View source for Politics of Europe

{{Short description|none}}
{{See also|Politics of the European Union}}
{{Use British English|date=November 2013}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=March 2025}}

{{Supranational European Bodies |size=500px |align=right}}

The '''politics of Europe''' deals with the continually evolving [[politics]] within the continent of Europe.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|title=The EU – what it is and what it does|url=https://op.europa.eu/webpub/com/eu-what-it-is/en/|access-date=2023-02-12|publisher=Europa (web portal)}}</ref> It is a topic far more detailed than other continents due to a number of factors including the long history of nation states in the region as well as the modern day trend towards increased political unity amongst the European states.

The current politics of Europe can be traced back to [[History of Europe|historical events]] within the continent. Likewise [[Geography of Europe|geography]], [[Economy of Europe|economy]], and [[Culture of Europe|culture]] have contributed to the current political make-up of Europe.<ref name=":0" />

Modern European politics is dominated by the [[European Union]], since the [[revolutions of 1989|fall of the Iron Curtain]] and the collapse of the [[Eastern Bloc]] of [[Communist state]]s.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Milestones: 1989–1992 – Office of the Historian|url=https://history.state.gov/milestones/1989-1992/fall-of-communism|access-date=2023-02-12|website=history.state.gov}}</ref> After the end of the [[Cold War]], the EU expanded eastward to include the former [[Communist countries]]. As of 31 January 2020, the EU has 27 member states.<ref>{{Cite web|title=The Enlargement of the Union {{!}} Fact Sheets on the European Union {{!}} European Parliament|url=https://www.europarl.europa.eu/factsheets/en/sheet/167/the-enlargement-of-the-union|access-date=2023-02-12|publisher=European Parliament|language=en}}</ref>

However, there are a number of other international organizations made up predominantly of European nations, or explicitly claiming a European origin, including the 46-nation [[Council of Europe]] – the first post-war European organization, regarded as a fore-runner to the European Union – and the 57-nation Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe (OSCE), which also includes the United States and Canada, as well as some central Asian states.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web|title=Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe|url=https://www.osce.org/|access-date=2023-02-12|website=[[osce.org]]|language=en}}</ref>

==Modern political climate==
[[File:Map of European nationals coloured by percentage of vote governing party got in last election.svg|thumb|Map of European nations coloured by percentage of vote governing party got in last election as of 2022]]
Despite vastly improved relations between Russia and the Western European states since the end of the cold war, recently tensions have risen over the spread of "[[Western world|Western]]" organizations, particularly the EU and [[NATO]], eastwards into former USSR states.<ref name=":1" />

Many European states have either joined or stated their ambition to join the European Union.

There are few conflicts within Europe, although there remain problems in the [[Western Balkans]], the [[Caucasus]], Northern Ireland in the United Kingdom and the [[Basque Country (autonomous community)|Basque Country]] in Spain.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Kartsonaki|first1=Argyro|last2=Wolff|first2=Stefan|date=2015-04-03|title=The EU's Responses to Conflicts in its Wider Neighbourhood: Human or European Security?|journal=Global Society|volume=29|issue=2|pages=199–226|doi=10.1080/13600826.2015.1021242|s2cid=143843477|issn=1360-0826|doi-access=free}}</ref>

According to 2007 data published in 2008 by [[Freedom House]], the countries of Europe that cannot be classified [[Liberal democracy|liberal]] [[Electoral democracy|electoral democracies]] are Azerbaijan, Belarus, [[Bosnia]], Kazakhstan and Russia.<ref>[http://freedomhouse.org/template.cfm?page=363&year=2008 freedomhouse.org: Map of Freedom in the World], 2008</ref>

==International unions, organizations and alliances==
[[File:EUandGUAMandEurasec.png|300px|thumb|right|
{{legend|#0082ff|[[European Union|EU]] member state}}
{{legend|#84ffff|[[European Economic Area|EEA]] member or EU candidate state}}
{{legend|#009600|[[GUAM]] member state}}
{{legend|#ff8242|[[Eurasian Economic Community|EurAsEC]] member state}}
]]

''European states are members of a large number of international organizations, mainly economical, although several are political, or both. The main political unions are detailed below.''

