View source for Politics

{{Short description|Activities associated with group decisions}}
{{About||other uses}}
{{pp-move}}
{{pp-pc|small=yes}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=June 2020}}
{{Distinguish|Policy}}
[[File:24.09.2024 - Abertura do Debate Geral da 79ª Sessão da Assembleia Geral das Nações Unidas (54018866744).jpg|upright=1.1|thumb|The opening of the 79th session of the [[United Nations General Assembly]]]]
{{Politics}}
'''Politics''' ({{etymology|grc|''{{Wikt-lang|grc|πολιτικά}}'' ({{grc-transl|πολιτικά}})|affairs of the cities}}) is the set of activities that are associated with [[decision-making|making decisions]] in [[social group|groups]], or other forms of [[power (social and political)|power relations]] among individuals, such as the distribution of [[Social status|status]] or [[resource]]s.
The branch of [[social science]] that studies politics and [[government]] is referred to as [[political science]].

Politics may be used positively in the context of a "political solution" which is compromising and non-violent,<ref>{{harvnb|Leftwich|2015|p=68}}.</ref> or descriptively as "the art or science of government", but the word often also carries a negative connotation.<ref name="HagueHarrop2013">{{harvnb|Hague|Harrop|2013|p=1}}.</ref> The concept has been defined in various ways, and different approaches have fundamentally differing views on whether it should be used extensively or in a limited way, empirically or normatively, and on whether conflict or co-operation is more essential to it.

A variety of methods are deployed in politics, which include [[Political campaign|promoting one's own political views]] among people, [[negotiation]] with other political subjects, making [[law]]s, and exercising internal and external [[force (law)|force]], including [[warfare]] against adversaries.<ref name="Hammarlund1985">{{harvnb|Hammarlund|1985|p=8}}.</ref><ref name="Brady2017">{{harvnb|Brady|2017|p=47}}.</ref><ref name="HawkesworthKogan2013">{{harvnb|Hawkesworth|Kogan|2013|p=299}}.</ref><ref name="Taylor2012">{{harvnb|Taylor|2012|p=130}}.</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Blanton|Kegley|2016|p=199}}.</ref> Politics is exercised on a wide range of social levels, from [[clans]] and [[tribes]] of traditional [[Society|societies]], through modern [[local government]]s, [[company|companies]] and [[institution]]s up to [[sovereign state]]s, to the [[international politics|international level]].

In modern [[State (polity)|states]], people often form [[political parties]] to represent their ideas. Members of a party often agree to take the same position on many issues and agree to support the same changes to law and the same leaders. An [[election]] is usually a competition between different parties.

A [[political system]] is a framework which defines acceptable political methods within a society. The [[history of political thought]] can be traced back to early antiquity, with seminal works such as [[Plato]]'s ''[[Republic (Plato)|Republic]]'', [[Aristotle]]'s ''[[Politics (Aristotle)|Politics]]'', [[Confucius]]'s political manuscripts and [[Chanakya]]'s ''[[Arthashastra]]''.<ref>{{harvnb|Kabashima|White III|1986}}</ref>

== Etymology ==
The English word ''politics'' has its roots in the name of [[Aristotle]]'s classic work, ''[[Politics (Aristotle)|Politiká]]'', which introduced the [[Ancient Greek]] term {{Transliteration|grc|''politiká''}} ({{langx|grc|Πολιτικά|label=none|italic=yes|lit=affairs of the cities}})''.'' In the mid-15th century, Aristotle's composition was rendered in [[Early Modern English]] as {{Sic|''Polettiques''}},<ref group="lower-alpha">"The book of {{Sic|Etiques and of Polettiques}}" (Bhuler 1961/1941:154).</ref><ref>Buhler, C. F., ed. 1961 [1941]. ''[[Dictes and Sayings of the Philosophers|The Dictes and Sayings of the Philosophers]].'' London: [[Early English Text Society]], [https://books.google.com/books?id=M7G0AAAAIAAJ ''Original Series'' No. 211] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160905030633/https://books.google.com/books?id=M7G0AAAAIAAJ&q= |date=5 September 2016 }}.</ref> which became ''Politics'' in [[Modern English]].

The singular ''politic'' first attested in English in 1430, coming from [[Middle French]] {{Langx|fr|politique|label=none}}—itself taking from {{Langx|la|politicus|label=none}},<ref>{{harvnb|Lewis|Short|1879|loc=online}}.</ref> a [[Latinisation of names|Latinization]] of the Greek {{langx|grc|πολιτικός|label=none|italic=yes}} ({{Transliteration|grc|politikos}}) from {{langx|grc|πολίτης|label=none}} ({{langx|grc|polites|label=none|italic=yes|lit=citizen}}) and {{langx|grc|πόλις|label=none}} ({{langx|grc|[[polis]]|label=none|italic=yes|lit=city}}).<ref name="A Greek-English Lexicon">{{cite web |title=A Greek-English Lexicon |url=https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3Dpolitiko%2Fs |last1=Liddell |first1=Henry George |last2=Scott |first2=Robert |website=Perseus Digital Library |publisher=Tufts Library |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150924203856/http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3Dpolitiko%2Fs |archive-date=24 September 2015 |access-date=19 February 2016}}</ref>

=== Definitions ===
* [[Harold Lasswell]]: "who gets what, when, how"<ref>{{harvnb|Lasswell|1963}}.</ref>
* [[David Easton]]: "the authoritative allocation of values for a society"<ref name="Easton 1981">{{harvnb|Easton|1981}}.</ref>
* [[Vladimir Lenin]]: "the most concentrated expression of economics"<ref>{{harvnb|Lenin|1965}}.</ref>
* [[Otto von Bismarck]]: "the capacity of always choosing at each instant, in constantly changing situations, the least harmful, the most useful"<ref>Reichstag speech by Bismarck, January 29, 1886, in: ''Bismarck, The Collected Works''. Friedrichsruher edition, vol. 13: Speeches. Edited by Wilhelm Schüßler, Berlin 1930, p. 177.</ref>
* [[Bernard Crick]]: "a distinctive form of rule whereby people act together through institutionalized procedures to resolve differences"<ref>{{harvnb|Crick|1972}}.</ref>
* [[Adrian Leftwich]]: "comprises all the activities of co-operation, negotiation and conflict within and between societies"<ref>{{harvnb|Leftwich|2004|p=103}}.</ref>

== Approaches ==
There are several ways in which approaching politics has been conceptualized.

=== Extensive and limited ===
[[Adrian Leftwich]] has differentiated views of politics based on how extensive or limited their perception of what accounts as 'political' is.<ref>{{harvnb|Leftwich|2004|pp=14–15}}.</ref> The extensive view sees politics as present across the sphere of human social relations, while the limited view restricts it to certain contexts. For example, in a more restrictive way, politics may be viewed as primarily about [[governance]],<ref>{{harvnb|Leftwich|2004|p=23}}.</ref> while a [[Feminist political theory|feminist perspective]] could argue that sites which have been viewed traditionally as non-political, should indeed be viewed as political as well.<ref>{{harvnb|Leftwich|2004|p=119}}.</ref> This latter position is encapsulated in the slogan "''[[the personal is political]]''", which disputes the distinction between private and public issues. Politics may also be defined by the use of power, as has been argued by [[Robert A. Dahl]].<ref>{{harvnb|Dahl|2003|pp=1–11}}.</ref>

=== Moralism and realism ===
Some perspectives on politics view it empirically as an exercise of power, while others see it as a social function with a [[normative]] basis.<ref>{{harvnb|Morlino|2017|p=2}}.</ref> This distinction has been called the difference between [[Moralism|political ''moralism'']] and [[Realism (international relations)|political ''realism'']]''.''<ref name=":3">{{harvnb|Atkinson|2013|pp=1–5}}.</ref> For moralists, politics is closely linked to [[ethics]], and is at its extreme in [[utopia]]n thinking.<ref name=":3" /> For example, according to [[Hannah Arendt]], the view of [[Aristotle]] was that, "to be political…meant that everything was decided through words and persuasion and not through violence";<ref>{{harvnb|Leftwich|2004|p=73}}.</ref> while according to [[Bernard Crick]], "politics is the way in which free societies are governed. Politics is politics, and other forms of rule are something else."<ref>{{harvnb|Leftwich|2004|p=16}}.</ref> In contrast, for realists, represented by those such as [[Niccolò Machiavelli]], [[Thomas Hobbes]], and [[Harold Lasswell]], politics is based on the use of power, irrespective of the ends being pursued.<ref>{{harvnb|Morlino|2017|p=3}}.</ref><ref name=":3" />

