TX |publisher= Haughton Pub. Co. |lccn= 00268240 |oclc=27190651 |author-mask= 3 |ref=Johnson 1990b}}
* {{cite book |last=Johnson |first= Phillip E. |year=1991 |title=Darwin on Trial |location=Washington, DC |publisher=[[Regnery Publishing|Regnery Gateway]] |isbn=978-0-89526-535-7 |lccn= 90026218 |oclc=22906277 |author-mask= 3 |title-link= Darwin on Trial }}
* {{cite book |last=Johnson |first= Phillip E. |year=1993 |title= Darwin on Trial |edition=2nd |location= Downers Grove, IL |publisher= [[InterVarsity Press]] |isbn= 978-0-8308-1324-7 |lccn=93029217 |oclc= 28889094 |author-mask= 3 }}
* {{cite book |last= Johnson |first= Phillip E. |year= 1995 |title= Reason in the Balance: The Case Against Naturalism in Science, Law & Education |location= Downers Grove, IL |publisher= InterVarsity Press |isbn= 978-0-8308-1610-1 |lccn= 95012620 |oclc= 32384818 |author-mask= 3 |ref= Johnson 1995b |url= https://archive.org/details/reasoninbalancec00john }}
* {{cite book |last= Johnson |first= Phillip E. |year= 1997 |title= Defeating Darwinism by Opening Minds |location= Downers Grove, IL |publisher= InterVarsity Press |isbn= 978-0-8308-1360-5 |lccn= 97012916 |oclc= 36621960 |author-mask= 3 |url= https://archive.org/details/defeatingdarwini00john_0 }}
* {{cite book |last= Johnson |first= Phillip E. |year= 1998 |title= Objections Sustained: Subversive Essays on Evolution, Law & Culture |location= Downers Grove, IL |publisher= InterVarsity Press |isbn= 978-0-8308-1941-6 |lccn= 98006866 |oclc= 38898010 |author-mask= 3 |url= https://archive.org/details/objectionssustai00john }}
* {{cite book |last=Johnson |first= Phillip E. |year=2000 |title= The Wedge of Truth: Splitting the Foundations of Naturalism |url=https://archive.org/details/wedgeoftruthspli0000john |url-access=registration |location= Downers Grove, IL |publisher= InterVarsity Press |isbn=978-0-8308-2267-6 |lccn=00039586 |oclc=43903750 |author-mask=2 }}
* {{cite book |last=Johnson |first=Phillip E. |year=2002 |title=The Right Questions: Truth, Meaning & Public Debate |others=Foreword by [[Nancy Pearcey]] |location=Downers Grove, IL |publisher=InterVarsity Press |isbn=978-0-8308-2294-2 |lccn=2002006756 |oclc=49773676 |author-mask=3 |ref=Johnson 2002b |url=https://archive.org/details/rightquestions00phil }}
* {{cite book |last1=Johnson |first1= Phillip E. |last2=Reynolds |first2= John Mark |year=2010 |title=Against All Gods: What's Right and Wrong About the New Atheism |location=Downers Grove, IL |publisher= InterVarsity Press |isbn=978-0-8308-3738-0 |lccn= 2010000182 |oclc=460060927 |author-mask= 3 |ref=Johnson & Reynolds 2010}}
* {{cite book |last=Johnson |first= Phillip E. |year=2010 |orig-year= 1991; Washington, DC: Regnery Gateway |title= Darwin on Trial |others= New introduction by [[Michael Behe]] |edition= 20th anniversary, 3rd |location= Downers Grove, IL |publisher= [[InterVarsity Press|IVP Books]] |isbn= 978-0-8308-3831-8 |lccn= 2010019862 |oclc=615339705 |author-mask= 3 }}
{{refend}}

== See also ==
* [[List of law clerks of the Supreme Court of the United States (Chief Justice)]]

==Notes==
<!--See http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Footnotes for an explanation of how to generate footnotes using the <ref(erences/)> tags-->
{{Reflist|30em}}

