View source for Piri Reis

{{Short description|Ottoman admiral and cartographer (c. 1470–1553)}}
{{good article}}
{{Cs1 config|mode=cs1}}<!--makes {{Citation}} render like {{cite xxx}} templates.-->
{{Use dmy dates|date=December 2024}} 
{{Infobox person
| name               = Piri Reis
| image              = File:Piri_reis.jpg
| alt                = A color photograph of a black statue of a bearded and turbaned man
| image_size         = 
| caption            = Statue of Piri Reis in [[Karaman]], Turkey
| birth_name         = Muhiddin Piri
| birth_date         = {{circa}} 1470
| birth_place        = [[Ottoman Empire]]
| death_date         = {{death year and age|
1553|1470}}
| death_place        = [[Cairo]], Egypt Eyalet, Ottoman Empire
| death_cause        = Execution by beheading<ref name="Pedani-2015-p324" />
| relatives          = [[Kemal Reis]] (uncle)
| notable_works      = {{unbulleted list |[[Piri Reis map|1513 world map]]|''[[Kitab-ı Bahriye]]''}}
| signature          = 
}}

'''Piri Reis''' ({{langx|tr|Pîrî [[Reis (military rank)|Reis]]}}; born '''Muhiddin Piri'''; {{circa}} 1470–1553) was an [[Ottoman Turks|Ottoman Turkish]] [[cartographer]], admiral, [[navigator]], and [[Privateer|corsair]]. He is best known for his [[Piri Reis map|1513 world map]] and his nautical atlas, the ''[[Kitab-ı Bahriye]]'' (''Book of the Sea''). His maps combined classical sources, his own seafaring knowledge, and information from recent European discoveries. The 1513 world map drew international attention when rediscovered centuries later during renovations to the [[Topkapı Palace]] in [[Istanbul]] because it includes details from a now-lost map by [[Christopher Columbus]].

Likely born around 1470 in [[Gelibolu]] (Gallipoli), Piri Reis sailed from an early age with his uncle, the corsair [[Kemal Reis]], and fought in the western Mediterranean. The two were brought into the [[Ottoman Navy]], where Piri Reis attained the rank of ''[[Reis (military rank)|reis]]'' (captain) and fought in the [[Ottoman–Venetian wars]]. After his uncle died in 1510 or 1511, Piri Reis returned to Gelibolu where he began his cartographic work, creating the 1513 world map and likely drafting charts and notes that would later form the basis of the ''Kitab-ı Bahriye''. After serving in the 1517 [[Ottoman conquest of Egypt]], he presented the world map to Sultan [[Selim&nbsp;I]]. He later completed two versions of the ''Kitab-ı Bahriye'', both dedicated to Sultan [[Suleiman the Magnificent]]{{emdash}}the second, more elaborate version prepared at the request of Grand Vizier [[Pargalı Ibrahim Pasha]] by 1526. His final surviving work is a fragment of a 1528 world map.

Piri Reis became the grand admiral of the [[Ottoman naval expeditions in the Indian Ocean|Ottoman Fleet in the Indian Ocean]] in 1546 and recaptured [[Aden]] from the Portuguese two years later. His fleet conducted campaigns in the Red Sea and Persian Gulf, but a [[Ottoman campaign against Hormuz|1552 expedition against Portuguese-controlled Hormuz Island]] at the mouth of the [[Persian Gulf]] ended in retreat and led to his execution in [[Cairo]] in 1553.{{efn|Some older sources list the year of his death as 1554. Venetian documents from the period have allowed historians to date his execution to some point during 1553.<ref name="Pedani-2015-p324" />}}

During his lifetime, Piri Reis' cartography received little appreciation, but many copies of the ''Kitab-ı Bahriye'' were produced after his death. The 1929 rediscovery of his first world map increased interest in his work and made his career a point of national pride for [[Turkey]]. Although the map has been the subject of fringe theories based on the disproven hypothesis that the map depicted an ice-free Antarctica, studies have shown no significant similarities between the map and Antarctica's subglacial coast. Nevertheless, this speculation has increased interest in Piri Reis' cartography.

== Biography ==
===Early life and piracy===
What historians know about Piri Reis' early life comes almost entirely from his own writing in a few surviving cartographic works.<ref name="Soucek-1992-p266">{{harvnb|Soucek|1992|p=266}}.</ref> Across decades of naval service and piracy{{emdash}}which began from a young age{{emdash}}Piri Reis created notes and charts that would later inform his cartography.<ref>{{harvnb|McIntosh|2000a|p=6}}.</ref> He was likely born between 1465 and 1470 in [[Gelibolu]], also known as Gallipoli, which was a major naval base for the [[Ottoman Empire]].<ref>{{multiref|{{harvnb|McIntosh|2000a|p=5}}; |{{harvnb|Soucek|1992|p=266}}; |{{harvnb|İnan|1954|p=6}}.}}</ref> [[Ibn Kemal]], an Ottoman historian active during the period, wrote that, "The children of Gelibolu grow up in the water like alligators. Their cradles are the boats. They are rocked to sleep with the lullaby of the sea and of the ships day and night."<ref>{{harvnb|İnan|1954|p=6}}.</ref> Born Muhiddin Piri, he later earned the rank ''[[Reis (military rank)|Reis]]'', equivalent to a captain in the Ottoman Navy.<ref>{{multiref |{{harvnb|İnan|1954|p=6}}; |{{harvnb|McIntosh|2000a|p=5}}; |{{harvnb|''Tureng''|2025|at=[https://tureng.com/en/turkish-english/reis "Reis"]}}.}}</ref> Piri Reis wrote that his father's name was Hacı Mehmed.<ref name="Soucek-1992-p266"/> His uncle [[Kemal Reis]] was a notable [[Barbary corsairs|corsair]],<ref>{{harvnb|Khair|2006|p=127}}.</ref> a type of [[piracy|pirate]] acting with [[sovereign state|state approval]], often along religious lines in the Mediterranean.<ref>{{multiref|{{harvnb|''Oxford''|2007|at="Corsair"}};|{{harvnb|Pryor|1988|pp=193-106}}.}}</ref>

Piri Reis began sailing aboard his uncle's ship around 1481 as a child, and his first recorded naval combat experience came fighting alongside his uncle in the Western Mediterranean. From the 8th to 15th centuries, Catholic monarchs in the Iberian Peninsula expanded south at the expense of Muslim-ruled [[al-Andalus]], in campaigns known as the ''[[Reconquista]]''. When Catholic forces reached the [[Emirate of Granada]], its Muslim rulers asked for assistance from the Ottoman Empire, one of the largest Muslim powers in the Mediterranean, spanning [[Anatolia]] and much of the [[Balkans]] in Eastern Europe. With Sultan [[Bayezid II]]'s approval, Kemal Reis sailed to the Western Mediterranean with his nephew.<ref>{{multiref |{{harvnb|Isom-Verhaaren|2022|pp=2, 91-92}};|{{harvnb|İnan|2020|p=11}};|{{harvnb|McIntosh|2000a|pp=5-6}};|{{harvnb|Esposito|2009|at="Reconquista"}};|{{harvnb|Shepherd|1911|p=93}}, [https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:The_Ottoman_Empire_1451-1481.jpg "The Ottoman Empire 1451–1481."]}}</ref>

As a teenager, Piri Reis helped his uncle bombard the Catholic forces that were [[Siege of Málaga (1487)|laying siege to Málaga in 1487]].<ref name="Soucek-1992-p267">{{harvnb|Soucek|1992|p=267}}.</ref> Despite the corsairs' assistance, Málaga fell by the end of 1487 and Granada by 1492.<ref>{{multiref |{{harvnb|Hillgarth|1978|pp=373, 383-384}}; |{{harvnb|Isom-Verhaaren|2022|pp=91-92}}.}}</ref> After Spain [[Alhambra Decree|expelled their Jewish population]] in 1492, Sultan Bayezid II instructed Kemal Reis to aid religious refugees.<ref>{{harvnb|Gitman|2024|pp=31-33}}.</ref> Piri Reis transported Muslims and Jews from Catholic Spain to North Africa.<ref name="McIntosh-2000a-p6" />

[[Barbary corsairs]] led by Kemal Reis continued to threaten European maritime traffic after the [[Fall of Granada]].<ref>{{multiref |{{harvnb|Pryor|1988|p=193}}; |{{harvnb|Isom-Verhaaren|2022|p=91}}.}}</ref> Piri Reis wrote that they "sailed on the Mediterranean and fought the enemies of our religion mercilessly."<ref name="McIntosh-2000a-p6">{{harvnb|McIntosh|2000a|p=6}}.</ref> During the winters, he and his uncle took shelter in harbors on the [[Barbary Coast]] in North Africa, including [[Béjaïa]] in modern-day [[Algeria]].<ref>{{multiref|{{harvnb|Isom-Verhaaren|2022|p=91}}; |{{harvnb|İnan|1954|p=9}}.}}</ref> For six summers from 1488 to 1493, they conducted raids along the coasts of Spain, Southern France, Corsica, Sardinia, and Sicily.<ref>{{harvnb|İnan|2020|p=11}}.</ref>

===Naval career and cartography===
[[File:Venice by Piri Reis.jpg|alt=Map of the Venetian lagoon with major rivers, canals, and fortifications|thumb|[[Venice]] as depicted in the ''Kitab-ı Bahriye'']]

Sultan [[Bayezid&nbsp;II]] recruited Barbary and [[Aegean Sea|Aegean]] corsairs into the [[Ottoman Navy]], including Piri Reis, who sailed first under his uncle, and later under [[Hayreddin Barbarossa]].<ref>{{multiref|{{harvnb|Hess|1970|p=1905}}; |{{harvnb|Ayyubi|1989|p=737}}.}}</ref> Kemal Reis was imprisoned for piracy in 1495, but rather than being sentenced, he was given an official position in the navy.<ref>{{harvnb|Pedani|2015|pp=319–320}}.</ref> As Piri Reis later documented in the ''Kitab-ı Bahriye'', Kemal and Piri advocated taking the [[Republic of Venice|Venetian]] coastal fortresses of the [[Peloponnese]] and the small but strategically valuable island of [[Rhodes]]:<ref>{{harvnb|Soucek|2004|pp=222, 232}}.</ref> 

{{blockquote
|text=Venice has two eyes: Her left eye is the [harbor] fortress of Modon. Her right eye is that of Corfu.
|author=Kemal Reis, quoted by Piri Reis
|source=Kitab-ı Bahriye<ref>{{harvnb|Soucek|2004|p=232}}.</ref> 
}}

Piri Reis fought in the Ottoman–Venetian wars as a captain under the command of Kemal Reis.<ref name="McIntosh-2000a-p6"/> Like other Ottoman captains, he operated a galley, a shallow oar-driven warship well-suited to the Mediterranean coasts.<ref>{{multiref |{{harvnb|Casale|2010|p=99}}; |{{harvnb|Isom-Verhaaren|2022|pp=91-92}}; |{{harvnb|''Oxford''|2007|at="Galley"}}.}}</ref> During the 1499 [[Battle of Zonchio]] (the First Battle of Lepanto), Piri Reis sailed in a fleet of about 270 ships that broke through the Venetian fleet to enter the [[Gulf of Corinth]], forcing the governor to surrender.<ref>{{harvnb|Isom-Verhaaren|2022|pp=92–94}}.</ref> Kemal Reis led the Ottomans to victory in the 1500 [[Battle of Lepanto (1500)|Battle of Modon]] (the Second Battle of Lepanto), and the following year in battles to retake Modon and capture [[Old Navarino castle|Navarino]], located in modern-day Greece.<ref>{{harvnb|Isom-Verhaaren|2022|pp=94–95, 161}}.</ref> After these victories, the Ottoman Navy began to consolidate control over the Eastern Mediterranean.<ref>{{harvnb|Hess|1970|pp=1905–1907}}.</ref>