===European Union===

:''Also see: [[Politics of the European Union]], [[Enlargement of the European Union]], [[Potential enlargement of the European Union]], [[Foreign relations of the European Union]], [[Eastern Partnership]]''

The [[European Union]], or EU, is a [[political union]] of 27 states. It has many activities, the most important being a common single market, consisting of a customs union, a [[euro|single currency]] (adopted by 20 of 27 member states),<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://ec.europa.eu/economy_finance/euro/adoption/euro_area/index_en.htm|title=What is the euro area?}}</ref> a [[Common Agricultural Policy]] and a [[Common Fisheries Policy]]. The European Union also has various initiatives to co-ordinate activities of the member states.

The EU, considered as a unit, has the second largest economy in the world with a nominal [[GDP]] of 14.9 [[1000000000000 (number)|trillion]] USD in 2020.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Economy|url=https://european-union.europa.eu/principles-countries-history/key-facts-and-figures/economy_en|access-date=2023-02-12|website=european-union.europa.eu|language=en}}</ref> There is also a trend of moving towards increased co-operation in terms of [[Common Foreign and Security Policy|common defense]] and [[foreign policy]].

The union has evolved over time from a primarily economic union to an increasingly political one. This trend is highlighted by the increasing number of policy areas that fall within EU competence; political power has tended to shift upwards from the member states to the EU. The further development of the political competencies of the EU is the subject of heavy debate within and between some member states.<ref>{{Cite web|title=EUR-Lex – ai0020 – EN – EUR-Lex|url=https://eur-lex.europa.eu/EN/legal-content/summary/division-of-competences-within-the-european-union.html|access-date=2023-02-12|website=eur-lex.europa.eu|language=en}}</ref>

===Council of Europe===
{{Main|Council of Europe}}

The Council of Europe brings together 46 European nations – the entire continent with the exception of Russia, which was expelled in 2022 following its invasion of Ukraine, and Belarus.<ref>{{Cite web|title=The Russian Federation is excluded from the Council of Europe – Portal – publi.coe.int|url=https://www.coe.int/en/web/portal/-/the-russian-federation-is-excluded-from-the-council-of-europe|access-date=2023-02-12|website=Portal|language=en-GB}}</ref> Founded in 1949, it is the oldest of the European organizations, embodying post-war hopes for peaceful co-operation, and is focused on the three [[Statute of the Council of Europe|statutory]] aims of promoting human rights, democracy and the rule of law. It does not deal with economic matters or defense. Its main achievement is the [[European Convention on Human Rights]], which binds its 46 contracting parties to uphold the basic human rights of their citizens, and the [[European Court of Human Rights|Strasbourg Court]] which enforces it.<ref>{{Cite web|title=European Convention on Human Rights – The European Convention on Human Rights – publi.coe.int|url=https://www.coe.int/en/web/human-rights-convention|access-date=2023-02-12|website=The European Convention on Human Rights|language=en-GB}}</ref> The Council of Europe is regarded as a classic intergovernmental organization, with a parliamentary arm, and has none of the supranational powers of the EU – thus it could be compared to a regional version of the United Nations.

=== European Political Community ===
{{main|European Political Community}}

The European Political Community (EPC) was formed in October 2022 after the [[2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine|Russian invasion of Ukraine]].<ref name="euronews">{{Cite news|last=Tidey|first=Alice|date=5 October 2022|title=What we know and don't know about the new European Political Community|language=en|work=euronews|url=https://www.euronews.com/my-europe/2022/10/05/what-we-know-and-dont-know-about-the-european-political-community|access-date=6 October 2022}}</ref> The group first met in October 2022 in Prague, with participants from 44 [[List of sovereign states and dependent territories in Europe|European countries]], as well as representatives of the [[European Union]]. Russia and Belarus were not invited to the inaugural meeting. It is envisioned that the group will meet twice in plenary session twice each year.