=== Conflict and co-operation ===
[[Agonism]] argues that politics essentially comes down to conflict between conflicting interests. Political scientist Elmer Schattschneider argued that "at the root of all politics is the universal language of conflict",<ref>{{cite book |last1=Schattschneider |first1=Elmer Eric |title=The semisovereign people : a realist's view of democracy in America |date=1960 |publisher=Dryden P |isbn=0-03-013366-1 |page=2 |oclc=859587564}}</ref> while for [[Carl Schmitt]] the essence of politics is the distinction of 'friend' from 'foe'.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Mouffe |first1=Chantal |author-link=Chantal Mouffe |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8yIEQ1RPGx8C&q=carl+schmitt+1999&pg=PR7 |title=The Challenge of Carl Schmitt |date=1999 |publisher=Verso |isbn=978-1-85984-244-7 |language=en |access-date=28 October 2020 |archive-date=26 January 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210126155532/https://books.google.com/books?id=8yIEQ1RPGx8C&q=carl+schmitt+1999&pg=PR7 |url-status=live }}</ref> This is in direct contrast to the more co-operative views of politics by Aristotle and Crick. However, a more mixed view between these extremes is provided by Irish political scientist Michael Laver, who noted that:<blockquote>Politics is about the characteristic blend of conflict and co-operation that can be found so often in human interactions. Pure conflict is war. Pure co-operation is true love. Politics is a mixture of both.<ref>{{harvnb|van der Eijk|2018|pp=11, 29}}.</ref></blockquote>

== History ==
{{main|Political history of the world}}
{{see also|History of political thought}}

[[File:Head of Aristotle.jpg|thumb|right|upright=.8|The Greek philosopher [[Aristotle]] criticized many of [[Plato]]'s ideas as impracticable, but, like Plato, he admires balance and moderation and aims at a harmonious city under the rule of law.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.crf-usa.org/bill-of-rights-in-action/bria-26-1-plato-and-aristotle-on-tyranny-and-the-rule-of-law.html#:~:text=Plato%20and%20Aristotle%20both%20developed,is%20granted%20to%20a%20ruler |title=Constitutional Rights Foundation |publisher=Crf-usa.org |date= |access-date=2022-02-20 |archive-date=16 February 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220216184550/https://www.crf-usa.org//bill-of-rights-in-action/bria-26-1-plato-and-aristotle-on-tyranny-and-the-rule-of-law.html#:~:text=Plato%20and%20Aristotle%20both%20developed,is%20granted%20to%20a%20ruler |url-status=live }}</ref>]]
The history of politics encompasses the entirety of [[human history]] and is not confined to the development of modern [[Government|governmental institutions]] 

=== Prehistoric ===
Early human forms of social organization—bands and tribes—lacked centralized political structures.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Fukuyama |first1=Francis |title=The origins of political order : from prehuman times to the French Revolution |date=2012 |publisher=Farrar, Straus and Giroux |isbn=978-0-374-53322-9 |page=56 |oclc=1082411117}}</ref> These are sometimes referred to as [[Stateless society|stateless societies]].

=== Early states ===
In ancient history, [[Ancient civilizations|civilizations]] did not have definite boundaries as [[Nation state|state]]s have today, and their borders could be more accurately described as [[frontier]]s. [[Sumer#Early Dynastic Period|Early dynastic Sumer]], and [[Ancient Egypt#Early Dynastic Period|early dynastic Egypt]] were the [[first civilization]]s to define their [[border]]s. Moreover, up to the 12th century, many people lived in non-state societies. These range from relatively egalitarian [[Band society|bands]] and [[tribe]]s to complex and highly stratified [[chiefdom]]s.

==== State formation ====
{{main|State formation}}

There are a number of different theories and hypotheses regarding early state formation that seek generalizations to explain why '''[[State (polity)|the state]]''' developed in some places but not others. Other scholars believe that generalizations are unhelpful and that each case of early state formation should be treated on its own.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Spencer |first1=Charles S. |last2=Redmond |first2=Elsa M. |date=15 September 2004 |title=Primary State Formation in Mesoamerica |journal=Annual Review of Anthropology |volume=33 |issue=1 |pages=173–199 |doi=10.1146/annurev.anthro.33.070203.143823 |issn=0084-6570}}</ref>

'''Voluntary theories''' contend that diverse groups of people came together to form states as a result of some shared rational interest.<ref name="Carneiro 733–738">{{harvnb|Carneiro|1970|pp=733–738}}.</ref> The theories largely focus on the development of agriculture, and the population and organizational pressure that followed and resulted in state formation. One of the most prominent theories of early and primary state formation is the ''hydraulic hypothesis'', which contends that the state was a result of the need to build and maintain large-scale irrigation projects.<ref>{{cite book |url=https://archive.org/details/originsofstatean0000unse |title=Origins of the state : the anthropology of political evolution |date=1978 |publisher=Philadelphia : Institute for the Study of Human Issues |via=Internet Archive |page=30}}</ref>

'''[[Conflict theories]]''' of state formation regard conflict and dominance of some population over another population as key to the formation of states.<ref name="Carneiro 733–738" /> In contrast with voluntary theories, these arguments believe that people do not voluntarily agree to create a state to maximize benefits, but that states form due to some form of oppression by one group over others. Some theories in turn argue that warfare was critical for state formation.<ref name="Carneiro 733–738" />

==== Ancient history ====
The first states of sorts were those of [[Sumer#Early Dynastic Period|early dynastic Sumer]] and [[Ancient Egypt#Early Dynastic Period|early dynastic Egypt]], which arose from the [[Uruk period]] and [[Predynastic Egypt]] respectively around approximately 3000 BC.<ref name="ancientlocations">{{harvnb|Daniel|2003|p=xiii}}.</ref> Early dynastic Egypt was based around the [[Nile River]] in the north-east of [[Africa]], the kingdom's boundaries being based around the Nile and stretching to areas where [[Oasis|oases]] existed.<ref>{{harvnb|Daniel|2003|pp=9–11}}.</ref> Early dynastic [[Sumer]] was located in southern [[Mesopotamia]], with its borders extending from the [[Persian Gulf]] to parts of the [[Euphrates River|Euphrates]] and [[Tigris River|Tigris]] rivers.<ref name="ancientlocations" />

Egyptians, Romans, and the Greeks were the first people known to have explicitly formulated a political philosophy of the state, and to have rationally analyzed political institutions. Prior to this, states were described and justified in terms of religious myths.<ref>{{harvnb|Nelson|Nelson|2006|p=17}}.</ref>

Several important political innovations of [[classical antiquity]] came from the [[Greek city states|Greek city-states]] (''[[polis]]'') and the [[Ancient Rome|Roman Republic]]. The Greek city-states before the 4th century granted [[Athenian democracy#Citizenship in Athens|citizenship]] rights to their free population; in [[Athens]] these rights [[Athenian democracy|were combined]] with a [[Direct democracy|directly democratic]] form of government that was to have a long afterlife in political thought and history.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Kumar |first=Sanjay |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iGc9EAAAQBAJ&dq=The+Greek+city-states+before+the+4th+century+granted+citizenship+rights+to+their+free+population%3B+in+Athens+these+rights+were+combined+with+a+directly+democratic+form+of+government+that+was+to+have+a+long+afterlife+in+political+thought+and+history.&pg=PA53 |title=A Handbook of Political Geography |date=2021 |publisher=K.K. Publications |language=en |access-date=22 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230324145301/https://books.google.com/books?id=iGc9EAAAQBAJ&dq=The+Greek+city-states+before+the+4th+century+granted+citizenship+rights+to+their+free+population%3B+in+Athens+these+rights+were+combined+with+a+directly+democratic+form+of+government+that+was+to+have+a+long+afterlife+in+political+thought+and+history.&pg=PA53 |archive-date=24 March 2023 |url-status=live}}</ref>