Piri and Kemal returned to the Western Mediterranean, raiding the coasts of Spain and nearby islands in 1501.<ref name="Mikaberidze-2011-p468"/> In a naval battle near Valencia, Spain, they captured a Spaniard who said he had sailed [[Voyages of Christopher Columbus|with Columbus]], and likely possessed an early map of the Americas that Piri Reis would later use as a source for his maps.<ref>{{multiref|{{harvnb|Soucek|2011|p=52}};|{{harvnb|McIntosh|2000a|pp=72-75}};|{{harvnb|Nebenzahl|1990|p=62}}.}}</ref> In 1502, they returned to Constantinople and soon resumed hostilities with Venice.<ref name="Mikaberidze-2011-p468">{{harvnb|Mikaberidze|2011|p=468}}.</ref>

After Kemal Reis died in a shipwreck circa 1511, Piri Reis returned to Gelibolu to work on his navigational studies.<ref name="Isom-2022-pp97-98">{{harvnb|Isom-Verhaaren|2022|pp=97-98}}.</ref>{{efn|Sources give either 1510 or 1511 as the year Kemal Reis died.<ref>{{multiref |{{harvnb|Pedani|2015|p=320}}; |{{harvnb|Urguplu|2015}}.}}</ref> Kemal Reis's last recorded activities were sailing to Egypt in 1510 with requested aid against [[Mamluk–Portuguese conflicts|Portuguese incursions]].<ref>{{harvnb|Ágoston|2023|pp=136-137}}.</ref> A Venetian report claims that Kemal Reis was sabotaged when İskender Ağa{{emdash}}a rival who became [[List of Kapudan Pashas|admiral of the Ottoman Navy]] in 1511{{emdash}}sent Kemal to sea in "an unsound ship". Mamluk historian [[Ibn Iyas]] recorded that news of Kemal Reis death reached Cairo, Egypt, in February 1511.<ref name="Isom-2022-pp97-98"/>}} There, he completed the world map for which he is best known today. Dated to March&nbsp;1513 AD (Muharram 919&nbsp;AH), the manuscript depicted the recently explored shores of the Americas and Africa.<ref>{{multiref |{{harvnb|McIntosh|2000a|p=9}}; |{{harvnb|Massetti|Veracini|2016|pp=41–42}}; |{{harvnb|McIntosh|2000a|p=15}}.}}</ref> Although he had not sailed the Atlantic, Piri Reis compiled over twenty maps of Arab, Spanish, Portuguese, Indian, and older Greek origins into a comprehensive representation of the known world of his era.<ref>{{harvnb|Brotton|1998|pp=108–110}}.</ref> By 1513, Piri Reis was sailing for the Ottomans under Hayreddin Barbarossa along the North African coast.<ref>{{harvnb|Isom-Verhaaren|2022|p=109}}.</ref>

During the [[Ottoman–Mamluk War (1516–1517)|1516–1517 Ottoman conquest of Egypt]], Piri Reis commanded the Ottoman ships that blockaded Alexandria. After the Ottoman victory, Piri Reis presented the 1513 world map to Sultan [[Selim&nbsp;I]] ({{reign | 1512 | 1520}}).<ref>{{multiref |{{harvnb|Tekeli|1985|pp=675–676}}; |{{harvnb|Kahle|1933|p=621}}; |{{harvnb|Ayyubi|1989|p=738}}.}}</ref> How Selim used the map is unknown, as it vanished from history until its rediscovery centuries later.<ref name="Soucek-1992-p270">{{harvnb|Soucek|1992|p=270}}.</ref> Venetian documents report that Piri Reis left the Ottoman Navy in 1518 to engage in piracy again.<ref>{{harvnb|Pedani|2015|pp=321–322}}.</ref>

[[File:Piri Reis - Map of the Islands of the Aegean Sea Including Chios, Cos, Rhodes and Crete - Walters W658101A - Full Page.jpg|alt=Map of western Anatolia and the Greek islands with Arabic labels|thumb|[[Rhodes]] (largest island outlined in red) south of [[Anatolia]] (outlined in dark blue)]]

By 1522, Piri Reis rejoined the navy and took part in [[Suleiman the Magnificent]]'s [[Siege of Rhodes (1522)|Siege of Rhodes]], which he had advocated for.<ref>{{multiref |{{harvnb|Soucek|2004|p=222}}; |{{harvnb|İnan|1954|p=14}}.}}</ref> His first version of the ''Kitab-ı Bahriye''—a nautical atlas gifted and dedicated to Suleiman—included advice on conquering the island.<ref>{{multiref |{{harvnb|Soucek|2004|p=222}}; |{{harvnb|Soucek|2013|pp=137-139}}.}}</ref> Located just {{cvt|20|km}} off the coast of Anatolia, Rhodes had a secure harbor that could threaten maritime communication between the empire's capital and Mediterranean ports.<ref>{{harvnb|Soucek|2004|p=220}}.</ref> Controlled by the [[Knights of St.&nbsp;John]], the island provided shelter to Christian pirates.<ref>{{harvnb|Soucek|2004|p=221}}.</ref> During the siege, the Knights' ten-ship fleet remained in the harbor rather than confront the larger Ottoman force. The Ottoman Navy conducted an amphibious operation, transporting many troops to the small island.<ref name="Soucek-2004-p223">{{harvnb|Soucek|2004|p=223}}.</ref> The Knights of St. John were defeated in December 1522, temporarily took refuge at [[Viterbo]], Italy, and relocated more permanently to [[Malta]] several years later.<ref>{{multiref |{{harvnb|Grima|2021}}; |{{harvnb|Yaldız|Kaymakçı|Özgün|2019|pp=224–225}}.}}</ref> The second version of the ''Kitab-ı Bahriye'', completed after the conquest, discusses the siege only in practical terms of acquiring drinking water from Karabağ in [[Bodrum]].<ref>{{harvnb|Isom-Verhaaren|2022|p=101}}.</ref>

Suleiman's reign was the beginning of a shift towards power concentrating in a group of [[vizier]]s, advisers, governors, and royal family members, and Suleiman's childhood friend [[Pargalı Ibrahim Pasha]] rose to become the [[List of Ottoman grand viziers|Ottoman grand vizier]], or chief minister.<ref>{{harvnb|Casale|2010|pp=34–35}}.</ref> When putting down [[Hain Ahmed Pasha]]'s 1524 rebellion in Egypt, Ibrahim rode aboard the navy's flagship, commanded by Piri Reis.<ref>{{harvnb|Casale|2010|p=36}}.</ref><ref name="Hess-1970-p1905">{{harvnb|Hess|1970|p=1905}}.</ref> The longer second version of the ''Kitab-ı Bahriye'' resulted from a conversation with the grand vizier.<ref>{{harvnb|Soucek|2013|pp=137–138}}.</ref> Piri Reis said they discussed cartography after Ibrahim asked him about the maps and charts used aboard the ship.<ref>{{harvnb|Casale|2010|pp=36–37}}.</ref> Ibrahim commissioned Piri Reis to create an expanded version of the ''Kitab-ı Bahriye''.<ref name="Casale-2010-p37">{{harvnb|Casale|2010|p=37}}.</ref> He finished and presented it to the sultan by 1526. In later centuries, many copies were made of both versions of the book.<ref name="Hepworth-2005-p73">{{harvnb|Hepworth|2005|p=73}}.</ref> Piri Reis completed a second world map in 1528 or 1529.<ref name="Soucek-2013-p141">{{harvnb|Soucek|2013|p=141}}.</ref> According to [[Sevim Tekeli]], the changes from the first world map demonstrate that Piri Reis was actively following European voyages of discovery.<ref name="Ayyubi-1989-p739">{{harvnb|Ayyubi|1989|p=739}}.</ref>

Venice saw Piri Reis as an adversary and obstacle to their aims in the [[Middle East]] during the 1530s. In 1532, he led a group of five galleys and three ''[[fuste]]''{{emdash}}a smaller and lighter variant of the galley{{emdash}}against [[Dalmatia]]n pirates in the Adriatic, the branch of the Mediterranean Sea leading to Venice.<ref>{{multiref |{{harvnb|Pedani|2015|pp=322–323}}; |{{harvnb|Oxford|2007|at="Galley"}}; |{{harvnb|Shepherd|1911|p=71}}, [https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Europe_and_the_Mediterranean_Lands_about_1190.jpg "Europe and the Mediterranean Lands About 1190"].}}</ref> One year later, Piri Reis led an attack on the Venetian-held castle at [[Koroni|Coron]] with ten galleys and five ''fuste''. He captured a Venetian galley in 1536 and chased down Venetian ships in the Eastern Mediterranean in the late 1530s. When Piri Reis received a promotion in Egypt in 1546, during a [[Ottoman–Venetian War (1537–1540)|period of peace between Venice and the Ottomans]], he attacked the Venetian ship ''Liona'' along his route, killing several sailors and capturing others.<ref name="Pedani-2015-p323">{{harvnb|Pedani|2015|p=323}}.</ref>

===Grand admiral of the Indian Ocean fleet===
[[File:Piri Reis - Map of the Egyptian Coast From Alexandria as Far as the City of Rashid - Walters W658303B - Full Page.jpg|thumb|upright=1.3|alt=Map of a city located near a river and lake, with Arabic labels|Map of [[Alexandria]] in Egypt from the ''Kitab-ı Bahriye'']]

After [[Sinan Reis]], the {{Transliteration|ota|[[Kapudan Pasha|Hind Kapudan-ı Derya]]}} or grand admiral of the [[Ottoman naval expeditions in the Indian Ocean|Ottoman Fleet in the Indian Ocean]], died in 1546,<ref name="Pedani-2015-p323" /> Piri Reis took his position as admiral of the Indian Ocean fleet, as well as admiral of the fleet in Egypt.<ref name="Shaw-1976-p107">{{harvnb|Shaw|1976|p=107}}.</ref> Although experienced in Mediterranean naval warfare, Piri Reis arrived as a relative outsider to the conflicts unfolding around the Indian Ocean.<ref name="Casale-2010-pp84-91">{{harvnb|Casale|2010|pp=84-91}}.</ref> The Portuguese and Ottoman empires were both expanding into the Indian Ocean at this time.<ref name="Casale-2010-pp84-90"/> Portuguese ships had arrived in the Indian Ocean in the early 1500s, raiding the Red Sea as far as [[Suez]] and attempting to gain control of the port city of [[Aden]] in Yemen.<ref>{{harvnb|Shaw|1976|pp=83, 107}}.</ref> The Portuguese navy employed [[sailing ship]]s capable of navigating in open seas, while the Ottoman Navy relied mainly on [[galley]]s, which were more effective along coasts. This limited Ottoman naval warfare to the Red Sea, Persian Gulf, and narrow straits around Arabia. The empire focused on using its navy to continue land-based expansion into new areas for tax revenue and agriculture, in contrast to the Portuguese who were attempting to control new oceanic trade routes between Europe and Asia.<ref>{{harvnb|Hess|1970|pp=1916–1917}}.</ref> The Ottoman Empire was additionally split in its Indian Ocean endeavors between the central government managed by Grand Vizier [[Rüstem Pasha]] seeking to turn the Red Sea and Persian Gulf into "Ottoman Lakes", as the Black Sea had become, and regional leaders attempting to preserve their autonomy.<ref name="Casale-2010-pp84-90">{{harvnb|Casale|2010|pp=84-90}}.</ref>