==References==
{{Refbegin |30em}}
* {{cite conference |url=http://ebd10.ebd.csic.es/pdfs/DarwSciOrPhil.pdf |title=Darwinism: Science or Philosophy |date=March 26–28, 1992 |conference=Darwinism: Scientific Inference or Philosophical Preference? |editor1-last=Buell |editor1-first=Jon A. |editor2-last=Hearn |editor2-first=Virginia |book-title=Darwinism, Science or Philosophy?: Proceedings of a Symposium Entitled 'Darwinism, Scientific Inference or Philosophical Preference?': Held on the Southern Methodist University Campus in Dallas, Texas, March 26–28, 1992 |publisher=[[Foundation for Thought and Ethics]] |location=Richardson, TX |isbn=0-9642104-0-1 |lccn=94094523 |oclc=31602282 |access-date=December 26, 2013 |ref=Buell & Hearn 1994 |archive-date=March 11, 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110311170712/http://ebd10.ebd.csic.es/pdfs/DarwSciOrPhil.pdf |url-status=dead }}
* {{cite book |year= 2006 |editor-last= Dembski |editor-first= William A. |editor-link= William A. Dembski |title= Darwin's Nemesis: Phillip Johnson and the Intelligent Design Movement |others= Foreword by [[Rick Santorum]] |location= Downers Grove, IL |publisher= [[InterVarsity Press|IVP Academic]] |isbn= 978-0-8308-2836-4 |lccn= 2005033144 |oclc= 62330745 |url-access= registration |url= https://archive.org/details/darwinsnemes_xxxx_2006_000_10458437 }}
* {{cite book |last=Epstein |first=Steven |author-link=Steven Epstein (academic) |year=1996 |title=Impure Science: AIDS, Activism, and the Politics of Knowledge |series=Medicine and Society |pages=1–466 |publisher=[[University of California Press]] |location=Berkeley, CA |pmid=11619509 |isbn=978-0-520-20233-7 |lccn=96016805 |oclc=470187113 |url=https://archive.org/details/impurescienceaid00epst }}
* {{cite book |last=Forrest |first=Barbara |author-link=Barbara Forrest |year=2001 |chapter=The Wedge at Work: How Intelligent Design Creationism Is Wedging Its Way into the Cultural and Academic Mainstream |chapter-url=http://www.infidels.org/library/modern/barbara_forrest/wedge.html |title=Intelligent Design Creationism and Its Critics: Philosophical, Theological, and Scientific Perspectives |editor-last=Pennock |editor-first=Robert T |editor-link=Robert T. Pennock |location=Cambridge, MA |publisher=[[MIT Press]] |isbn=978-0-262-66124-9 |lccn=2001031276 |oclc=46729201 |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/intelligentdesig00robe }}
* {{cite book |last= Murphy |first= Nancey |author-link= Nancey Murphy |year= 2001 |chapter= Phillip Johnson on Trial: A Critique of His Critique of Darwin |chapter-url= http://www.infidels.org/library/modern/barbara_forrest/wedge.html |title= Intelligent Design Creationism and Its Critics: Philosophical, Theological, and Scientific Perspectives |editor-last= Pennock |editor-first= Robert T |location= Cambridge, MA |publisher= [[MIT Press]] |isbn= 978-0-262-66124-9 |lccn= 2001031276 |oclc= 46729201 |url-access= registration |url= https://archive.org/details/intelligentdesig00robe }}
* {{cite book |last=Pennock |first=Robert T. |year=1999 |title=Tower of Babel: The Evidence Against the New Creationism |location=Cambridge, MA |publisher=MIT Press |isbn=978-0-262-16180-0 |lccn=98027286 |oclc=39262003 |url=https://archive.org/details/towerofbabelevid00penn }}
* {{cite book |year= 2007 |editor-last= Stewart |editor-first=Robert B. |title= Intelligent Design: William A. Dembski & Michael Ruse in Dialogue |location= Minneapolis, MN |publisher= [[Augsburg Fortress|Fortress Press]] |isbn= 978-0-8006-6218-9 |lccn= 2007027505 |oclc=148895223 }}
{{Refend}}

== External links ==
{{Wikiquote}}
* [http://www.touchstonemag.com/archives/author.php?id=40 Articles by Phillip E. Johnson] in ''[[Touchstone Magazine|Touchstone Magazine: A Journal of Mere Christianity]]'', a bimonthly Christian publication
* [http://www.arn.org/docs/johnson/watchmkr.htm The Religion of the Blind Watchmaker ]
* [http://reason.com/9707/fe.bailey.shtml "Origin of the Specious"] – an article by [[Ronald Bailey]], published in the July 1997 issued of ''[[Reason (magazine)|Reason]]'' magazine, concerns the development of intelligent design
* [http://www.virusmyth.com/aids/index/pjohnson.htm Johnson's writings on HIV and AIDS] at the VirusMyth website
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20131228162529/http://leanleft.com/2004/10/21/phillip-johnson-from-crackpot-to-dangerously-insane-crackpot/ "Phillip Johnson: From Crackpot to Dangerously Insane Crackpot"] by Kevin T. Keith at the Lean Left blog
* [http://www.talkorigins.org/faqs/johnson.html Critiques of Phillip Johnson] by [[Jim Lippard]] and Bill Hamilton at the [[TalkOrigins Archive]]
* [http://www.scp-inc.org/publications/journals/J2104/j2104_1.htm "The Terrible Strength and Weakness of Naturalism"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080705121124/http://www.scp-inc.org/publications/journals/J2104/j2104_1.htm |date=July 5, 2008 }} – an interview of Phillip E. Johnson with Tal Brooke. ''[[Spiritual Counterfeits Project|SCP Journal]]''. Vol. 21:4–22:1. Spring 1998. {{ISSN|0883-1300}}

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