=== Modern states ===
[[File:Women voter outreach 1935 English Yiddish.jpg|thumb|right|upright=1|Women voter outreach (1935)]]
The [[Peace of Westphalia]] (1648) is considered by [[Political science|political scientists]] to be the beginning of the modern international system,<ref name="Osiander">{{harvnb|Osiander|2001|p=251}}.</ref><ref name="Gross">{{harvnb|Gross|1948|pp=20–41}}.</ref><ref>Jackson, R. H. 2005. "The Evolution of World Society" in ''[[The Globalization of World Politics]]: An Introduction to International Relations'', edited by [[Patricia Owens (academic)|P. Owens]]. [[John Bayliss|J. Baylis]] and S. Smith. [[Oxford]]: [[Oxford University Press]]. p. 53. {{ISBN|1-56584-727-X}}.{{Verify source|date=July 2020}}</ref> in which external powers should avoid interfering in another country's domestic affairs.<ref name="kissinger_world_order">{{harvnb|Kissinger|2014}}.</ref> The principle of non-interference in other countries' domestic affairs was laid out in the mid-18th century by Swiss jurist [[Emer de Vattel]].<ref name="krasner2010">{{cite encyclopedia |last1=Krasner |first1=Stephen D. |title=The durability of organized hypocrisy |encyclopedia=Sovereignty in Fragments: The Past, Present and Future of a Contested Concept |editor1-last=Kalmo |editor1-first=Hent |editor2-last=Skinner |editor2-first=Quentin |year=2010 |publisher=Cambridge University Press}}</ref> States became the primary institutional agents in an [[Interstate system (world-systems theory)|interstate system]] of relations. The Peace of Westphalia is said to have ended attempts to impose supranational authority on European states. The "Westphalian" doctrine of states as independent agents was bolstered by the rise in 19th century thought of [[nationalism]], under which legitimate [[Sovereign state|states]] were assumed to correspond to ''[[nations]]''—groups of people united by language and culture.<ref>{{cite web |title=From Westphalia, with love – Indian Express |url=http://archive.indianexpress.com/news/from-westphalia-with-love/950804/ |access-date=30 July 2020 |website=archive.indianexpress.com |archive-date=6 August 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200806091803/http://archive.indianexpress.com/news/from-westphalia-with-love/950804/ |url-status=live }}</ref>

In [[Europe]], during the 18th century, the classic non-national states were the multinational [[empire]]s: the [[Austrian Empire]], [[Kingdom of France]], [[Kingdom of Hungary]],<ref>Eric Hobsbawm, ''Nations and Nationalism since 1780: programme, myth, reality'' (Cambridge Univ. Press, 1990; {{ISBN|0-521-43961-2}}) chapter II "The popular protonationalism", pp. 80–81 French edition (Gallimard, 1992). According to Hobsbawm, the main source for this subject is Ferdinand Brunot (ed.), ''Histoire de la langue française'', Paris, 1927–1943, 13 volumes, in particular volume IX. He also refers to Michel de Certeau, Dominique Julia, Judith Revel, Une politique de la langue: la Révolution française et les patois: l'enquête de l'abbé Grégoire, Paris, 1975. For the problem of the transformation of a minority official language into a widespread national language during and after the French Revolution, see Renée Balibar, L'Institution du français: essai sur le co-linguisme des Carolingiens à la République, Paris, 1985 (also Le co-linguisme, PUF, Que sais-je?, 1994, but out of print) ''The Institution of the French language: essay on colinguism from the Carolingian to the Republic''. Finally, Hobsbawm refers to Renée Balibar and Dominique Laporte, Le Français national: politique et pratique de la langue nationale sous la Révolution, Paris, 1974.</ref> the [[Russian Empire]], the [[Spanish Empire]], the [[Ottoman Empire]], and the [[British Empire]]. Such empires also existed in Asia, Africa, and the Americas; in the [[Muslim world]], immediately after the [[death of Muhammad]] in 632, [[Caliphate]]s were established, which developed into multi-ethnic transnational empires.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Al-Rasheed |first1=Madawi |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EAMqBgAAQBAJ&pg=PA3 |title=Demystifying the Caliphate: Historical Memory and Contemporary Contexts |last2=Kersten |first2=Carool |last3=Shterin |first3=Marat |year=2012 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-932795-9 |page=3 |access-date=5 May 2020 |archive-date=10 July 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200710020511/https://books.google.com/books?id=EAMqBgAAQBAJ&pg=PA3 |url-status=live }}</ref> The multinational empire was an [[absolute monarchy]] ruled by a king, [[emperor]] or [[sultan]]. The population belonged to many ethnic groups, and they spoke many languages. The empire was dominated by one ethnic group, and their language was usually the language of public administration. The ruling [[dynasty]] was usually, but not always, from that group. Some of the smaller European states were not so ethnically diverse, but were also [[Dynasty|dynastic]] states, ruled by a [[Dynasty|royal house]]. A few of the smaller states survived, such as the independent principalities of [[Liechtenstein]], [[Andorra]], [[Monaco]], and the republic of [[San Marino]].

Most theories see the nation state as a 19th-century European phenomenon, facilitated by developments such as state-mandated education, mass [[literacy]], and [[mass media]]. However, historians{{Who|date=August 2014}} also note the early emergence of a relatively unified state and identity in [[Portugal]] and the [[Dutch Republic]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Richards |first1=Howard |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9Kw5vLbYq-4C&q=early+emergence+of+a+relatively+unified+state,+and+a+sense+of+common+identity,+in+Portugal+and+the+Dutch+Republic.&pg=PA344 |title=Understanding the Global Economy |date=2004 |publisher=Peace Education Books |isbn=978-0-9748961-0-6 |language=en |access-date=28 October 2020 |archive-date=21 May 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210521084057/https://books.google.com/books?id=9Kw5vLbYq-4C&q=early+emergence+of+a+relatively+unified+state,+and+a+sense+of+common+identity,+in+Portugal+and+the+Dutch+Republic.&pg=PA344 |url-status=live }}</ref> Scholars such as [[Steven Weber (professor)|Steven Weber]], [[David Woodward (cartographer)|David Woodward]], [[Michel Foucault]], and [[Jeremy Black (historian)|Jeremy Black]] have advanced the hypothesis that the nation state did not arise out of political ingenuity or an unknown undetermined source, nor was it an accident of history or political invention.<ref>[[Jeremy Black (historian)|Black, Jeremy]].1998. [[Maps and Politics: A Review of the Ethnographic Cartography of Macedonia|''Maps and Politics'']]. pp. 59–98, 100–147.</ref><ref name="Carneiro 733–738" /><ref>[[Michel Foucault|Foucault, Michel]]. [1977–1978] 2007. ''[[Security, Territory, Population]]: Lectures at the Collège de France''.</ref> Rather, the nation state is an inadvertent byproduct of 15th-century intellectual discoveries in [[political economy]], [[capitalism]], [[mercantilism]], [[political geography]], and [[geography]]<ref>Rizaldy, Aldino, and Wildan Firdaus. 2012. "[https://www.int-arch-photogramm-remote-sens-spatial-inf-sci.net/XXXIX-B1/5/2012/isprsarchives-XXXIX-B1-5-2012.pdf Direct Georeferencing: A New Standard in Photogrammetry for High Accuracy Mapping] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200926121347/https://www.int-arch-photogramm-remote-sens-spatial-inf-sci.net/XXXIX-B1/5/2012/isprsarchives-XXXIX-B1-5-2012.pdf |date=26 September 2020 }}." ''[[International Society for Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing|International Archives of the Photogrammetry, Remote Sensing and Spatial Information Sciences]]'' 39(B1):5–9. {{doi|10.5194/isprsarchives-XXXIX-B1-5-2012|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>Bellezza, Giuliano. 2013. "[https://www.int-arch-photogramm-remote-sens-spatial-inf-sci.net/XL-4-W3/1/2013/isprsarchives-XL-4-W3-1-2013.pdf On Borders: From Ancient to Postmodern Times] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200926125037/https://www.int-arch-photogramm-remote-sens-spatial-inf-sci.net/XL-4-W3/1/2013/isprsarchives-XL-4-W3-1-2013.pdf |date=26 September 2020 }}." ''[[International Society for Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing|Int. Arch. Photogramm. Remote Sens. Spatial Inf. Sci.]]'' 40-4(W3):1–7. {{doi|10.5194/isprsarchives-XL-4-W3-1-2013|doi-access=free}}</ref> combined with [[cartography]]<ref>Mikhailova, E. V. 2013. "[https://www.int-arch-photogramm-remote-sens-spatial-inf-sci.net/XL-4-W3/105/2013/isprsarchives-XL-4-W3-105-2013.pdf Appearance and Appliance of the Twin-Cities Concept on the Russian-Chinese Border] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200926124128/https://www.int-arch-photogramm-remote-sens-spatial-inf-sci.net/XL-4-W3/105/2013/isprsarchives-XL-4-W3-105-2013.pdf |date=26 September 2020 }}." ''[[International Society for Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing|Int. Arch. Photogramm. Remote Sens. Spatial Inf. Sci.]]'' 40-4(W3):105–110. {{doi|10.5194/isprsarchives-XL-4-W3-105-2013|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>Pickering, S. 2013. "[https://www.int-arch-photogramm-remote-sens-spatial-inf-sci.net/XL-4-W3/111/2013/isprsarchives-XL-4-W3-111-2013.pdf Borderlines: Maps and the spread of the Westphalian state from Europe to Asia Part One – The European Context]". ''[[International Society for Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing|Int. Arch. Photogramm. Remote Sens. Spatial Inf. Sci.]]'' 40-4(W3):111–116. {{doi|10.5194/isprsarchives-XL-4-W3-111-2013|doi-access=free}}.  {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200926121100/https://www.int-arch-photogramm-remote-sens-spatial-inf-sci.net/XL-4-W3/111/2013/isprsarchives-XL-4-W3-111-2013.pdf |date=26 September 2020 }}.</ref> and [[Automated mapping|advances in map-making technologies]].<ref>{{harvnb|Branch|2011}}.</ref>