[[File:Hogenberg.Aden.jpg|thumb|alt=|Aden as illustrated in the sixteenth-century ''[[Civitates Orbis Terrarum]]'']]

Using his fleet based out of Suez, Egypt, Piri Reis led campaigns in the Red Sea and Persian Gulf.<ref name="McIntosh-2000a-p6" /> Just prior to Piri Reis' promotion, the empire lost Aden, its only port on the Indian Ocean since the city's conquest just a decade earlier.<ref>{{multiref |{{harvnb|Stanley|2007|p=8}}; |{{harvnb|Soucek|2011|p=87}}.}}</ref> The city{{emdash}}built into the crater of an extinct volcano on one arm of a crescent-shaped bay{{emdash}}was known as the "Eye of Yemen" because of its position at the entrance to the Red Sea along sea routes to Indian and East African ports.<ref>{{harvnb|Stanley|2007|pp=8-9}}.</ref> [[Üveys Pasha]], the governor of [[Yemen Eyalet]], led a disastrous campaign to expand Ottoman territory inland into the highlands of Yemen that resulted in his assassination, a rebellion in Yemen's interior, and Aden leaving the Ottoman Empire. Urban leaders in Aden gave their city to local Arab chief Ali al-Tawlaki, who immediately sent an [[ambassador]] to the Portuguese outpost on Hormuz Island, seeking protection and alliance. The most senior remaining Ottoman leader in Yemen was [[Ozdemir Pasha]], who wrote to the [[Davud Pasha (governor of Egypt)|Ottoman governor of Egypt]] seeking assistance.<ref name="Casale-2010-pp84-91"/> 

Piri Reis left Suez to aid Ozdemir Pasha with a fleet of sixty ships on 29 October 1547.<ref>{{harvnb|Önalp|2010|p=4}}.</ref> The fleet dropped off reinforcements on the shore of Yemen outside the range of Aden's cannons, and then continued to Aden's crescent-shaped bay to besiege the city by sea. The two Portuguese ships that had arrived under the command of Dom Paio de Noronha were not enough to stop the Ottoman Navy or the large Ottoman land army that quickly overran the city.<ref>{{multiref |{{harvnb|Önalp|2010|pp=4-6}}; |{{harvnb|Casale|2010|p=91}}.}}</ref> On 26&nbsp;February 1548, the forces under Piri Reis [[Capture of Aden (1548)|recaptured the citadel of Aden]].<ref>{{multiref|{{harvnb|İnan|2020|p=58}}; |{{harvnb|Shaw|1976|p=107}}.}}</ref> When another small group of Portuguese ships arrived in January 1549 and found the Ottoman Navy in the bay, they attempted to flee, but Piri Reis had his fleet pursue them, capture the Portuguese sailors, and set fire to their ships.<ref>{{harvnb|Önalp|2010|pp=4-6}}.</ref> By February 1549, when Ottoman control was fully restored, Piri Reis was well into his 80s.<ref>{{harvnb|İnan|2020|p=58}}.</ref>

[[File:Piris Reis expedition map-en.svg|thumb|upright=1.3|alt=Map of the voyage from Suez to Basra; full details at the link and in this section|Piri Reis' expedition against Hormuz]]

Following the success at Aden, Sultan Suleiman instructed Piri Reis to take the Portuguese-controlled [[Hormuz Island]] at the mouth of the [[Persian Gulf]].<ref name="Önalp-2010-pp1-2">{{harvnb|Önalp|2010|pp=1–2}}.</ref> Taking [[Bahrain Island]] was a secondary objective. In April 1552, Piri Reis left Suez with 25 galleys, five ships, and 850 soldiers.<ref>{{multiref |{{harvnb|Floor|2006|p=175}}; |{{harvnb|Özbaran|2009|pp=107-108}}.}}</ref> In August, the Ottoman Fleet [[Capture of Muscat (1552)|took Muscat]] after a one-month siege. When the Portuguese garrison surrendered, the Ottomans took them prisoner and [[Galley slave|forced them to work the oars]] on galleys in the fleet.<ref name="Floor-2006-p176">{{harvnb|Floor|2006|pp=175-176}}.</ref> The Ottomans pillaged the area, destroyed fortifications, regrouped, and continued to Hormuz as a consolidated fleet.<ref>{{harvnb|Casale|2010|p=97}}.</ref> The expedition cleared the coast of the [[Arabian Peninsula]] of Portuguese occupation,<ref>{{harvnb|Malekandathil|2010|p=117}}.</ref> and Portuguese forces prepared for the coming attack on Hormuz by evacuating most of the island. Wealthy residents of Hormuz took refuge on the nearby island of [[Qeshm]], and the Portuguese soldiers and Hormuz royal family retreated to the fortress.<ref name="Floor-2006-p176" />

Ottoman soldiers entered the [[Hormuz, Iran|city of Hormuz]] in September 1552, but could not take the fortress.<ref name="Floor-2006-p176" /> They [[Ottoman campaign against Hormuz|besieged and bombarded it]] for several weeks, but Piri Reis grew concerned about the Portuguese fleet attacking them during the siege.<ref name="Özbaran 2009 110">{{harvnb|Özbaran|2009|p=110}}.</ref> The Ottoman forces ran low on gunpowder, and Kubad Pasha, the governor of Basra, did not send supplies to the siege.<ref name="Soucek 2011 61">{{harvnb|Soucek|2011|p=61}}.</ref> In October 1552, the Ottomans sacked the city, looted Qeshm, and retreated into the gulf with over a million pieces of gold.<ref name="Floor-2006-p176" /> The fleet arrived at Basra by 1553.<ref>{{harvnb|Isom-Verhaaren|2022|p=104}}.</ref> A letter from the Portuguese governor inside the fortress, dated 31&nbsp;October 1552, said that the walls had been near collapsing, but that the Ottomans had run low on "munitions, gunpowder, and other war materials", much of which they had lost when a galleon{{emdash}}a type of larger sailing ship{{emdash}}sank on the way to Hormuz.<ref>{{multiref |{{harvnb|Özbaran|2009|p=111}}; |{{harvnb|Oxford|2007|at="Galleon"}}.}}</ref> The [[List of governors of Portuguese India|Portuguese governor of India]], {{ill|Afonso de Noronha|es}}, organized a fleet of 40 ships led by his nephew Antão de Noronha that reached Hormuz in November 1552.<ref>{{harvnb|Özbaran|2009|pp=110–111}}.</ref>

Piri Reis was executed following his retreat at Hormuz. After the expedition's failure, Kubad Pasha denied Piri Reis rowers for his galleys.<ref>{{multiref|{{harvnb|Önalp|2010|pp=1-2}}; |{{harvnb|Floor|2006|p=176}}.}}</ref> Historian Svat Soucek suggested that hostility between the two men "may have been at the root" of Piri Reis' decision to return to Egypt quickly and the "accusatory report the Pasha probably sent to Constantinople."<ref name="Soucek 2011 61"/> Leaving most of the fleet behind, Piri Reis returned with only two ships in 1553.<ref name="Floor-2006-p176" /> The gold he brought back to Egypt played a role in his death sentence. Ottoman histories criticize Piri Reis for looting Qeshm. Some even allege that he accepted bribery.<ref>{{harvnb|Soucek|2011|pp=61–62}}.</ref> Those allegations were unlikely, as a delegation from Hormuz traveled to Constantinople to demand compensation, but they may have been believed at the time of his execution.<ref>{{harvnb|Soucek|2011|p=63}}.</ref> Venetian diplomats in Constantinople sent a letter dated 15&nbsp;November 1553 stating that Piri Reis had been replaced by the captain [[Seydi Ali Reis]] and "charged with having raised the siege of the fortress of Hormuz because of bribery". For sacking the city instead of maintaining the siege, the sultan had him beheaded in [[Cairo]]. The exact date of his execution is unknown.<ref name="Pedani-2015-p324">{{harvnb|Pedani|2015|p=324}}.</ref>{{efn|Piri Reis was possibly survived by a son, Mehmed Reis, who is known only from a single portolan map of the Aegean.<ref>{{harvnb|Angelov|Bazzaz|Batsaki|2013|p=84}}.</ref>}}

Soon after his death, Piri Reis' fleet in Basra was destroyed by the Portuguese. Seydi Ali Reis attempted to return the fleet to Suez, but [[Battle of the Gulf of Oman|the Portuguese intercepted them]]. The Ottoman ships were captured, destroyed, or swept out to sea.<ref>{{harvnb|Casale|2010|pp=100-102}}.</ref>

== Works ==

Piri Reis' cartography was unusual for sixteenth-century Turkish and broader Islamic cartography for its deep engagement with recent European discoveries.<ref>{{harvnb|Soucek|1994|pp=133–141}}.</ref> Three of his works survive to the present day.<ref>{{harvnb|Robinson|1996|p=70}}.</ref> Fragments of his [[Piri Reis map|1513 world map]] and his 1528 world map are held in the [[Topkapı Palace]] Museum in [[Istanbul]].<ref>{{harvnb|Anatolia News Agency|2013}}.</ref><ref>{{harvnb|McIntosh|2015|p=317}}.</ref> Copies of the ''[[Kitab-ı Bahriye]]'', a navigational atlas, are kept in libraries and museums around the world, although Piri Reis' original manuscripts are lost.<ref name="Soucek-1992-p272">{{harvnb|Soucek|1992|p=272}}.</ref>

Across his works, Piri Reis engaged with the European Age of Discovery.<ref>{{multiref|{{harvnb|Soucek|1994|pp=134-135}};|{{harvnb|Ayyubi|1989|p=739}}.}}</ref> His first world map incorporated many non-Muslim sources, unusual for Islamic cartography of the period, and it famously cites a now-lost map by Christopher Columbus.<ref>{{harvnb|Soucek|1994|pp=123, 129, 134-136}}.</ref> The second edition of the ''Kitab-ı Bahriye'' incorporated information from recent Portuguese and Spanish voyages, including [[Vasco da Gama]]'s [[Portuguese discovery of the sea route to India|discovery of a sea route to India]],<ref name="Casale-2010-p37" /> and his 1528 world map cited recent Portuguese voyages to [[Labrador]] and [[Newfoundland (island)|Newfoundland]].<ref>{{harvnb|İnan|1954|pp=43–45}}.</ref> 