=== Community of Democratic Choice ===
{{main|Community of Democratic Choice}}
The Community of Democratic Choice (CDC) was formed in December 2005 at the primary instigation of Ukraine and Georgia, and composed of six [[Post-Soviet states]] (Ukraine, Georgia, Moldova, and the three [[Baltic Assembly]] members of Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania) and three other countries of Eastern and Central Europe (Slovenia, Romania and [[North Macedonia]]). The [[Black Sea Forum]] (BSF) is a closely related organization. Observer countries include Armenia, Bulgaria, and Poland.<ref>{{Cite news|last=Peuch|first=Jean-Christophe|date=2008-04-08|title=Ukraine: Regional Leaders Set Up Community of Democratic Choice|language=en|publisher=Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty|url=https://www.rferl.org/a/1063461.html|access-date=2023-02-12}}</ref>

Just like GUAM before it, this forum is largely seen as intending to counteract Russian influence in the area. This is the only international forum centered in the post-Soviet space in which the Baltic states also participate. The other three post-Soviet states in it are all members of GUAM.<ref>{{Cite web|title=GUAM: Still Relevant Regional Actor?|url=https://www.eurasian-research.org/publication/guam-still-relevant-regional-actor/|access-date=2023-02-12|language=en-US}}</ref>

=== Eurasian Economic Union ===
{{Main|Eurasian Economic Union|Enlargement of the Eurasian Economic Union}}
The [[Eurasian Economic Union]] is an [[economic union]] of post-Soviet states. The treaty aiming for the establishment of the EEU was signed on 29 May 2014 by the leaders of [[Belarus]], [[Kazakhstan]] and [[Russia]], and came into force on 1 January 2015.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://economy.gov.ru/wps/wcm/connect/bb840de1-a37b-4e00-8c62-6e13a59485d1/%D0%94%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B0+%D0%BE+%D0%95%D0%B2%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B7%D0%B8%D0%B9%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%BC+%D1%8D%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%BC%D0%B8%D1%87%D0%B5%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%BC+%D1%81%D0%BE%D1%8E%D0%B7%D0%B5.docx?MOD=AJPERES&CACHEID=bb840de1-a37b-4e00-8c62-6e13a59485d1|title=Договор о Евразийском экономическом союзе|access-date=9 March 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171201013526/http://economy.gov.ru/wps/wcm/connect/bb840de1-a37b-4e00-8c62-6e13a59485d1/%D0%94%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B0+%D0%BE+%D0%95%D0%B2%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B7%D0%B8%D0%B9%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%BC+%D1%8D%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%BC%D0%B8%D1%87%D0%B5%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%BC+%D1%81%D0%BE%D1%8E%D0%B7%D0%B5.docx?MOD=AJPERES&CACHEID=bb840de1-a37b-4e00-8c62-6e13a59485d1|archive-date=1 December 2017|url-status=dead}}</ref> Treaties aiming for [[Armenia]]'s and [[Kyrgyzstan]]'s accession to the Eurasian Economic Union were signed on 9 October 2014 and 23 December respectively. Armenia's accession treaty came into force on 2 January 2015.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.customs-code.ru/pravovbaza/18429-dogovor-arm|title=ДОГОВОР О ПРИСОЕДИНЕНИИ РЕСПУБЛИКИ АРМЕНИЯ К ДОГОВОРУ О ЕВРАЗИЙСКОМ ЭКОНОМИЧЕСКОМ СОЮЗЕ ОТ 29 МАЯ 2014 ГОДА (Минск, 10 октября 2014 года)|author=Дмитрий|work=customs-code.ru|access-date=2 December 2015}}</ref> Although Kyrgyzstan's accession treaty did not come into force until May 2015, provided it has been ratified,<ref name=kyrsign>{{cite web|url=http://www.armradio.am/en/2014/12/23/finalization-of-ratification-procedures-on-armenias-accession-to-eeu-to-be-declared-in-moscow-today/|title=Finalization of ratification procedures on Armenia's accession to EEU to be declared in Moscow today|work=Public Radio of Armenia|access-date=2 December 2015}}</ref> it will participate in the EEU from the day of its establishment as an acceding state.<ref name=WB>{{cite news|title=Kyrgyzstan, Armenia officially enter Eurasian Economic Union|url=http://www.worldbulletin.net/news/151539/kyrgyzstan-armenia-officially-enter-eurasian-economic-union|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141226045456/http://www.worldbulletin.net/news/151539/kyrgyzstan-armenia-officially-enter-eurasian-economic-union|url-status=usurped|archive-date=26 December 2014|access-date=26 December 2014|publisher=World Bulletin|date=24 December 2014|quote=Signed agreement opens up new possibilities for Kyrgyzstan and Armenia, starting from 1st January 2015}}</ref><ref name=LN>{{cite news|title=Putin said the accession of Kyrgyzstan to the EAEC|url=http://lifenews.ru/news/147572|access-date=26 December 2014|publisher=Life News|date=23 December 2014|language=ru|quote=Kyrgyzstan is among the member countries of the Eurasian Economic Union (EAEC). Kyrgyzstan will participate in the governing bodies of the EAEC since the start of the Union – from 1 January 2015.}}</ref><ref name=DW>{{cite news|title=EAEC: stillborn union?|url=http://www.dw.de/%D0%B5%D0%B0%D1%8D%D1%81-%D0%BC%D0%B5%D1%80%D1%82%D0%B2%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B6%D0%B4%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%BD%D1%8B%D0%B9-%D1%81%D0%BE%D1%8E%D0%B7/a-18148811|access-date=26 December 2014|publisher=Deutsche Welle|language=ru|quote=Eurasian Economic Union added December 23 Armenia and Kyrgyzstan.}}</ref><ref name=FT>{{cite news|last1=Farchy|first1=Jack|title=Eurasian unity under strain even as bloc expands|url=http://www.ft.com/intl/cms/s/0/b08c2e4e-8ab2-11e4-8e24-00144feabdc0.html|access-date=26 December 2014|work=Financial Times|date=23 December 2014|quote=Kyrgyzstan on Tuesday a signed a treaty to join the Eurasian Economic Union, expanding the membership of Moscow-led project to five even as its unity is strained by the market turmoil gripping Russia.}}</ref><ref name=TT>{{cite news|title=Eurasian Economic Union to Launch on January 1|url=http://www.thetrumpet.com/article/12307.19.0.0/eurasian-economic-union-to-launch-on-january-1|access-date=26 December 2014|publisher=The Trumpet|date=24 December 2014|quote=Russia, Belarus, Kazakhstan, Armenia and Kyrgyzstan agreed to a January 1 inauguration.}}</ref> [[Moldova]] and [[Tajikistan]] are prospective members.