Some nation states, such as [[Germany]] and [[Italy]], came into existence at least partly as a result of political campaigns by [[Nationalism|nationalists]], during the 19th century. In both cases, the territory was previously divided among other states, some of them very small. Liberal ideas of [[free trade]] played a role in German unification, which was preceded by a [[customs union]], the [[Zollverein]]. National [[self-determination]] was a key aspect of United States President [[Woodrow Wilson]]'s [[Fourteen Points]], leading to the dissolution of the [[Austro-Hungarian Empire]] and the [[Ottoman Empire]] after the [[First World War]], while the [[Russian Empire]] became the [[Soviet Union]] after the [[Russian Civil War]]. [[Decolonization]] lead to the creation of new nation states in place of multinational empires in the [[Third World]].

=== Globalization ===
{{main|Political globalization}}
Political globalization began in the 20th century through [[intergovernmental organization]]s and [[supranational union]]s. The League of Nations was founded after [[World War I]], and after [[World War II]] it was replaced by the [[United Nations]]. Various [[Treaty|international treaties]] have been signed through it. [[Regional integration]] has been pursued by the [[African Union]], [[ASEAN]], the [[European Union]], and [[Mercosur]]. International political institutions on the international level include the [[International Criminal Court]], the [[International Monetary Fund]], and the [[World Trade Organization]].

== Political science ==
{{More citations needed section|date=December 2020}}{{main|Political science}}
[[File:Sanzio 01 Plato Aristotle.jpg|thumb|upright=.8|[[Plato]] (left) and [[Aristotle]] (right), from a detail of ''[[The School of Athens]]'', a fresco by [[Raphael]]. Plato's ''[[Republic (Plato)|Republic]]'' and Aristotle's ''[[Politics (Aristotle)|Politics]]'' secured the two Greek philosophers as two of the most influential political philosophers.]]
The study of politics is called '''political science'''.<ref>{{Cite web |title=What is Political Science? |url=https://www.polisci.washington.edu/what-political-science |access-date=2024-01-11 |website=www.polisci.washington.edu}}</ref> It comprises numerous subfields, namely three: [[Comparative politics]], [[international relations]] and [[political theory|political philosophy]].<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VQfcDwAAQBAJ |title=Comparative politics |date=2020 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-882060-4 |editor=Caramani |edition=Fifth |location=Oxford |oclc=1144813972}}</ref> Political science is related to, and draws upon, the fields of [[Political economy|economics]], [[Legal education|law]], [[Political sociology|sociology]], [[Political history|history]], [[Political philosophy|philosophy]], [[Political geography|geography]], [[Political psychology|psychology]], [[psychiatry]], [[anthropology]], and [[Neuropolitics|neurosciences]].

[[Comparative politics]] is the science of comparison and teaching of different types of [[constitutions]], political actors, legislature and associated fields. [[International relations]] deals with the interaction between [[nation-state]]s as well as intergovernmental and transnational organizations. [[Political philosophy]] is more concerned with contributions of various classical and contemporary thinkers and philosophers.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2022-02-22 |title=What is Comparative Politics? |url=https://socialsci.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Political_Science_and_Civics/Introduction_to_Comparative_Government_and_Politics_(Bozonelos_et_al.)/01%3A_Why_Study_Comparative_Politics/1.01%3A_What_is_Comparative_Politics |access-date=2024-01-11 |website=Social Sci LibreTexts |language=en}}</ref>

Political science is methodologically diverse and appropriates many methods originating in [[psychology]], [[social research]], and [[cognitive neuroscience]]. Approaches include [[positivism]], [[Verstehen|interpretivism]], [[rational choice theory]], [[behavioralism]], [[structuralism]], [[post-structuralism]], [[Philosophical realism|realism]], [[Historical institutionalism|institutionalism]], and [[Pluralism (political philosophy)|pluralism]]. Political science, as one of the [[social science]]s, uses methods and techniques that relate to the kinds of inquiries sought: primary sources such as historical documents and official records, secondary sources such as scholarly journal articles, [[Sample survey|survey]] research, [[Statistics|statistical analysis]], [[case studies]], [[experimental research]], and model building.

== Political system ==
{{main|Political system}}
{{see also|Systems theory in political science}}
[[File:Map of European nationals coloured by percentage of vote governing party got in last election.svg|thumb|Map of European nations coloured by percentage of vote governing party got in last election as of 2022]]
[[File:Systems view of politics.png|thumb|Systems view of politics]]The political system defines the process for making official [[government]] decisions. It is usually compared to the [[legal system]], [[economic system]], [[cultural system]], and other [[social system]]s. According to [[David Easton]], "A political system can be designated as the interactions through which values are authoritatively allocated for a society."<ref name="Easton 1981"/> Each political system is embedded in a society with its own political culture, and they in turn shape their societies through [[public policy]]. The interactions between different political systems are the basis for [[global politics]].

=== Forms of government ===
[[File:Eduskuntatalo_2_corrected_2020-03-23.jpg|thumb|Legislatures are an important political institution. Pictured is the [[Parliament of Finland]].]]
Forms of government can be classified by several ways. In terms of the '''structure of power''', there are [[Monarchy|monarchies]] (including [[Constitutional monarchy|constitutional monarchies]]) and [[republic]]s (usually [[Presidential system|presidential]], [[Semi-presidential system|semi-presidential]], or [[Parliamentary system|parliamentary]]).

The [[separation of powers]] describes the degree of '''horizontal integration''' between the [[legislature]], the [[Executive (government)|executive]], the [[judiciary]], and other independent institutions.

==== Source of power ====

The source of power determines the difference between [[Democracy|democracies]], [[Oligarchy|oligarchies]], and [[Autocracy|autocracies]].