All of his surviving maps are [[portolan chart]]s, late medieval nautical maps with [[compass rose]]s from which lines of bearing radiate. Widely produced and used by European navigators,<ref>{{multiref |{{harvnb|McIntosh|2000a|pp=60–61}}; |{{harvnb|Dutch|2010}}; |{{harvnb|Soucek|1992|p=277}}; |{{harvnb|McIntosh|2015|p=305}}.}}</ref> they were designed for navigation by [[dead reckoning]], a method where a ship's location is estimated from direction, speed, and elapsed time.<ref>{{harvnb|McIntosh|2000a|pp=60–61}}.</ref> Portolan charts employ a [[windrose network]] matching the directions of a [[compass]] rather than a [[Geographic coordinate system|longitude and latitude grid]].<ref name="Dutch-2010">{{harvnb|Dutch|2010}}.</ref> Piri Reis' maps employed standard portolan symbols to indicate hazards, such as dots for shallow water and [[sand bank]]s, and crosses for rocks and [[reef]]s.<ref name="Soucek-1992-p277" /><ref name="McIntosh-2015-p305">{{harvnb|McIntosh|2015|p=305}}.</ref>

Piri Reis' works also reveal his attitude toward European discoveries.<ref>{{harvnb|Casale|2019|pp=871–877}}.</ref> In the 1513 world map and the ''Kitab-ı Bahriye'' preface, he rhetorically undermines the significance of European discoveries by reframing them as the rediscovery of ancient knowledge.<!--attribute undermine as a separate thought from reframing--> He invokes [[Alexander the Great]] when explaining Columbus' discoveries.<ref>{{harvnb|Casale|2019|pp=871, 874–876}}.</ref> According to the [[Quran]] and Turkish literary tradition, [[Dhu al-Qarnayn]]—believed to be a [[Theories about Alexander the Great in the Quran|Quranic reference to Alexander the Great]]—traveled to every corner of the world, thereby defining its limits.<ref>{{harvnb|Casale|2019|pp=864–867, 875}}.</ref> Marginal inscriptions on the world map mention "charts drawn in the days of Alexander" and a book that "fell into the hands" of Columbus describing lands "at the end of the Western Sea".<ref>{{harvnb|Akçura|1935|loc=sec. V}}.</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Akçura|1935|loc=sec. VI}}.</ref> In the 1526 version of the ''Kitab-ı Bahriye'', he explicitly credits European discoveries to lost works created during the legendary voyages of Alexander:<ref>{{harvnb|Casale|2019|p=875}}.</ref>

{{blockquote
|text=My friend, the [[Franks#Crusaders and other Western Europeans as "Franks"|Franks]] both read and write everything there is to know about the science of the sea. But do not suppose that they invented such knowledge on their own; and if you wish, I will explain why. During his time, the famous ruler Alexander traveled over all the seas, and whatever he saw and whatever he heard he had recorded, item by item, by a competent person.
|author=Piri Reis
|source=''Kitab-ı Bahriye'' (1526)<ref>{{multiref |{{harvnb|Casale|2019|p=875}} cites: |{{harvnb|Piri Reis|1988}}.}}</ref>
}}

=== Piri Reis map of 1513 ===
{{main|Piri Reis map}}
[[File:Piri reis world map 01.jpg|thumb|alt=Map of the Atlantic with Arabic writing|Surviving fragment of the first world map of Piri Reis (1513)]]

The [[Piri Reis map]] of 1513 is a [[world map]] compiled from a range of contemporary and [[Classical antiquity|classical]] sources.<ref name="Soucek-2013-p140"/> Roughly one third of the map survives,<ref>{{harvnb|McIntosh|2000a|pp=8–9}}.</ref> housed in the Topkapı Palace in Istanbul.<ref>{{harvnb|Massetti|Veracini|2016|p=41}}.</ref> The finished manuscript was dated to the [[Islamic calendar|Islamic year]] 919&nbsp;AH, equivalent to 1513&nbsp;AD.<ref>{{harvnb|Massetti|Veracini|2016|p=42}}.</ref> After the empire's conquest of [[Ottoman Egypt|Egypt]], Piri Reis presented the 1513 world map to Sultan Selim I, and the map vanished from history until rediscovered centuries later.<ref>{{harvnb|Casale|2019|p=871}}.</ref><ref name="Soucek-1992-p270" />

When rediscovered in 1929,<ref name="Şengör-2004-cites">{{multiref |{{harvnb|Şengör|2004}} cites: |{{harvnb|Adıvar|1939|pp=59–60}}.}}</ref> the remaining fragment attracted international attention for including a partial copy of an otherwise lost map by [[Christopher Columbus]].<ref name="Gerber-2010-p199">{{harvnb|Gerber|2010|p=199}}.</ref>{{efn|There is disagreement on how much of the map draws from Columbus. Paul Kahle and most later scholars attributed everything north and west of the phantom island Antilia to this source.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Kahle|1933|p=628}}; |{{harvnb|İnan|1954|pp=37–40}}; |{{harvnb|McIntosh|2000a|pp=131–133}}.}}</ref> Svat Soucek expressed doubts about Kahle's "supposed connection",<ref name="Soucek 1992 270–271">{{harvnb|Soucek|1992|pp=270–271}}.</ref> and commented that "as for the 'map made by Columbus', Piri Reis' own map shows that he must also have used other sources depicting South America (specifically, the eastern bulge of the continent, thus Brazil), which Columbus could not have known" about when the map would have been produced.<ref name="Soucek-2013-p140">{{harvnb|Soucek|2013|p=140}}.</ref> Researcher Gregory McIntosh found that Cuba, Central America, and Hispaniola could be clearly attributed to an early map from Columbus,<ref>{{harvnb|McIntosh|2014|p=372}}.</ref> but not necessarily the [[Lesser Antilles]]. McIntosh noted that the duplication of some features like the Virgin Islands indicated an attempt to join a second map in that area.<ref>{{harvnb|McIntosh|2000a|pp=134–139}}.</ref>}} The map's longest inscription tells the story of Columbus' discovery of the Americas and states that Piri Reis and his uncle captured a Spaniard who had sailed with Columbus. The inscription credits part of the map's depiction of the Americas to a prisoner who said that he received a map from Columbus.<ref>{{harvnb|McIntosh|2000a|loc=ch. 7}}.</ref> Scholarly analysis of the placenames, knowledge of the Americas, and cartographic misconceptions indicates that Piri Reis likely did use a map composed during one of Columbus' early voyages to the Americas.<ref>{{harvnb|McIntosh|2000a|loc=ch. 10}}.</ref> For example, on the mainland in the northwest, a stretch of coast is labelled ''Ornofay'', a term recorded by Columbus but not found on other maps.<ref name="McIntosh-2000a-pp104-105">{{harvnb|McIntosh|2000a|pp=104–105}}.</ref>{{efn|Akçura transliterates the name as ''Kawpunta Arofi'',<ref>{{harvnb|Akçura|1935}}.</ref> and McIntosh as ''Kaw Punta Orofay'', with two plausible translations: "Cape Point Ornofay" or "Cuba, Point Ornofay".<ref name="McIntosh-2000a-pp104-105"/>}}

[[File:CipangoComparisonOfPiriReis1513MapToBehaimGlobe.svg|thumb|alt=Side by side outlines of the map's depiction of the Caribbean and the Behaim globe's depiction of Asia's east coast show different coastlines but a similar arrangement of land masses.|Comparison of Piri Reis' Caribbean (left) to [[Erdapfel|Martin Behaim's Asia]] (right)]]

The map contains extensive notes primarily in [[Ottoman Turkish]].<ref name="McIntosh-2000b">{{harvnb|McIntosh|2000b|p=21}}.</ref> The [[Colophon (publishing)|colophon]] in Arabic is written in a different handwriting,<ref name="Soucek-2013-p139">{{harvnb|Soucek|2013|p=139}}.</ref> likely that of Piri Reis himself.<ref name="McIntosh-2000a-p15">{{harvnb|McIntosh|2000a|p=15}}.</ref> The depiction of South America is detailed and accurate for its time.<ref>{{harvnb|İnan|1954|pp=35, 38}}.</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Soucek|1996|pp=58, 73–74}}.</ref> The northwestern coast combines features of Central America and Cuba into a single body of land. Scholars attribute this peculiar arrangement of the [[Caribbean]] to a now-lost map from Columbus that merged Cuba into the Asian mainland and [[Hispaniola]] with [[Marco Polo]]'s description of Japan.<ref name="Gaspar-2015-pp1-3">{{harvnb|Gaspar|2015|pp=1–3}}.</ref><ref>{{harvnb|McIntosh|2000a|p=91}}.</ref> 

This reflects Columbus's erroneous claim that he had found a new route to Asia.<ref>{{harvnb|McIntosh|2000a|pp=114, 136}}.</ref> During the 1494 exploration of Cuba, Columbus was so adamant that he had found Asia,{{efn|Cathay was a historical name for China, and Marco Polo described ''Mangi'' as directly south of Cathay. Columbus identified the native placename, ''Mago'', for a region on the southern side of Cuba as Marco Polo's ''Mangi''.<ref>{{harvnb|McIntosh|2000a|p=103}}.</ref> He wrote of Cuba, "I thought it must be the mainland, the province of Cathay... . At length, after the proceeding of many leagues, and finding that nothing new presented itself, and that the coast was leading me northwards".<ref>{{harvnb|McIntosh|2000a|p=106}}.</ref>}} that he had a notary board each of his ships anchored off the coast. Columbus compelled his men to swear that Cuba was a part of Asia and agree to never contradict this interpretation "under a penalty of 10,000 maravedis and the cutting out of the tongue".<ref>{{harvnb|Kahle|1933|p=632}}.</ref> Historian Joaquim Gaspar has suggested that both Columbus's notary stunt and his creation of a map with Hispaniola rotated to match Japan were an attempt to motivate his own men with the unattainable promise of wealth upon reaching India. Gaspar points out the difficulty in navigating the Caribbean by compass using a map with a second north and Cuba unfolded into a North&ndash;South coast,<ref>{{harvnb|Gaspar|2015|pp=3–4}}.</ref> McIntosh suggests the possibility of an unofficial map for navigation, and an official map presented as evidence of his continued claims of having discovered a route to Asia.<ref>{{harvnb|McIntosh|2000a|pp=136–137}}.</ref>

The southernmost conclusively identified feature on the map is a stretch of Brazilian coastline including [[Cabo Frio]] (''Kav Friyo'' on the map), possibly the earliest depiction of [[Rio de Janeiro]], and likely the area around [[Cananéia]], labeled ''Katino'' on the map.<ref>{{harvnb|McIntosh|2000a|p=36}}.</ref> Beyond this point, the coast curves sharply east. Cartographic historian [[Svat Soucek]] has suggested this is the coast of South America, bent to fit the natural curve of the skin the map was drawn on.<ref name="Soucek-1992-p271-272">{{harvnb|Soucek|1992|pp=271-272}}.</ref> However, there is no textual or historical evidence that the map represents land south of present-day Cananéia.<ref>{{harvnb|McIntosh|2000a|pp=37–38}}.</ref> Most scholars interpret this southern coast as a version of ''[[Terra Australis]]'', a southern landmass once hypothesized to balance the known land in the Northern Hemisphere.<ref>{{harvnb|McIntosh|2000a|pp=49-50, 68}}.</ref>  A disproven 20th-century hypothesis identified the southern landmass with an ice-free Antarctic coast.<ref>{{harvnb|McIntosh|2000a|loc=ch. 6}}.</ref> Antarctica was last free of ice over ten million years ago.<ref name="Heinrich-2001">{{harvnb|Heinrich|2001}}.</ref> However, the inscription on the southern coast records that the Portuguese explored the area. According to the Portuguese sources, the land was hot and home to large snakes.<ref>{{harvnb|McIntosh|2000a|p=40}}.</ref>