=== Euronest Parliamentary Assembly ===
The [[Euronest Parliamentary Assembly]] is the inter-parliamentary forum in which members of the [[European Parliament]] and the national parliaments of Ukraine, Moldova, Belarus, Armenia, Azerbaijan and [[Georgia (country)|Georgia]] participate and forge closer political and economic ties with the [[European Union]].<ref>{{cite web|title=Initial Agreement Reached To Establish Parliamentary Assembly of European Parliament's Eastern Neighbors|url=http://www.turkishweekly.net/news/77332/-initial-agreement-reached-to-establish-parliamentary-assembly-of-european-parliament-s-eastern-neighbors-.html|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110615013815/http://www.turkishweekly.net/news/77332/-initial-agreement-reached-to-establish-parliamentary-assembly-of-european-parliament-s-eastern-neighbors-.html|archive-date=15 June 2011}}</ref>

===Commonwealth of Independent States===
The [[Commonwealth of Independent States]] (CIS) is a [[confederation]] consisting of 12 of the 15 states of the former Soviet Union, (the exceptions being the three [[Baltic states]]).<ref>{{Cite news|title=Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS)|language=en-US|work=The Nuclear Threat Initiative|url=https://www.nti.org/education-center/treaties-and-regimes/commonwealth-independent-states-cis/|access-date=2023-02-12}}</ref> Although the CIS has few supranational powers, it is more than a purely symbolic organization and possesses coordinating powers in the realm of trade, finance, lawmaking and security. The most significant issue for the CIS is the establishment of a full-fledged free trade zone and economic union between the member states, launched in 2005. It has also promoted co-operation on democratization and cross-border crime prevention. Additionally, six members of the CIS signed on to a collective security treaty known as the [[Collective Security Treaty Organization]].<ref>{{Cite web|last=Mag|first=Melange|date=2016-10-01|title=Afro – Eurasian economic & trade blocs accelerate business activities|url=https://www.melangemagazine.biz/afro-eurasian-economic-trade-blocs-accelerate-business-activities/|access-date=2023-02-12|website=Melange Magazine|language=en-US}}</ref>