In a democracy, political [[Legitimacy (political)|legitimacy]] is based on [[popular sovereignty]]. Forms of democracy include [[representative democracy]], [[direct democracy]], and [[Sortition|demarchy]]. These are separated by the way decisions are made, whether by [[Election|elected]] representatives, [[referendum]]s, or by [[Citizens' assembly|citizen juries]]. Democracies can be either republics or constitutional monarchies.

Oligarchy is a power structure where a minority rules. These may be in the form of [[anocracy]], [[aristocracy]], [[ergatocracy]], [[geniocracy]], [[gerontocracy]], [[kakistocracy]], [[kleptocracy]], [[meritocracy]], noocracy, [[particracy]], [[plutocracy]], [[stratocracy]], [[technocracy]], [[theocracy]], or [[timocracy]].

Autocracies are either [[dictatorship]]s (including [[military dictatorship]]s) or [[Absolute monarchy|absolute monarchies]].

==== Vertical integration ====
[[File:The pathway of regional integration or separation.png|thumb|Relation between regional integration and [[separatism]]]]
In terms of level of vertical integration, political systems can be divided into (from least to most integrated) [[confederation]]s, [[federation]]s, and [[unitary state]]s.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Oates |first=Wallace E. |date=2005 |title=Toward A Second-Generation Theory of Fiscal Federalism |url=https://doi.org/10.1007/s10797-005-1619-9 |journal=International Tax and Public Finance |language=en |volume=12 |issue=4 |pages=349–373 |doi=10.1007/s10797-005-1619-9 |issn=1573-6970}}</ref>

A federation (also known as a federal state) is a [[political entity]] characterized by a [[Political union|union]] of partially [[Federated state|self-governing provinces, states, or other regions]] under a central [[federal government]] ([[federalism]]). In a federation, the self-governing status of the component states, as well as the division of power between them and the central government, is typically constitutionally entrenched and may not be altered by a unilateral decision of either party, the states or the federal political body. Federations were formed first in Switzerland, then in the United States in 1776, in Canada in 1867 and in Germany in 1871 and in 1901, [[Australia]]. Compared to a [[federation]], a [[confederation]] has less centralized power.

=== State ===
[[File:Map of unitary and federal states.svg|thumb|{{legend|#00e000;|[[Federal state]]s}}{{legend|#0000b0;|[[Unitary state]]s}}{{legend|#e1e1e1;|No government}}]]
All the above forms of government are variations of the same basic [[polity]], the [[sovereign state]]. The [[State (polity)|state]] has been defined by [[Max Weber]] as a political entity that has [[monopoly on violence]] within its territory, while the [[Montevideo Convention]] holds that states need to have a defined territory; a permanent population; a government; and a capacity to enter into international relations.

A stateless society is a [[society]] that is not [[Government|governed]] by a [[State (polity)|state]].<ref name="Routledge2">{{harvnb|Craig|2005|p=14}}.</ref> In stateless societies, there is little [[Centralization|concentration]] of [[authority]]; most positions of authority that do exist are very limited in [[Political power|power]] and are generally not permanently held positions; and social bodies that resolve disputes through predefined rules tend to be small.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Ellis |first1=Stephen |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fLAWMGqKMb4C&pg=PA198 |title=The Mask of Anarchy: The Destruction of Liberia and the Religious Dimension of an African Civil War |publisher=NYU Press |year=2001 |isbn=978-0-8147-2219-0 |page=198 |via=Google Books |access-date=4 May 2020 |archive-date=24 February 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210224213821/https://books.google.com/books?id=fLAWMGqKMb4C&pg=PA198 |url-status=live }}</ref> Stateless societies are highly variable in economic organization and cultural practices.<ref>{{harvnb|Béteille|2002|pp=1042–1043}}.</ref>

While stateless societies were the norm in human prehistory, few stateless societies exist today; almost the entire global population resides within the jurisdiction of a [[sovereign state]]. In some regions nominal state authorities may be very weak and wield [[Failed state|little or no actual power]]. Over the course of history most stateless peoples have been [[Cultural assimilation|integrated into the state-based societies around them]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Faulks |first1=Keith |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_fjCczhvWj0C&pg=PA23 |title=Political Sociology: A Critical Introduction |publisher=NYU Press |year=2000 |isbn=978-0-8147-2709-6 |page=23 |via=Google Books |access-date=4 May 2020 |archive-date=16 November 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201116055203/https://books.google.com/books?id=_fjCczhvWj0C&pg=PA23 |url-status=live }}</ref>

Some political philosophies consider the state undesirable, and thus consider the formation of a stateless society a goal to be achieved. A central tenet of [[anarchism]] is the advocacy of society without states.<ref name="Routledge2" /><ref>{{cite book |last1=Sheehan |first1=Sean |title=Anarchism |publisher=Reaktion Books |year=2004 |location=London |page=85}}</ref> The type of society sought for varies significantly between [[anarchist schools of thought]], ranging from extreme [[individualism]] to complete [[Collectivism and individualism|collectivism]].<ref name="slevin">{{cite book |last1=Slevin |first1=Carl |url=https://archive.org/details/oxfordconcisedic00iain |title=The Concise Oxford Dictionary of Politics |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2003 |editor1-last=McLean |editor1-first=Iain |chapter=Anarchism |isbn=978-0-19-280276-7 |editor2-last=McMillan |editor2-first=Alistair |url-access=registration |name-list-style=amp}}</ref> In [[Marxism]], [[Marx's theory of the state]] considers that in a [[post-capitalist]] society the state, an undesirable institution, would be unnecessary and [[Withering away of the state|wither away]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Engels |first1=Frederick |url=http://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1880/soc-utop/index.htm |title=Socialism: Utopian and Scientific |year=1880 |chapter=Part III: Historical Materialism |quote=State interference in social relations becomes, in one domain after another, superfluous, and then dies out of itself; the government of persons is replaced by the administration of things, and by the conduct of processes of production. The State is not "abolished". It dies out...Socialized production upon a predetermined plan becomes henceforth possible. The development of production makes the existence of different classes of society thenceforth an anachronism. In proportion as anarchy in social production vanishes, the political authority of the State dies out. Man, at last the master of his own form of social organization, becomes at the same time the lord over Nature, his own master—free. |via=Marx/Engels Internet Archive (marxists.org) |access-date=4 May 2020 |archive-date=7 February 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210207174438/https://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1880/soc-utop/index.htm |url-status=live }}</ref> A related concept is that of [[stateless communism]], a phrase sometimes used to describe Marx's anticipated post-capitalist society.

=== Constitutions ===
[[Constitutions]] are written documents that specify and limit the powers of the different branches of government. Although a constitution is a written document, there is also an unwritten constitution. The unwritten constitution is continually being written by the legislative and judiciary branch of government; this is just one of those cases in which the nature of the circumstances determines the form of government that is most appropriate.<ref>{{cite web |title=Britain's unwritten constitution |url=https://www.bl.uk/magna-carta/articles/britains-unwritten-constitution |website=The British Library |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190401113644/https://www.bl.uk/magna-carta/articles/britains-unwritten-constitution |archive-date=1 April 2019 |access-date=25 February 2019}}</ref> England did set the fashion of written constitutions during the [[English Civil War|Civil War]] but after the [[Restoration (England)|Restoration]] abandoned them to be taken up later by the [[Thirteen Colonies|American Colonies]] after their [[American Revolution|emancipation]] and then [[France]] after the [[French Revolution|Revolution]] and the rest of Europe including the European colonies.

Constitutions often set out [[separation of powers]], dividing the government into the [[Executive (government)|executive]], the [[legislature]], and the [[judiciary]] (together referred to as the trias politica), in order to achieve checks and balances within the state. Additional independent branches may also be created, including [[civil service commission]]s, [[election commission]]s, and [[supreme audit institution]]s.