The map is visually distinct from European portolan charts, influenced by the tradition of [[Islamic miniature]] painting.<ref>{{harvnb|Pinto|2012|p=71}}.</ref> Piri Reis adapted the elements of iconography from the [[Geography and cartography in the medieval Islamic world#History|traditional maps]]—which illustrated well-known routes, cities, and peoples—to the portolan portrayals of newly discovered coasts.<ref name="Pinto-2012">{{harvnb|Pinto|2012}}.</ref> Historian Karen Pinto has described the positive portrayal of [[legendary creature]]s from the edge of the known world in the Americas as breaking away from the medieval Islamic idea of an impassable "Encircling Ocean" surrounding the [[Old World]].<ref>{{harvnb|Pinto|2012|pp=80, 90}}.</ref> Scholarly debate continues over some of the map's sources and the identification of certain geographic features.<ref>{{harvnb|McIntosh|2000a|pp=2, 15–18, 26, 30, 41, 100}}.</ref>

=== <span class="anchor" id="Book of Navigation"></span> ''Kitab-ı Bahriye'' ===
{{main|Kitab-ı Bahriye}}
[[File:Piri ibn haji mehmed, corsica, nel kitab-i bahriye (libro delle cose del mare), 1590 ca. (bnf) 01.jpg|alt=Large book open with Arabic text on one page and a multicolor illustrated map opposite|thumb|upright=1.3|A copy open to the page on [[Corsica]]]]

The ''Kitab-ı Bahriye'' ({{langx|ota|كتاب بحرية}}), or ''Book of the Sea'', is a navigational atlas.<ref name="Casale-2010-p37" />{{efn|Other translations of the title:
* ''Book of Maritime Matters''{{hairsp}}<ref name="Soucek-1992-p266"/>
* ''Book on Navigation''{{hairsp}}<ref name="Hepworth-2005-p73"/>
* ''Book of Navigation''{{hairsp}}<ref name="Goodrich-2004">{{harvnb|Goodrich|2004}}.</ref>}} Piri Reis compiled navigational charts and notes into the most detailed portolan atlas of the sixteenth century.<ref name="Goodrich-2004-pt1">{{harvnb|Goodrich|2004|loc=pt. 1}}.</ref> The ''Kitab-ı Bahriye'' combines information from a range of sources. It also draws from Piri Reis' own experience, especially for the coast of [[North Africa]]; the section on [[Tunisia]] relies heavily on his personal observations.<ref>{{harvnb|Soucek|1992|pp=277–279}}.</ref> For example, the description of the [[Galite Islands]] just off the Tunisian coast notes the dangers posed by southern winds, the availability of wild goats, and the quality of the fresh water which Piri Reis compares in flavor to [[rose water]].<ref>{{multiref |{{harvnb|Soucek|1976|p=177}} cited in: |{{harvnb|FSTC Research Team|2010|loc=sec. 6}}.}}</ref>

The main part of both versions is a nautical guide to the [[Mediterranean Sea]]. Separate chapters cover different locations with corresponding charts. Piri Reis says he composed an atlas because any single map has limited space for written details, and some "knowledge cannot be known from maps; it must be explained." There are 130 chapters in the first version and 210 in the second.<ref name="Soucek-1992-p272" /> The chapters start at the [[Dardanelles]], the narrow [[strait]] separating Asia from Europe, and move counter-clockwise around the Mediterranean.<ref>{{harvnb|İnan|1954|pp=21–22}}.</ref> Each map has a compass rose indicating North for that page.<ref name="Soucek-1992-p277">{{harvnb|Soucek|1992|p=277}}.</ref><ref name="Goodrich-2004-pt1" /> Scale is indicated only in the textual descriptions, not with scale bars.<ref name="Goodrich-2004-pt1" /> Written when Ottoman sailors relied on oar-driven [[galley]]s, the ''Kitab-ı Bahriye'' reflects their needs and capabilities. It gives information on coastal waters, safe harbors, hazards, and sources of fresh water.<ref>{{harvnb|Soucek|1992|pp=273–274}}.</ref>

There are two versions of the book, both dedicated to [[Suleiman the Magnificent]].<ref name="Soucek-1992-p272" />  The first version was composed between 1511 and 1521.<ref name="Lepore-2013-p85">{{harvnb|Lepore|Piccardi|Rombai|2013|p=85}}.</ref>{{efn|Soucek (1992) notes that work on the book began in 1511 around the same time as work on the 1513 world map.<ref name="Soucek-1992-p267"/> Soucek (2013) gives 1520 as the completion date.<ref>{{harvnb|Soucek|2013|p=135}}.</ref> Hepworth (2005) says the book was "presented" in 1521.<ref name="Hepworth-2005-p73"/> Lepore, Piccardi, and Rombai (2013) say the book "appeared" in 1521.<ref name="Lepore-2013-p85"/>}} The second, expanded version was commissioned by the Grand Vizier and presented to the Sultan in 1526.<ref name="Casale-2010-p37" /> The second version begins with a longer introduction written in verse.<ref name="Casale-2010-p37" /> This introduction offers information on storms, winds, navigating with a compass, navigating by the stars, reading nautical charts, and the [[ocean]]s.<ref name="Soucek-1992-p272" /> It offers the first detailed Ottoman description of the [[Indian Ocean]],<ref name="Casale-2010-p37"/> and gives special attention to [[Hormuz Island]] at the [[Strait of Hormuz|strait leading into the Persian Gulf]].<ref name="Soucek-2013-p139"/>

The book achieved fame only after Piri Reis' death.<ref name="Casale-2010-p186">{{harvnb|Casale|2010|p=186}}.</ref> The known surviving manuscripts are all copies created beginning in the latter half of the sixteenth century.<ref name="Goodrich-2004"/> At least some portion of the book has been translated into English, modern Turkish, Greek, French, German, and Italian.<ref>{{harvnb|Lepore|Piccardi|Rombai|2013|p=86}}.</ref>

=== 1528 world map ===
[[File:Second World Map of Piri Reis.jpg|thumb|right|alt=Map of the Caribbean and other areas in the New World|Surviving fragment of the second world map of Piri Reis (1528)]]

Piri Reis compiled a second world map in 1528. Only the northwest corner of the map survives. The parchment fragment is approximately {{convert|70|cm|sp=us}} square.<ref name="McIntosh-2015-p303">{{harvnb|McIntosh|2015|p=303}}.</ref> As with the 1513 map, the 1528 map has calligraphic inscriptions in Ottoman-Turkish written in the Arabic alphabet. The colophon is in Arabic, likely handwritten by Piri Reis himself. According to the colophon, Piri Reis compiled the map in 1528 in Gelibolu.<ref name="McIntosh-2015-p306">{{harvnb|McIntosh|2015|p=306}}.</ref> However, he may not have completed it until 1529.<ref name="McIntosh-2015-p303"/>

The 1528 map was a portolan chart like his earlier works.<ref name="McIntosh-2015-p305"/> It has one line of latitude, the [[Tropic of Cancer]], positioned slightly south of the correct position for Cuba and the Yucatan.<ref name="Tekeli 1985 681">{{harvnb|Tekeli|1985|p=681}}.</ref> Each section of the [[Scale (map)|scale]] indicates {{cvt|50|mi|order=flip}}.<ref>{{harvnb|İnan|1954|p=45}}.</ref>

The map is more accurate than Piri Reis' first world map and reflects recent discoveries in the Americas.<ref name="Ayyubi-1989-p739"/> Based on its depiction of newly explored regions like Greenland, Newfoundland, and Florida, the map likely relied on Spanish, Portuguese, and Italian maps from the 1520s.<ref name="McIntosh-2015-p303" /> Hispaniola and Cuba are much more accurate compared to the 1513 world map. Cuba, labeled "''Isla di [[Havana|Vana]]''", is now correctly positioned as an island in the Caribbean.<ref>{{multiref |{{harvnb|McIntosh|2015|p=307}}; |{{harvnb|Tekeli|1985|p=681}}.}}</ref> Unlike the 1513 map, unexplored regions are left blank.<ref>{{harvnb|İnan|1954|p=48}}.</ref> Only the explored southern coasts of Florida are on the map. The [[geography of Florida]] is left ambiguous as potentially an island or [[peninsula]]. The [[Spanish Empire]]'s master map, the ''[[Padrón Real]]'', included this same ambiguity until 1520 and influenced Italian cartography, such as the [[Freducci map]].<ref>{{harvnb|McIntosh|2015|pp=307–309}}.</ref>

== Legacy ==
[[File:PiriReis IstanbulNavalMuseum.JPG|thumb|alt=Photograph of a bust, stored at a museum, of a bearded and turbaned man|Bust of Piri Reis in the [[Istanbul Naval Museum]]]]

Piri Reis' cartography received limited appreciation during his lifetime. Historian Svat Soucek said that the works of Piri Reis "show that although the Ottoman Empire had the potential to participate in the discoveries, its ruling elite spurned the attempt to blaze a trail in this direction".<ref>{{harvnb|Soucek|2013|p=143}}.</ref> Ottoman historian {{ill|Cengiz Orhonlu|tr}} examined sixteenth-century Turkish authors who wrote about Piri Reis' execution. Orhonlu found that they criticized Piri Reis' performance during the Siege of Hormuz but did not discuss his maps or writing.<ref>{{harvnb|Soucek|2011|pp=38-39}}.</ref> Piri Reis was not regarded especially highly as a seafarer by Turkish contemporaries; his reputation was overshadowed by his uncle Kemal Reis, and both were surpassed by later Ottoman sailors like the Barbarossas.<ref>{{harvnb|Isom-Verhaaren|2022|pp=88, 98}}.</ref> In the 21st century, Piri Reis is remembered as a cartographer more than a corsair or an admiral.<ref>{{harvnb|Isom-Verhaaren|2022|p=6}}.</ref>

The 1513 world map disappeared from the historical record until its rediscovery centuries later.<ref name="Soucek-1992-p270"/> There is no evidence that either version of his atlas circulated outside the royal palace prior to 1550.<ref name="Casale-2010-p186" /> Copies produced after Piri Reis' death were often created for their aesthetic value rather than practical navigation.<ref name="Soucek-2013-p141" /> No Turkish school of cartography or navigation was established to build on his work.<ref name="Soucek-1994-p135">{{harvnb|Soucek|1994|p=135}}.</ref> [[Murat Reis the Elder]]'s expedition to the [[Canary Islands]] and the 1586 [[Sack of Lanzarote (1586)|Sack of Lanzarote]] were some of the few times when Piri Reis' Atlantic cartography was likely used by the Ottoman Navy.<ref name="Muhaj-2014-p265">{{harvnb|Muhaj|2014|p=265}}.</ref> The empire's navy—even during the Canary Islands expedition—remained largely composed of oar-driven galleys after the point where other naval powers were moving to sailing ships suited to the open oceans.<ref name="Muhaj-2014-p265" /> Ottoman scholar [[Kâtip Çelebi]] built on the ''Kitab-i Bahriye'' in his seventeenth-century work, ''Müntehab-ı Bahriyye'',<ref>{{harvnb|Sarıcaoğlu|2009|p=120}}.</ref> but by the eighteenth century, major works of cartography from Western Europe were being translated into Turkish.<ref>{{harvnb|Sarıcaoğlu|2009|pp=123–124}}.</ref>