===Community for Democracy and Rights of Nations===
{{main|Community for Democracy and Rights of Nations}}
The post-Soviet [[disputed states]] of [[Abkhazia]], [[South Ossetia]], and [[Transnistria]] are all members of the [[Community for Democracy and Rights of Nations]] which aims to forge closer integration among the members.<ref>{{Cite web|title=News Article|url=https://css.ethz.ch/en/services/digital-library/articles/article.html|access-date=2023-02-12|website=css.ethz.ch|language=en}}</ref>

===North Atlantic Treaty Organization===
{{main|NATO|Foreign relations of NATO|Individual Partnership Action Plan|Partnership for Peace}}
The [[North Atlantic Treaty Organization]] (NATO) is a military alliance of mainly European states, together with the United States and Canada. The organization was founded as a [[collective security]] measure following [[World War II|Second World War]].<ref>{{Cite web|title=Milestones: 1945–1952 – Office of the Historian|url=https://history.state.gov/milestones/1945-1952/nato|access-date=2023-02-12|website=history.state.gov}}</ref>

This provision was intended so that if the Soviet Union launched an attack against the European allies of the United States, it would be treated as if it were an attack on the United States itself, which had the biggest military and could thus provide the most significant retaliation. However, the feared Soviet invasion of Europe never came. Instead, the provision was invoked for the first time in the treaty's history on 12 September 2001, in response to the [[September 11, 2001 attacks|attacks of 11 September]] on the United States the day before.

===GUAM Organization for Democracy and Economic Development===
[[GUAM Organization for Democracy and Economic Development]] is a regional organization of four [[Commonwealth of Independent States|CIS]] states: [[Georgia (country)|Georgia]], Ukraine, Azerbaijan, and Moldova. The group was created as a way of countering the influence of Russia in the area, and it has received backing and encouragement from the United States .<ref>{{Cite web|title=Organization for Democracy and Economic Development|url=https://guam-organization.org/en/|access-date=2023-02-12|website=GUAM|language=en-US}}</ref> Though at one point it was generally considered to have stagnated, recent developments have caused speculation on the possible revival of the organization.

==Secessionist and devolutionary pressures==
{{main|List of active separatist movements in Europe}}
These movements, seeking either autonomy or independence, vary greatly in their popular support and political profile, from fringe movements to mainstream campaigns.

===Belgium===
Two of Belgium's political parties, the [[Vlaams Belang]] and [[New-Flemish Alliance]], want Flanders, the northern part of the country, to become independent. Other Flemish parties plead for more regional autonomy. There is also a minor movement aiming at unification of Flanders with the [[Netherlands]] (see [[Greater Netherlands]]).<ref>{{Cite web|title=Far-right Vlaams Belang party wants to declare Flemish sovereignty in 2029|url=https://www.brusselstimes.com/236054/far-right-vlaams-belang-party-wants-to-declare-flemish-sovereignty-in-2029|access-date=2023-02-12|website=The Brussels Times|language=en}}</ref>

The autonomous Belgian region of [[Wallonia]] has an almost extinct movement seeking unification with France.

===Bosnia and Herzegovina===
{{main|Proposed secession of Republika Srpska}}
Some inhabitants of [[Republika Srpska]], one of the two constituent entities in [[Bosnia and Herzegovina]] (the other being the [[Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina]]), the vast majority of them being ethnic [[Serbs]], would opt for independence from Bosnia and Herzegovina and unification with Serbia. Republika Srpska comprises 49% of the territory of Bosnia and functions independently from the rest of the country in many spheres.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Keil|first=Soeren|year=2017|title=The Serbs in Bosnia and Herzegovina, Croatia, and Kosovo|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/26593793|journal=European Review of International Studies|volume=4|issue=2+3|pages=39–58|doi=10.3224/eris.v4i2-3.03|jstor=26593793|issn=2196-6923}}</ref> Even though independence is not on the official government agenda, Serbian politicians from the region see a link between a possible future status of [[Kosovo]] and the status of Republika Srpska.