=== Political culture ===
[[File:Inglehart-Values-Map-Small.png|thumb|[[Inglehart–Welzel cultural map of the world|Inglehart-Weltzel cultural map of countries]]]]
[[Political culture]] describes how [[culture]] impacts politics. Every [[political system]] is embedded in a particular political culture.<ref name=":13">{{harvnb|Morlino|Berg-Schlosser|Badie|2017|pp=64–74}}</ref> [[Lucian Pye]]'s definition is that, "Political culture is the set of attitudes, beliefs, and sentiments, which give order and meaning to a political process and which provide the underlying assumptions and rules that govern behavior in the political system."<ref name=":13" />

[[Trust (social science)|Trust]] is a major factor in political culture, as its level determines the capacity of the state to function.<ref name=":2">{{harvnb|Hague|2017|pp=200–214}}.</ref> [[Postmaterialism]] is the degree to which a political culture is concerned with issues which are not of immediate physical or material concern, such as [[human rights]] and [[environmentalism]].<ref name=":13" /> [[Religion]] has also an impact on political culture.<ref name=":2" />

=== Political dysfunction ===

==== Political corruption ====
{{main|Political corruption}}
Political corruption is the use of powers for illegitimate private gain, conducted by government officials or their network contacts. Forms of political corruption include [[bribery]], [[cronyism]], [[nepotism]], and [[Patronage|political patronage]]. Forms of political patronage, in turn, includes [[clientelism]], [[Earmark (politics)|earmarking]], [[pork barrel]]ing, [[slush fund]]s, and [[spoils system]]s; as well as [[political machine]]s, which is a political system that operates for corrupt ends.

When corruption is embedded in political culture, this may be referred to as [[patrimonialism]] or [[neopatrimonialism]]. A form of government that is built on corruption is called a ''[[kleptocracy]]'' ('rule of thieves').

==== Proxy politics ====
{{main|Proxy political parties|Proxy wars}}
The term "proxy politics" refers to specific forms of political influences and/or political actions that are conducted through [[proxy political parties]] (mainly in [[domestic politics]]), or through [[proxy wars]] (mainly in [[international politics]]).<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=m_DiEAAAQBAJ&pg=PR3 Andrew Wilson, "Political Technology: The Globalisation of Political Manipulation", Cambridge University Press, 2024.]</ref>

==== Insincere politics ====
The words "politics" and "political" are sometimes used as pejoratives to mean political action that is deemed to be overzealous, performative, or insincere.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://onelook.com/?w=political |title=Definitions of political |author=<!--Not stated--> |date=<!--Not stated--> |website=onelook.com |publisher=<!--Not stated--> |access-date=2023-10-26 |quote=Motivated, especially inappropriately, by political (electoral or other party political) calculation}}</ref>

== Levels of politics ==

=== Macropolitics ===
{{main|Global politics}}
[[File:RIAN archive 828797 Mikhail Gorbachev addressing UN General Assembly session.jpg|thumb| [[Mikhail Gorbachev]] addressing the UN General Assembly in 1988]]
Macropolitics can either describe political issues that affect an entire political system (e.g. the [[nation state]]), or refer to interactions between political systems (e.g. [[international relations]]).<ref name=":0">{{harvnb|Morlino|Berg-Schlosser|Badie|2017|p=20}}</ref>

Global politics (or world politics) covers all aspects of politics that affect multiple political systems, in practice meaning any political phenomenon crossing national borders. This can include [[City|cities]], nation-states, [[multinational corporation]]s, [[non-governmental organization]]s or [[international organization]]s. An important element is international relations: the relations between nation-states may be peaceful when they are conducted through [[diplomacy]], or they may be violent, which is described as [[war]]. States that are able to exert strong international influence are referred to as [[superpower]]s, whereas less-powerful ones may be called [[Regional power|regional]] or [[middle power]]s. The international system of [[Power (international relations)|power]] is called the ''world order'', which is affected by the [[Balance of power (international relations)|balance of power]] that defines the degree of [[Polarity (international relations)|polarity]] in the system. [[Emerging power]]s are potentially destabilizing to it, especially if they display [[revanchism]] or [[irredentism]].

Politics inside the limits of political systems, which in contemporary context correspond to national [[border]]s, are referred to as [[domestic politics]]. This includes most forms of [[public policy]], such as [[social policy]], [[economic policy]], or [[law enforcement]], which are executed by the state [[bureaucracy]].

=== {{Anchor|Mesopolitics}}Mesopolitics ===
[[File:Council room of the Province of Chieti - Meeting of the Brothers of Italy.jpg|thumb|Local political event organized by [[Brothers of Italy]] in the council room of the [[Province of Chieti]] in 2025]]
Mesopolitics describes the politics of intermediary structures within a political system, such as [[Political party|national political parties]] or [[Political movement|movements]].<ref name=":0" />

A political party is a [[political organization]] that typically seeks to attain and maintain political power within [[government]], usually by participating in [[political campaign]]s, educational outreach, or [[protest action]]s. Parties often espouse an expressed [[ideology]] or vision, bolstered by a written [[Party platform|platform]] with specific goals, forming a [[coalition]] among disparate interests.<ref>{{harvnb|Pettitt|2014|p=60}}.</ref>

Political parties within a particular political system together form the [[party system]], which can be either [[Multi-party system|multiparty]], [[two-party system|two-party]], [[dominant-party system|dominant-party]], or [[One-party state|one-party]], depending on the level of [[Pluralism (political theory)|pluralism]]. This is affected by characteristics of the political system, including its [[electoral system]]. According to [[Duverger's law]], [[First-past-the-post voting|first-past-the-post]] systems are likely to lead to two-party systems, while [[proportional representation]] systems are more likely to create a multiparty system.

=== {{Anchor|Micropolitics}}Micropolitics ===
[[File:(Pajero Bishop Scandal) Filipinos protest against the Bishops that allegedly accepted money and luxury cars from former president Macapagal-Arroyo in exchange for support.jpg|thumb|[[Philippines|Filipino]] protest for a local political controversy involving the Pajero [[bishop]] in 2011]]
Micropolitics describes the actions of individual actors within the political system.<ref name=":0" /> This is often described as [[political participation]].<ref>{{harvnb|Morlino|Berg-Schlosser|Badie|2017|p=161}}</ref> Political participation may take many forms, including:
* [[Activism]]
* [[Boycott]]
* [[Civil disobedience]]
* [[Demonstration (political)|Demonstration]]
* [[Petition]]
* [[Picketing]]
* [[Strike action]]
* [[Tax resistance]]
* [[Voting]] (or its opposite, [[abstentionism]])

== Political values ==
{{main|Political philosophy}}

=== Democracy ===
{{Democracy sidebar}}{{main|Democracy}}
Democracy is a system of processing conflicts in which outcomes depend on what participants do, but no single force controls what occurs and its outcomes. The uncertainty of outcomes is inherent in democracy. Democracy makes all forces struggle repeatedly to realize their interests and devolves power from groups of people to sets of rules.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Przeworski |first1=Adam |url=https://archive.org/details/democracymarket00prze |title=Democracy and the Market |date=1991 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |pages=[https://archive.org/details/democracymarket00prze/page/10 10–14] |url-access=registration}}</ref>

Among modern political theorists, there are three contending conceptions of democracy: ''aggregative'', ''[[deliberative democracy|deliberative]]'', and ''[[radical democracy|radical]]''.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Springer |first1=Simon |year=2011 |title=Public Space as Emancipation: Meditations on Anarchism, Radical Democracy, Neoliberalism and Violence |url=https://www.academia.edu/354048 |journal=Antipode |volume=43 |issue=2 |pages=525–562 |doi=10.1111/j.1467-8330.2010.00827.x |bibcode=2011Antip..43..525S |access-date=14 June 2020 |archive-date=18 August 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210818002746/https://www.academia.edu/354048 |url-status=live | issn=0066-4812}}</ref>

==== Aggregation ====
{{Main|Aggregative democracy}}
The theory of ''aggregative democracy'' claims that the aim of the democratic processes is to solicit the preferences of citizens, and aggregate them together to determine what social policies the society should adopt. Therefore, proponents of this view hold that democratic participation should primarily focus on [[voting]], where the policy with the most votes gets implemented.