[[File:Piri Reis-Gelibolu001.jpg|thumb|alt=Bust in Gelibolu captioned, "Piri Reis 1470 to 1553"|Bust of Piri Reis in Gelibolu]]

When Piri Reis' world map was unearthed in 1929, it received international media attention for containing the surviving piece of an otherwise lost map of Christopher Columbus.<ref name="Gerber-2010-p199"/> Turkey's first president, [[Mustafa Kemal Atatürk]], took an interest in the map and initiated projects to publish facsimiles and conduct research.<ref>{{harvnb|İnan|1954|p= 4}}.</ref> Discovered during [[Atatürk's reforms]] to modernize Turkey, the map was a point of national pride. Its rediscovery also sparked interest in the ''Kitab-ı Bahriye''.<ref>{{multiref |{{harvnb|Soucek|2013|p=141}}; |{{harvnb|Soucek|1994|p=135}}.}}</ref> A facsimile of the book's second version was published by the [[Turkish Historical Society]] in 1935,<ref>{{harvnb|Soucek|2013|pp=135–144}}.</ref> and a four-volume facsimile with photographic quality was published in 1988.<ref>{{harvnb|Goodrich|2004|loc=pt. 2}}.</ref> Several ships and submarines have been named after him, including the [[RV K. Piri Reis|RV&nbsp;K.&nbsp;''Piri&nbsp;Reis'']] and [[Reis-class submarine|TCG&nbsp;''Pirireis'']].<ref>{{multiref|{{harvnb|Ozberk|2024}}; |{{harvnb|NHHC|2016}}; |{{harvnb|"Experts Investigate"|2024}}.}}</ref> The [[Piri Reis University]] for maritime studies was founded in 2008.<ref>{{harvnb|"Başbakan"|2010}}.</ref> In the Turkish TV series ''[[Barbaros: Sword of the Mediterranean]]'', he is portrayed by actor Emir Benderlioğlu.<ref>{{harvnb|Kamburoğlu|2022}}.</ref>

Piri Reis' 1513 world map is the subject of pseudoscientific claims and is sometimes invoked in broader pop culture as an unsolved mystery. Civil engineer [[Marta Wittkowska#Marriage|Arlington Mallery]], professor [[Charles Hapgood]], and Hapgood's students developed the hypothesis that the 1513 world map contained cartographic information, notably from an ice-free Antarctic coast, that exceeded the map-making abilities of the sixteenth century. In his 1966 book ''Maps of the Ancient Sea Kings'', Hapgood claims islands along the map's southern Atlantic shore depict what are now ice-covered mountains in Antarctica's [[Queen Maud Land]] region.<ref>{{harvnb|McIntosh|2000a|pp=53–58}}.</ref> Hapgood's book was met with skepticism due to its lack of evidence and reliance on [[cataclysmic pole shift hypothesis|cataclysmic pole shift]], the disproven geological hypothesis that the Earth's entire crust could shift around the planet.<ref>{{multiref |{{harvnb|McIntosh|2000a|pp=60–62}}; |{{harvnb|Stunkel|1967}};|{{harvnb|Davies|1985}}.}}</ref> According to geologist Paul Heinrich, the book also did not account for [[post-glacial rebound]], the process where land rises after glacial ice melts and flows away. Additionally,  the 1949 survey initially cited by Mallery could not measure even one percent of the area drawn in the Piri Reis map. Subsequent studies have shown no significant similarities to Antarctica's coast.<ref name="Heinrich-2001"/> While the 1513 world map has been described by some authors as anomalous in its accuracy, it is no more precise than other sixteenth-century manuscript maps.<ref>{{harvnb|McIntosh|2000a|p=41}}.</ref> Hapgood's claims have been uncritically repeated by [[Erich von Däniken]] in support of [[ancient astronauts]] and by [[Graham Hancock]] in support of an advanced lost civilization.<ref>{{multiref |{{harvnb|Fagan|2006|p=35}}; |{{harvnb|McIntosh|2000a|p=58}}.}}</ref> The map and polar shift were key plot elements in [[Allan W. Eckert]]'s science fiction novel ''[[The HAB Theory]]''.<ref>{{harvnb|Pinto|2012|pp=65–67}}.</ref> Historian Karen Pinto commented that popular speculation had contributed to Piri Reis becoming "more famous than the Sultan who hanged him."<ref>{{harvnb|Pinto|2012|pp=67-68}}.</ref>

==Notes==
{{Notelist}}

== References ==
{{reflist|20em}}

==Bibliography==
* {{Citation |last=Adıvar |first=Abdülhak Adnan |title=La Science Chez les Turcs Ottomans |date=1939 |trans-title=Science among the Ottoman Turks |edition=1st |place=Paris |publisher=G.P. Maisonneuve et Larose |language=fr |oclc=11676376 |author-link=Adnan Adıvar}}
* {{Cite book |last=Ágoston |first=Gábor |title=The Last Muslim Conquest: The Ottoman Empire and Its Wars in Europe |date=2023 |publisher=Princeton University Press |isbn=978-0-691-20539-7 |location=Princeton |language=en}}
* {{Citation |last=Akçura |first=Yusuf |title=Piri Reis Haritasi |year=1935 |url=https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Piri_Reis_Haritas%C4%B1_%C4%B0zahat.pdf |chapter=Piri Reis' Map |chapter-url=https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Piri_Reis%27_Map |edition=1st |place=Istanbul |publisher=Türk Tarih Kurumu (Turkish Historical Society) |oclc=42754605 |author-link=Yusuf Akçura}}
* {{Cite news |author=Anatolia News Agency |date=23 January 2013 |title=Topkapı Palace Museum Features Piri Reis Collection |url=https://www.hurriyetdailynews.com/topkapi-palace-museum-features-piri-reis-collection-39707 |work=Hürriyet Daily News |language=en |issn=1304-6640}}
* {{Cite book |last=Angelov |first=Dimiter |url=http://nrs.harvard.edu/urn-3:hul.ebook:CHS_BazzazS_etal_eds.Imperial_Geographies.2013 |title=Imperial Geographies in Byzantine and Ottoman Space |last2=Bazzaz |first2=Sahar |last3=Batsaki |first3=Yota |date=2013 |publisher=Center for Hellenic Studies |location=Washington, DC |oclc=792886439}}
* {{Citation |last=Ayyubi |first=N. Akmal |title=Contribution of Piri Reis to Cartography |date=1989 |work=Proceedings of the Indian History Congress |volume=50 |pages=737–740 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/44146128 |publisher=Indian History Congress |issn=2249-1937 |jstor=44146128}}
* {{Cite news |ref={{sfnref|"Başbakan"|2010}} |date=2 October 2010 |title=Başbakan Gençlerden Beklentisini Açıkladı |trans-title=The Prime Minister Announces His Expectations from Young People |url=https://www.hurriyet.com.tr/gundem/basbakan-genclerden-beklentisini-acikladi-15923172 |work=Hürriyet Daily News |language=tr |issn=1304-6640}}
* {{Cite book |last=Brotton |first=Jerry |author-link=Jerry Brotton |url=https://archive.org/details/tradingterritori0000brot |title=Trading Territories: Mapping the Early Modern World |date=1998 |publisher=Cornell University Press |isbn=978-0-8014-3499-0 |location=Ithaca, New York |url-access=registration}}
* {{Cite book |last=Casale |first=Giancarlo |url=http://www.oxfordscholarship.com/view/10.1093/acprof:oso/9780195377828.001.0001/acprof-9780195377828 |title=The Ottoman Age of Exploration |date=28 January 2010 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-537782-8 |location=Oxford |language=en |doi=10.1093/acprof:oso/9780195377828.003.0003}}
* {{Citation |last=Casale |first=Giancarlo |title=Did Alexander the Great Discover America? Debating Space and Time in Renaissance Istanbul |date=2019 |work=Renaissance Quarterly |volume=72 |issue=3 |pages=863–909 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/26845906 |doi=10.1017/rqx.2019.252 |jstor=26845906 |s2cid=204482631 |url-access=subscription}}
* {{Citation |last=Davies |first=Gordon L. Herries |title=Reviewed Work(s): Maps of the Ancient Sea Kings. Evidence of Advanced Civilization in the Ice Age by Charles H. Hapgood |work=Imago Mundi |volume=37 |pages=108–109 |year=1985 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/1150840 |jstor=1150840}}
* {{Citation |last=Dutch |first=Steven |title=The Piri Reis Map |work=Science, Pseudoscience, and Irrationalism |year=2010 |orig-date=1998 |url=http://www.uwgb.edu/dutchs/pseudosc/piriries.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130813090645/http://www.uwgb.edu/dutchs/PSEUDOSC/PiriRies.HTM |archive-date=13 August 2013 |url-status=dead |via=University of Wisconsin–Green Bay}}
* {{Cite book |title=The Oxford Encyclopedia of the Islamic world |date=2009 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-530513-5 |editor-last=Esposito |editor-first=John L. |location=New York}}
* {{Cite web |ref={{sfnref|"Experts Investigate"|2024}} |date=31 August 2024 |title=Experts Investigate Fish Deaths, Pollution Crisis in Izmir Bay |url=https://www.turkiyetoday.com/lifestyle/pollution-crisis-in-izmir-bay-46978/ |work=Türkiye Today}}
* {{Citation |last=Fagan |first=Garrett G. |title=Archaeological Fantasies: How Pseudoarchaeology Misrepresents the Past and Misleads the Public |year=2006 |url=https://archive.org/details/archaeologicalfa0000unse_e5v3 |place=Abingdon |publisher=Routledge |language=en |isbn=978-041530-592-1 |author-link=Garrett G. Fagan}}<!--
* {{Cite book |last=Finkel |first=Caroline |author-link=Caroline Finkel |title=Osman's Dream: the Story of the Ottoman Empire, 1300–1923 |date=2007 |publisher=Basic Books |isbn=978-0-465-02397-4 |location=New York}}-->
* {{Cite book |last=Floor |first=Willem M. |author-link=Willem Floor |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HVa3AAAAIAAJ |title=The Persian Gulf: A Political and Economic History of Five Port Cities, 1500-1730 |date=2006 |publisher=Mage Publishers |isbn=978-1-93382-312-6 |location=Washington, DC |language=en}}
* {{Cite web |last=FSTC Research Team |date=2010-02-13 |title=Piri Reis: A Genius 16th-Century Ottoman Cartographer and Navigator |url=https://muslimheritage.com/piri-reis-16th-c-cartographer-navigator/ |access-date=2024-08-12 |website=Muslim Heritage}}
* {{Citation |last=Gaspar |first=Joaquim Alves |title=The Representation of the West Indies in Early Iberian Cartography: A Cartometric Approach |date=2015 |work=Terrae Incognitae |volume=47 |issue=1 |pages=10–32 |url=https://www.academia.edu/11922812 |doi=10.1179/0082288415Z.00000000041 |s2cid=128885931}}
* {{Citation |last=Gerber |first=Albrecht |title=Deissmann the Philologist |year=2010 |edition=1st |place=Berlin |publisher=De Gruyter |isbn=978-3-11022-432-0}}
* {{Cite book |last=Gitman |first=Esther |author-link=Esther Gitman |title=A Legacy of the Jews of Yugoslavia with a Focus on Sarajevo |date=20 May 2024 |publisher=Cambridge Scholars Publishing |isbn=978-1-0364-0500-7 |location=Cambridge and New York |language=en}}
* {{Cite conference |last=Goodrich |first=Thomas D. |author-link=Thomas Goodrich (author) |date=27–29 September 2004 |title=Piri Reis'in Kitab-ı Bahriye İsimli Eserindeki 5658 Harita |trans-title=The  5658 Maps of the Kitab-i Bahriye of Piri Reis |url=http://www.shodb.gov.tr/pirireis/oturumlar/piri_reisin_kitab_i_bahriyesinic_5658_haritasi.htm |conference=Piri Reis Sempozyumu |location=Harbiye, Istanbul |publisher=Istanbul Military Museum |at=[https://web.archive.org/web/20130404111235/http://www.shodb.gov.tr/pirireis/oturum_6.htm Oturum 6: Piri Reis'in Bahriye Adlı Kitabının Tartışılması Genel Değerlendirme ve Kapanış] |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150516061930/http://www.shodb.gov.tr/pirireis/oturumlar/piri_reisin_kitab_i_bahriyesinic_5658_haritasi.htm |archive-date=16 May 2015}}
* {{Cite web |last=Grima |first=Joseph F. |date=24 October 2021 |title=The Order of St John's Arrival in Malta in 1530 |url=https://timesofmalta.com/article/the-order-of-st-johns-arrival-in-malta-in-1530.909655 |website=Times of Malta |language=en-gb}}
* {{Cite web |last=Heinrich |first=Paul |year=2001 |title=Fingerprints of the Gods Re: Piri Reis Map |url=https://www.hallofmaat.com/wsog/fingerprints-of-the-gods-re-piri-reis-map/ |postscript=,}} Geologist and Archaeological Geologist at [https://www.lsu.edu/lgs/personnel/heinrich-paul.php Louisiana State University].
* {{Cite journal |last=Hepworth |first=Paul |date=2005 |title=Production and Date of the Walters' 'Kitab-i Bahriye' |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/20650882 |journal=The Journal of the Walters Art Museum |volume=63 |pages=73–80 |issn=1946-0988 |jstor=20650882}}
* {{Cite journal |last=Hess |first=Andrew C. |date=1970 |title=The Evolution of the Ottoman Seaborne Empire in the Age of the Oceanic Discoveries, 1453-1525 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/1848022 |journal=The American Historical Review |volume=75 |issue=7 |pages=1892–1919 |doi=10.2307/1848022 |issn=0002-8762 |jstor=1848022 |url-access=subscription}}
* {{Cite book |last=Hillgarth |first=Jocelyn N. |url=https://archive.org/details/spanishkingdoms10002hill |title=The Spanish Kingdoms: 1250–1516. Volume II: 1410–1516, Castilian Hegemony |date=1978 |publisher=[[Clarendon Press]] |isbn=978-0-19-822531-7 |place=Oxford}}
* {{Citation |last=İnan |first=Afet |title=The Oldest Map of America, Drawn by Piri Reis |year=1954 |url=https://archive.org/details/inan-afet-the-oldest-map-of-america-drawn-by-piri-reis/page/n1/mode/2up |place=Ankara |publisher=Türk Tarih Kurumu Basimevi |oclc=2435662 |ref=CITEREFİnan1954 |last2=Yolaç |first2=Leman (trans.) |author-link=Afet İnan}}
* {{cite book |last=İnan |first=Afet |title=Piri Reis'in Hayatı ve Eserleri |date=2020 |publisher=Türk Tarih Kurumu Yayınları |isbn=978-975-16-0443-9 |edition=7th |location=Ankara |language=tr |trans-title=Piri Reis's Life and Works |orig-date=1974}}
* {{Cite book |last=Isom-Verhaaren |first=Christine |title=The Sultan's Fleet: Seafarers of the Ottoman Empire |date=2022 |publisher=I.B. Tauris |isbn=978-0-7556-4173-4 |edition=First published |location=London, New York, Oxford, New Delhi and Sydney}}
* {{Citation |last=Kahle |first=Paul E. |title=A Lost Map of Columbus |date=October 1933 |work=Geographical Review |volume=23 |issue=4 |pages=621–638 |bibcode=1933GeoRv..23..621K |doi=10.2307/209247 |jstor=209247 |author-link=Paul E. Kahle}}
* {{Cite news |date=24 March 2022 |editor-last=Kamburoğlu |editor-first=Hakan |title=Son Dakika: Barbaroslar Piri Reis Kimdir? Barbaroslar Akdeniz'in Kılıcı Piri Reis'i Emir Benderlioğlu Canlandırıyor! Emir Benderlioğlu kaç Yaşında? - Son Dakika Magazin Haberleri |trans-title=Last minute: Who is Barbaroslar Piri Reis? Barbaroslar Piri Reis, the Sword of the Mediterranean, is played by Emir Benderlioğlu! How old is Emir Benderlioğlu? - Last Minute Magazine News |url=https://www.cnnturk.com/magazin/son-dakika-barbaroslar-piri-reis-kimdir-barbaroslar-akdenizin-kilici-piri-reisi-emir-benderlioglu-canlandiriyor-emir-benderlioglu-kac-yasinda-1738665 |work=CNN Türk |language=tr}}
* {{Cite book |title=Other Routes: 1500 Years of African and Asian Travel Writing |publisher=Signal |year=2006 |isbn=978-1-90495-512-2 |editor-last=Khair |editor-first=Tabish |editor-link=Tabish Khair |location=Oxford |pages=127–131 |chapter=Piri Reis: The Voyages of a 'Corsair' (c. 1526) |oclc=61177562}}
* {{Cite journal |last=Lepore |first=Fortunato |last2=Piccardi |first2=Marco |last3=Rombai |first3=Leonardo |date=2013 |title=Looking at the Kitab-i Bahriye of Piri Reis |url=http://www.e-perimetron.org/Vol_8_2/Lepore_et_al.pdf |volume=8 |issn=1790-3769 |number=2 |periodical=E-Perimetron}}
* {{Cite book |last=Malekandathil |first=Pius |author-link=Pius Malekandathil |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rN69iFj1PJoC&pg=PA117 |title=Maritime India-Trade, Religion and Polity in the Indian Ocean |date=2010 |publisher=Primus Books |isbn=978-9-38060-701-6 |location=Delhi |language=en}}
* {{Citation |last=Massetti |first=Marco |title=The Zoomorphic Representations of the Pîrî Reis Map (1513) |work=Anthropozoologica |volume=51 |issue=1 |pages=41–54 |year=2016 |url=https://sciencepress.mnhn.fr/sites/default/files/articles/pdf/az2016n1a3.pdf |doi=10.5252/az2016n1a3 |hdl=10400.5/28972 |s2cid=192924551 |last2=Veracini |first2=Cecilia}}
* {{Citation |last=McIntosh |first=Gregory C. |title=The Piri Reis Map of 1513 |year=2000a |url=https://archive.org/details/gregory-c.-mc-intosh-the-piri-reis-map-of-1513 |place=Athens, Georgia |publisher=University of Georgia Press |isbn=978-0-82034-359-4}}
* {{Citation |last=McIntosh |first=Gregory C. |title=The Tale of Two Admirals: Columbus and the Piri Reis Map of 1513 |work=Mercator's World |volume=5 |issue=3 |pages=18–23 |year=2000b |url=https://www.academia.edu/5173346 |publisher=Aster |issn=1086-6728}}
* {{Citation |last=McIntosh |first=Gregory C. |title=Seapower, Technology, and Trade: Studies in Turkish Maritime History |year=2014 |chapter=The Piri Reis Map of 1513: Art and Literature in the Service of Science |edition=Digital |place=Istanbul |publisher=Piri Reis University |isbn=978-9-94426-451-8}}
* {{Cite journal |last=McIntosh |first=Gregory C. |date=August 2015 |title=The Piri Reis Map of 1528: A Comparative Study with Other Maps of the Time |url=https://www.storiamediterranea.it/portfolio/agosto-2015/ |journal=Mediterranea. Ricerche Storiche. |location=Palermo |publisher=Mediterranea |issue=34 |issn=1828-230X}}
* {{Cite book |last=Mikaberidze |first=Alexander |url=https://www.google.com/books/edition/Conflict_and_Conquest_in_the_Islamic_Wor/Y6fOEAAAQBAJ |title=Conflict and Conquest in the Islamic World: A Historical Encyclopedia |date=2011 |publisher=ABC-CLIO |isbn=978-1-59884-336-1 |volume=2 |location=Santa Barbara, California}}
* {{Cite conference |last=Muhaj |first=Ardian |date=December 2014 |title=Ottoman Corsairs in the Atlantic During the 16th Century: Murat Rais, the Albanian and the First Ottoman Expedition to the Canary Islands |url=https://www.academia.edu/6329881 |conference=International Symposium of Piri Reis and Turkish Maritime History |location=Ankara |publisher=Türk Tarịhi Kurumu |pages=261–269, 402–405 |isbn=978-975-16-2915-9}}
* {{Citation |last=Nebenzahl |first=Kenneth |title=Atlas of Columbus and the Great Discoveries |year=1990 |place=Chicago |publisher=Rand McNally |isbn=978-0-52883-407-3 |author-link=Kenneth Nebenzahl}}
* {{Cite web |last=NHHC |date=21 April 2016 |title=Mapiro (SS-376) |url=https://www.history.navy.mil/research/histories/ship-histories/danfs/m/mapiro.html |website=Dictionary of American Naval Fighting Ships |publisher=Naval History and Heritage Command |oclc=2794587}}
* {{Cite journal |last=Önalp |first=Ertuğrul |date=2010 |title=The Military Expedition of Piri Reis to Hormuz and the Considerations of Turkish and Portuguese Historians About his Execution |url=https://faculty.ksu.edu.sa/73454/DocLib21/Piri%20Reis'in%20Hurmuz%20Seferi.pdf |journal=Ankara Üniversitesi Dil ve Tarih-Coğrafya Fakültesi Tarih Bölümü Tarih Araştırmaları Dergisi |language=tr |volume=29 |issue=47 |doi=10.1501/Tarar_0000000453 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131212065805/http://faculty.ksu.edu.sa/73454/DocLib21/Piri%20Reis'in%20Hurmuz%20Seferi.pdf |archive-date=12 December 2013}}
* {{Cite book |ref={{harvid|Oxford|2007}} |title=Oxford Companion to Ships and the Sea |date=2007 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-172750-4 |edition=2nd |series=Oxford Reference Online |location=Oxford}}
* {{Cite book |last=Özbaran |first=Salih |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zR4tAQAAIAAJ |title=Ottoman Expansion Toward the Indian Ocean in the 16th Century |date=2009 |publisher=İstanbul Bilgi University Press |isbn=978-605-399-062-8 |edition=1st |location=Şişli, İstanbul}}
* {{Cite web |last=Ozberk |first=Tayfun |date=25 August 2024 |title=Turkish Navy Commissions First Reis-class AIP Submarine TCG Piri Reis |url=https://www.navalnews.com/naval-news/2024/08/turkish-navy-commissions-first-reis-class-aip-submarine-tcg-piri-reis/ |website=Naval News |issn=1481-4307}}
* {{Cite journal |last=Pedani |first=Maria Pia |author-link=Maria Pia Pedani |date=August 2015 |title=Piri Reis in Venetian Documents |url=https://www.storiamediterranea.it/portfolio/agosto-2015/ |journal=Mediterranea. Ricerche Storiche. |location=Palermo |publisher=Mediterranea |issue=34 |issn=1828-230X}}
* {{Citation |last=Pinto |first=Karen |title=Searchin' His Eyes, Lookin' for Traces: Piri Reis' World Map of 1513 & Its Islamic Iconographic Connections (A Reading Through Bagdat 334 and Proust) |work=Journal of Ottoman Studies |volume=39 |issue=1 |pages=63–94 |year=2012 |url=https://cupola.gettysburg.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1010&context=histfac |issn=2376-0702}}
* {{Cite book |author=Piri Reis |title=Kitab-ı Bahriye |date=1988 |publisher=Türk Tarih Kurumu |volume=3 |location=Ankara |oclc=24995082 |orig-date=1526}}
* {{Cite book |last=Pryor |first=John H. |url=https://archive.org/details/geographytechnol0000pryo/page/193/ |title=Geography, Technology, and War Studies in the Maritime History of the Mediterranean, 649–1571 |date=1988 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-34424-1 |location=Cambridge}}
* {{Cite book |last=Robinson |first=Francis |author-link=Francis Robinson |url=https://archive.org/details/cambridgeillustr0000unse_x8p1 |title=The Cambridge Illustrated History of the Islamic World |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=1996 |isbn=978-0-52143-510-9 |location=London}}
* {{Cite book |last=Sarıcaoğlu |first=Fikret |url=https://psi424.cankaya.edu.tr/uploads/files/Agoston%20and%20Masters,%20Enc%20of%20Ott%20Empire.PDF |title=Encyclopedia of the Ottoman Empire |date=2009 |publisher=Infobase Publishing |isbn=978-1-43811-025-7 |editor-last=Ágoston |editor-first=Gábor |location=New York |language=en |chapter=Cartography |editor-last2=Masters |editor-first2=Bruce Alan}}
* {{Cite conference |last=Şengör |first=Ali Mehmet Celâl |author-link=Celâl Şengör |date=2004 |title=Piri Reis'in Haritası Nasıl Bulundu? |trans-title=Who Discovered the 1513 Map of Piri Reis? |url=http://www.shodb.gov.tr/pirireis/oturumlar/piri_reis_haritasi_nasil.htm |location=Harbiye, Istanbul |publisher=Istanbul Military Museum |at=[https://web.archive.org/web/20130404111130/http://www.shodb.gov.tr/pirireis/oturum_1.htm Oturum 1: Piri Reis'in Hayatının İncelenmesi] |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071025033830/http://www.shodb.gov.tr/pirireis/oturumlar/piri_reis_haritasi_nasil.htm |archive-date=25 October 2007 |work=Piri Reis Sempozyumu}}
* {{Cite book |last=Shaw |first=Stanford J. |author-link=Stanford J. Shaw |url=https://archive.org/details/historyofottoman00stan |title=History of the Ottoman Empire and Modern Turkey |date=29 October 1976 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-52129-163-7 |volume=1 |location=Cambridge |language=en |chapter=The Apogee of Ottoman Power, 1451-156: The Eastern Seas}}
* {{cite book |last=Shepherd |first=William Robert |url=https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_6Zc9AAAAYAAJ/page/n107/mode/2up?q=%22ottoman+empire%22 |title=Historical Atlas |date=1911 |publisher=Henry Holt Company |location=New York |oclc=55177220}}
* {{cite journal |last=Soucek |first=Svat |date=1976 |title=Tunisia in the Kitab-i Bahriye of Piri Reis |journal=Archivum Ottomanicum |volume=5 |pages=129–296 |issn=0378-2808}}
* {{Citation |last=Soucek |first=Svat |title=Cartography in the Traditional Islamic and South Asian Societies |volume=2 |number=1 |pages=263–272 |year=1992 |editor-last=Harley |editor-first=J. B. |editor-last2=Woodward |editor-first2=D. |editor-link2=David Woodward (cartographer) |url=https://press.uchicago.edu/books/HOC/HOC_V2_B1/Volume2_Book1.html |chapter=Islamic Charting in the Mediterranean |chapter-url=https://www.press.uchicago.edu/books/HOC/HOC_V2_B1/HOC_VOLUME2_Book1_chapter14.pdf |location=Chicago |publisher=University of Chicago Press |isbn=978-0-226-31635-2 |author-link=Svat Soucek |editor-link1=John Brian Harley}}
* {{Citation |last=Soucek |first=Svat |title=Piri Reis and Ottoman Discovery of the Great Discoveries |work=Studia Islamica |issue=79 |pages=121–142 |year=1994 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/1595839 |doi=10.2307/1595839 |jstor=1595839 |author-link=Svat Soucek |url-access=subscription}}
* {{Cite book |last=Soucek |first=Svat |author-link=Svat Soucek |title=Piri Reis and Turkish Mapmaking After Columbus: The Khalili Portolan Atlas |publisher=The Nour Foundation |year=1996 |isbn=978-0-19-727501-6 |series=Studies in the Khalili Collection |volume=2 |location=London |orig-year=1992}}
* {{Cite journal |last=Soucek |first=Svat |author-link=Svat Soucek |date=2004 |title=Navals Aspects of the Ottoman Conquests of Rhodes, Cyprus and Crete |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/20059216 |journal=Studia Islamica |issue=98/99 |pages=219–261 |issn=0585-5292 |jstor=20059216}}
* {{Cite book |last=Soucek |first=Svat |author-link=Svat Soucek |title=Studies in Ottoman Naval History and Maritime Geography |date=2011 |publisher=Georgia Press |isbn=978-1-61719-150-3 |location=Georgia |language=en}}
* {{Citation |last=Soucek |first=Svat |title=His Uniqueness Among Cartographers and Hydrographers of the Renaissance |work=Cartes & Géomatique |issue=216 |pages=135–144 |year=2013 |url=https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download;jsessionid=09F33FCEF2BC21E763D542BE343F3446?doi=10.1.1.692.1619&rep=rep1&type=pdf |citeseerx=10.1.1.692.1619 |author-link=Svat Soucek}}
* {{cite book |last=Stanley |first=Bruce |url=https://archive.org/details/citiesofmiddleea0000unse/page/8/mode/1up?q=Aden |title=Cities of the Middle East and North Africa: A Historical Encyclopedia |date=2007 |publisher=Bloomsbury Academic |isbn=978-1-57607-919-5 |editor-last1=Dumper |editor-first1=Michael |chapter=Aden |editor-last2=Stanley |editor-first2=Bruce}}
* {{Citation |last=Stunkel |first=Kenneth R. |title=Reviewed Work(s): Maps of the Ancient Sea Kings: Evidence of Advanced Civilization in the Ice Age by Charles Hapgood |work=Geographical Review |volume=57 |issue=3 |pages=440–442 |year=1967 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/212645 |doi=10.2307/212645 |jstor=212645 |url-access=subscription}}
* {{Citation |last=Tekeli |first=Sevim |title=The Map of America by Piri Reis |work=Erdem |volume=1 |issue=3 |pages=673–683 |year=1985 |doi=10.32704/erdem.1985.3.673 |s2cid=167145440 |author-link=Sevim Tekeli}}
* {{citation |ref={{harvid|Tureng|2025}} |title=Tureng Turkish English Dictionary |url=https://tureng.com/en/turkish-english/reis |access-date=18 October 2025 |location=Turkey |publisher=Tureng Çeviri Ltd |id=989 B.16.0.THS.0.10.02.00/681 209221}}
* {{Cite magazine |last=Urguplu |first=Ahmet |date=1 July 2015 |title=Piri Reis and His World Map |url=https://fountainmagazine.com/all-issues/2015/issue-106-july-august-2015/piri-reis-and-his-world-map-july-august-2015?__cf_chl_tk=mfSW3n1AyTd6xkvYfb4T_o24WQH8zL0mrJXnVs41Re8-1721448176-0.0.1.1-4479 |magazine=The Fountain |issn=0967-9928}}
* {{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VF-zDwAAQBAJ |title=Turkish Foundations in Rhodes and Kos |date=2 October 2019 |publisher=Eğitim Yayinevi |isbn=978-6-05778-613-5 |editor-last=Yaldız |editor-first=Mustafa |location=Konya |language=en |editor-last2=Kaymakçı |editor-first2=Cihan |editor-last3=Özgün |editor-first3=Fırat}}