Different variants of aggregative democracy exist. Under ''minimalism'', democracy is a system of government in which citizens have given teams of political leaders the right to rule in periodic elections. According to this minimalist conception, citizens cannot and should not "rule" because, for example, on most issues, most of the time, they have no clear views or their views are not well-founded. [[Joseph Schumpeter]] articulated this view most famously in his book ''[[Capitalism, Socialism and Democracy|Capitalism, Socialism, and Democracy]]''.<ref>[[Joseph Schumpeter]], (1950). ''Capitalism, Socialism, and Democracy''. Harper Perennial. {{ISBN|0-06-133008-6}}.</ref> Contemporary proponents of minimalism include [[William H. Riker]], [[Adam Przeworski]], and [[Richard Posner]].

According to the theory of ''[[direct democracy]]'', on the other hand, citizens should vote directly, not through their representatives, on legislative proposals. Proponents of direct democracy offer varied reasons to support this view. Political activity can be valuable in itself, it socialises and educates citizens, and popular participation can check powerful elites. Most importantly, citizens do not rule themselves unless they directly decide laws and policies.

Governments will tend to produce laws and policies that are close to the views of the median voter—with half to their left and the other half to their right. This is not a desirable outcome as it represents the action of self-interested and somewhat unaccountable political elites competing for votes. [[Anthony Downs]] suggests that ideological political parties are necessary to act as a mediating broker between individual and governments. Downs laid out this view in his 1957 book ''[[An Economic Theory of Democracy]]''.<ref>{{harvnb|Downs|1957}}.</ref>

====Polyarchy====
[[Robert A. Dahl]] argues that the fundamental democratic principle is that, when it comes to binding collective decisions, each person in a political community is entitled to have his/her interests be given equal consideration (not necessarily that all people are equally satisfied by the collective decision). He uses the term [[polyarchy]] to refer to societies in which there exists a certain set of institutions and procedures which are perceived as leading to such democracy. First and foremost among these institutions is the regular occurrence of free and open [[elections]] which are used to select representatives who then manage all or most of the public policy of the society. However, these polyarchic procedures may not create a full democracy if, for example, poverty prevents political participation.<ref>{{harvnb|Dahl|1989}}.</ref> Similarly, [[Ronald Dworkin]] argues that "democracy is a substantive, not a merely procedural, ideal".<ref>[[Ronald Dworkin|Dworkin, Ronald]]. 2006. ''Is Democracy Possible Here?'' Princeton: [[Princeton University Press]]. {{ISBN|978-0-691-13872-5}}. p. 134.</ref>

==== Deliberation ====
[[Deliberative democracy]] is based on the notion that democracy is government by [[deliberation]]. Unlike aggregative democracy, deliberative democracy holds that, for a democratic decision to be legitimate, it must be preceded by authentic deliberation, not merely the aggregation of preferences that occurs in voting. ''Authentic deliberation'' is deliberation among decision-makers that is free from distortions of unequal political power, such as power a decision-maker obtained through economic wealth or the support of interest groups.<ref>[[Amy Gutman|Gutmann, Amy]], and Dennis Thompson. 2002. ''Why Deliberative Democracy?'' [[Princeton University Press]]. {{ISBN|978-0-691-12019-5}}</ref><ref>Cohen, Joshua. 1997. "Deliberation and Democratic Legitimacy." In ''Essays on Reason and Politics: Deliberative Democracy'', edited by J. Bohman and W. Rehg. Cambridge: [[The MIT Press]]. pp. 72–73.</ref><ref>Ethan J. 2006. "Can Direct Democracy Be Made Deliberative?" ''[[Buffalo Law Review]]'' 54.</ref> If the decision-makers cannot reach [[Consensus decision-making|consensus]] after authentically deliberating on a proposal, then they vote on the proposal using a form of majority rule.

=== Equality ===
{{main|Social equality}}
[[File:Political Compass standard model.svg|thumb|Two-axis [[political compass]] chart with a horizontal socio-economic axis and a vertical socio-cultural axis and ideologically representative [[political colour]]s, an example for a frequently used model of the political spectrum<ref name=":02">{{harvnb|Heywood|2017|pp=14–17}}.</ref><ref name=":32">{{harvnb|Love|2006|p=16}}.</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Petrik|2010|p=4}}.</ref><ref name=":62">{{harvnb|Sznajd-Weron|Sznajd|2005|pp=593–604}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Forman |first1=F. N. |title=Mastering British Politics |last2=Baldwin |first2=N. D. J. |date=1999 |publisher=Macmillan Education UK |isbn=978-0-333-76548-7 |location=London |pages=8 f |language=en |doi=10.1007/978-1-349-15045-8}}</ref><ref name=":42">{{cite book |last1=Fenna |first1=Alan |title=Government Politics in Australia |last2=Robbins |first2=Jane |last3=Summers |first3=John |publisher=Pearson Higher Education AU |others=Robbins, Jane., Summers, John. |year=2013 |isbn=978-1-4860-0138-5 |edition=10th |location=Melbourne |pages=126 f |oclc=1021804010}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Jones|Kavanagh|2003|p=259}}.</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Körösényi |first1=András |title=Government and Politics in Hungary |publisher=Central European University Press |year=1999 |isbn=963-9116-76-9 |location=Budapest, Hungary |page=54 |oclc=51478878}}</ref>]]
[[File:3-axis-model-of-political-ideologies-with-both-moderate-and-radical-versions-and-policies-goals.png|thumb|Three axis model of political ideologies with both moderate and radical versions and the goals of their policies]]
Equality is a state of affairs in which all people within a specific [[society]] or isolated group have the same [[social status]], especially [[socioeconomic status]], including protection of [[human rights]] and [[dignity]], as well as access to certain [[social goods]] and [[social services]]. Furthermore, it may also include [[health equality]], [[Equality (economics)|economic equality]] and other [[Social security|social securities]]. Social equality requires the absence of legally enforced [[social class]] or [[caste]] boundaries and the absence of [[discrimination]] based on by an inalienable aspect of a person's identity. To this end, there must be [[equal justice under law]], and [[equal opportunity]] regardless of,  sex, gender, ethnicity, age, sexual orientation, origin, [[caste]] or class, income or property, language, [[religion]], convictions, opinions, health or disability.

==== Left–right spectrum ====
{{Main|Left–right political spectrum}}
A common way of understanding politics is through the [[left–right political spectrum]], which ranges from [[left-wing politics]] via [[centrism]] to [[right-wing politics]]. This classification is comparatively recent and dates from the [[French Revolution]], when those members of the [[National Assembly]] who supported the [[republic]], the common people and a [[secular society]] sat on the left and supporters of the [[monarchy]], [[aristocracy (class)|aristocratic]] privilege and the Church sat on the right.<ref name="Knapp">{{cite book |last1=Knapp |first1=Andrew |title=The Government and Politics of France |last2=Wright |first2=Vincent |publisher=Routledge |year=2006 |location=London}}</ref>

Today, the left is generally [[Progressivism|progressivist]], seeking social [[progress]] in [[society]]. The more extreme elements of the left, named the [[Far-left politics|far-left]], tend to support [[revolution]]ary means for achieving this. This includes ideologies such as [[Communism]] and [[Marxism]]. The [[Centre-left politics|center-left]], on the other hand, advocates for more [[Reformism|reformist]] approaches, for example that of [[social democracy]].

In contrast, the right is generally motivated by [[conservatism]], which seeks to conserve what it sees as the important elements of society such as law and order, limited government and preserving individual freedoms. The [[Far-right politics|far-right]] goes beyond this, and often represents a [[reactionary]] turn against progress, seeking to undo it. Examples of such ideologies have included [[Fascism]] and [[Nazism]]. The [[Centre-right politics|center-right]] may be less clear-cut and more mixed in this regard, with [[Neoconservatism|neoconservatives]] supporting the spread of [[free market]]s and [[capitalism]], and [[One-nation conservatism|one-nation conservatives]] more open to social welfare programs.