==External links==
* {{Commons category-inline}}
* {{Cite news |last=Bostan |first=İdris |date=30 January 2014 |title=Piri Reis: Ottoman Sailor of the Exploration Age |url=https://www.seanews.com.tr/authors/prof-idris-bostan/piri-reis-ottoman-sailor-of-the-exploration-age/119874/ |work=SeaNews |language=en |issn=2791-6588}}
* {{Citation |last=Cuoghi |first=Diego |title=Part 1 (Piri Reis) |date=2002 |work=The Mysteries of the Piri Reis map |url=https://www.diegocuoghi.com/Piri_Reis/PiriReis_eng.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20040310223207/http://xoomer.virgilio.it:80/dicuoghi/Piri_Reis/PiriReis_eng.htm |archive-date=10 March 2004 |url-status=live}}
* {{cite web |last1=İnan |first1=Afet |last2=Yolaç |first2=Leman |date=1954 |title=Piri Reis Map of 1513 |url=http://www.turkeyinmaps.com/piri.html}} Numbered English translation of the 1513 world map.
* {{Cite conference |last=Loupis |first=Dimitris |year=2004 |title=Piri Reis' Book on Navigation (Kitab-ı Bahriye) as a Geography Handbook |url=https://www.academia.edu/1188647 |conference=Eastern Mediterranean cartographies |location=Athens, Greece |publisher=National Hellenic Research Foundation |oclc=892160459 |ref=none}}
* {{Cite web |author=Piri Reis |title=Kitab-ı Bahriye [W.658] |url=https://www.thedigitalwalters.org/Data/WaltersManuscripts/html/W658/description.html |publisher=Walters Art Museum |location=Baltimore}} Full color scans of every page.

{{Seamen of the Ottoman Empire}}
{{Islamic geography}}
{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Reis, Piri}}
[[Category:Piri Reis| ]]
[[Category:1460s births]]
[[Category:1550s deaths]]
[[Category:15th-century explorers]]
[[Category:15th-century people from the Ottoman Empire]]
[[Category:16th-century executions by the Ottoman Empire]]
[[Category:16th-century explorers]]
[[Category:16th-century people from the Ottoman Empire]]
[[Category:Cartographers from the Ottoman Empire]]
[[Category:Executed people from the Ottoman Empire]]
[[Category:Executed Turkish people]]
[[Category:Greeks from the Ottoman Empire]]
[[Category:Naval history of the Ottoman Empire]]
[[Category:People executed by the Ottoman Empire by decapitation]]
[[Category:People from Gelibolu]]
[[Category:People from the Ottoman Empire of Greek descent]]
[[Category:Suleiman the Magnificent]]
[[Category:Turks from the Ottoman Empire]]
[[Category:Year of birth unknown]]