According to [[Norberto Bobbio]], one of the major exponents of this distinction, the left believes in attempting to eradicate social inequality—believing it to be unethical or unnatural,<ref>{{cite book |last1=Gelderloos |first1=Peter |title=Anarchy Works |year=2010}}</ref> while the right regards most social inequality as the result of ineradicable natural inequalities, and sees attempts to enforce social equality as utopian or authoritarian.<ref name="Bobbio">{{harvnb|Bobbio|1997}}.</ref>
Some ideologies, notably [[Christian Democracy]], claim to combine left and right-wing politics; according to Geoffrey K. Roberts and Patricia Hogwood, "In terms of ideology, Christian Democracy has incorporated many of the views held by liberals, conservatives and socialists within a wider framework of moral and Christian principles."<ref>{{harvnb|Roberts|Hogwood|1997}}.</ref> Movements which claim or formerly claimed to be above the left-right divide include Fascist [[Terza Posizione]] economic politics in Italy and [[Peronism]] in Argentina.<ref>{{harvnb|Tore|2014}}.</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=bale p.40 |url=https://www.miis.edu/media/view/18971/original/balenouvelleresarticle.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170330043520/https://www.miis.edu/media/view/18971/original/balenouvelleresarticle.pdf |archive-date=30 March 2017 |access-date=25 February 2018}}</ref>

=== Freedom ===
{{main|Political freedom}}
Political freedom (also known as '''political liberty''' or '''autonomy''') is a central [[concept]] in political thought and one of the most important features of [[Democracy|democratic]] societies. [[Negative liberty]] has been described as freedom from oppression or coercion and unreasonable external constraints on action, often enacted through [[civil and political rights]], while [[positive liberty]] is the absence of disabling conditions for an individual and the fulfillment of enabling conditions, e.g. economic compulsion, in a society. This [[capability approach]] to freedom requires [[economic, social and cultural rights]] in order to be realized.

==== Authoritarianism and libertarianism ====
[[Authoritarianism]] and [[civil libertarianism|libertarianism]] disagree the amount of individual [[Freedom (political)|freedom]] each person possesses in that society relative to the state. One author describes authoritarian political systems as those where "individual [[rights]] and goals are subjugated to group goals, expectations and conformities",<ref>{{harvnb|Kemmelmeier|Burnstein|Krumov|Genkova|Kanagawa|Hirshberg|Erb|Wieczorkowska|Noels|2003|pp=304–322}}</ref> while libertarians generally oppose the [[Sovereign state|state]] and hold the [[individual]] as sovereign. In their purest form, libertarians are [[anarchism|anarchists]],<ref>{{cite web |title=An Anarchist FAQ: 150 years of Libertarian |url=http://anarchism.pageabode.com/afaq/150-years-of-libertarian |website=Anarchists Writers |date=April 2011 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180925141951/http://anarchism.pageabode.com/afaq/150-years-of-libertarian |archive-date=25 September 2018 |access-date=25 September 2018}}</ref> who argue for the total abolition of the state, of [[political parties]] and of [[Political organisation|other political entities]], while the purest authoritarians are, by definition, [[totalitarianism|totalitarians]] who support state control over all aspects of society.<ref>{{cite Dictionary.com|totalitarian|access-date=25 September 2018}} [https://web.archive.org/web/20180925142146/https://www.dictionary.com/browse/totalitarian?s=t Archived] from the original on 25 September 2018.</ref>

For instance, [[classical liberalism]] (also known as ''[[laissez-faire]] liberalism'')<ref name="Adams">Adams, Ian. 2001. ''Political Ideology Today''. Manchester: [[Manchester University Press]]. p. 20.</ref> is a doctrine stressing individual freedom and [[limited government]]. This includes the importance of human rationality, individual [[property rights]], [[free market]]s, [[natural rights]], the protection of [[civil liberties]], constitutional limitation of government, and individual freedom from restraint as exemplified in the writings of [[John Locke]], [[Adam Smith]], [[David Hume]], [[David Ricardo]], [[Voltaire]], [[Montesquieu]] and others. According to the libertarian [[Institute for Humane Studies]], "the libertarian, or 'classical liberal', perspective is that individual well-being, prosperity, and social harmony are fostered by 'as much liberty as possible' and 'as little government as necessary'."<ref>IHS. 2019. "[http://www.theihs.org/about/id.1084/default.asp What Is Libertarian?]." ''Institute for Humane Studies''. [[George Mason University]]. {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070324231417/http://www.theihs.org/about/id.1084/default.asp|date=24 March 2007}}</ref> For anarchist political philosopher [[L. Susan Brown]] (1993), "liberalism and [[anarchism]] are two political philosophies that are fundamentally concerned with individual [[Freedom of will|freedom]] yet differ from one another in very distinct ways. Anarchism shares with liberalism a radical commitment to individual freedom while rejecting liberalism's competitive property relations."<ref name="ReferenceA">[[L. Susan Brown|Brown, L. Susan]]. 1993. ''[[The Politics of Individualism: Liberalism, Liberal Feminism, and Anarchism]]''. [[Black Rose Books]].</ref>

== See also ==
{{Portal|Politics}}
* [[Historic recurrence]]
* [[Horseshoe theory]]
* [[Index of politics articles]] – alphabetical list of political subjects
* [[List of banned political parties]]
* [[List of politics awards]]
* [[List of years in politics]]
* [[Outline of political science]] – structured list of political topics, arranged by subject area
* [[Political lists]] – lists of political topics
* [[Political censorship]]
* [[Political corruption]]
* [[Political polarization]]
* [[Political representation of nature]]
* [[Political scandal]]
* [[Political stability]]

== References ==
=== Notes ===
{{reflist|group=lower-alpha}}

=== Citations ===
{{reflist|23em}}

=== Bibliography ===
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{{refend}}

== Further reading ==
{{refbegin|30em}}
* Adcock, Robert. 2014. ''Liberalism and the Emergence of American Political Science: A Transatlantic Tale''. New York: Oxford University Press.
* Adcock, Robert, Mark Bevir, and Shannon Stimson (eds.). 2007. ''Modern Political Science: Anglo-American Exchanges Since 1870''. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
* Almond, Gabriel A. 1996. "Political Science: The History of the Discipline", pp.&nbsp;50–96, in Robert E. Goodin and Hans-Dieter Klingemann (eds.), ''The New Handbook of Political Science''. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.
* {{cite book |year=1981 |last1=Connolly |first1=William |author-link=William E. Connolly |title=Appearance and Reality in Politics |publisher=Cambridge University Press |location=Cambridge}}
* {{cite book |year=2014 |last1=James |first1=Raul |author-link=Paul James (academic) |last2=Soguk |first2=Nevzat|author2-link=Nevzat Soguk |title=Globalization and Politics, Vol. 1: Global Political and Legal Governance |url=https://www.academia.edu/7285675 |publisher=Sage Publications |location=London |access-date=19 February 2016}}
* [[Ferdinand Mount|Mount, Ferdinand]], "Ruthless and Truthless" (review of [[Peter Oborne]], ''The Assault on Truth: Boris Johnson, Donald Trump and the Emergence of a New Moral Barbarism'', Simon and Schuster, 2021, {{ISBN|978-1-3985-0100-3}}, 192 pp.; and [[Colin Kidd]] and [[Jacqueline Rose]], eds., ''Political Advice: Past, Present and Future'', I.B. Tauris, February 2021, {{ISBN|978-1-83860-004-4}}, 240 pp.), ''[[London Review of Books]]'', vol. 43, no. 9 (6 May 2021), pp.&nbsp;3, 5–8.
* Munck, Gerardo L., and Richard Snyder (eds.). ''Passion, Craft, and Method in Comparative Politics.'' Johns Hopkins University Press, 2007.
* [[Dorothy Ross (historian)|Ross, Dorothy]]. 1991. ''[[The Origins of American Social Science]]''. New York: Cambridge University Press.
* {{cite book |last1=Ryan |first1=Alan |title=On Politics: A History of Political Thought from Herodotus to the Present |year=2012 |publisher=Allen Lane |location=London |isbn=978-0-7139-9364-6 |language=en}}
{{refend}}

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