[[Croats]], who remain a constituent nation of Bosnia and Herzegovina remain united with ethnic [[Bosniaks]] in a joint entity. Some Bosnian [[Proposed Croat federal unit in Bosnia and Herzegovina|Croat politicians have proposed a separate constituent entity for Croats along the lines of the Republika Srpska]].<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Magnusson|first=Kjell|year=2012|title=What kind of state?: Views of Bosniaks, Croats, and Serbs on the character of Bosnia and Herzegovina|journal=Socioloski Godisnjak|issue=7|pages=37–62|doi=10.5937/socgod1207037m|s2cid=142342062|issn=1840-1538|doi-access=free}}</ref>

===Denmark===
The Danish territories of [[Greenland]] and [[Faroe Islands]] have very strong independence movements. Greenland's autonomy marks it as a [[Countries of the Kingdom of Denmark|constituent country]] under the Danish kingdom.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Kočí|first1=Adam|last2=Baar|first2=Vladimír|date=2021-08-08|title=Greenland and the Faroe Islands: Denmark's autonomous territories from postcolonial perspectives|journal=Norsk Geografisk Tidsskrift – Norwegian Journal of Geography|volume=75|issue=4|pages=189–202|doi=10.1080/00291951.2021.1951837|s2cid=237714542|issn=0029-1951|doi-access=free}}</ref>

===Finland===
The [[Åland|Åland Islands]] has an autonomy. In 2003, the [[Åland]]ian [[Separatism|separatist]] party [[Future of Åland|Ålands Framtid]] was formed. There has not been much support for full independence since the [[Finland's declaration of independence|Independence of Finland]], but in the last years the support has slightly grown.<ref>{{Cite web|title=The special status of the Åland Islands|url=https://um.fi/the-special-status-of-the-aland-islands|access-date=2023-02-12|website=Ministry for Foreign Affairs|language=en-US}}</ref>

===France===

The [[Mediterranean Sea|Mediterranean]] island of [[Corsica]] has a significant and growing group calling for independence from France. There are also movements in the [[Brittany]] region of northern France who wish to regain independence lost in 1532, and in [[Savoy]] in the south east, which was annexed to France following a disputed referendum in 1860.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Europe Government|url=http://www.university-world.com/europe/europe_government.html|access-date=2023-02-12|website=university-world.com}}</ref>

Parts of [[Navarre]], [[Basque Country (historical territory)|Basque Country]] and [[Catalonia]] cross into France.

===Georgia===
[[South Ossetia]] declared independence on 28 November 1991, and [[Abkhazia]] on 23 July 1992. Following the brief [[2008 South Ossetia war]], both entities were [[international recognition of Abkhazia and South Ossetia|partially recognised]] as independent by several UN member states. [[Georgia (country)|Georgia]] considers both "occupied territories" within its own borders. Both states participate in the [[Community for Democracy and Rights of Nations]].<ref>{{Cite web|date=2018-05-24|title=Abkhazia and South Ossetia: Time to Talk Trade|url=https://www.crisisgroup.org/europe-central-asia/caucasus/georgia/249-abkhazia-and-south-ossetia-time-talk-trade|access-date=2023-02-12|website=crisisgroup.org|language=en}}</ref>

===Germany===
The [[Bavaria Party]] is a small party that advocates Bavarian independence from Germany.

The [[Free Saxons]] is a party in the German [[Saxony|State of Saxony]] that supports Saxony independence from Germany.

===Italy===
{{Main|Politics of Italy}}
[[File:Quirinale palazzo e obelisco con dioscuri Roma.jpg|thumb|[[Quirinal Palace]], the principal residence of the [[president of Italy]]]]

Italy has been a unitary [[parliamentary republic]] since 1946, when the monarchy [[1946 Italian institutional referendum|was abolished]]. The [[president of Italy]], [[Sergio Mattarella]] since 2015, is Italy's head of state. The president is elected for a single seven-year term by the [[Italian Parliament]] and regional voters in joint session. Italy has a written democratic [[Constitution of Italy|constitution]] that resulted from a [[Constituent Assembly of Italy|Constituent Assembly]] formed by representatives of the [[anti-fascist]] forces that contributed to the defeat of Nazi and Fascist forces during the liberation of Italy, in World War II.<ref>Smyth, Howard McGaw Italy: From Fascism to the Republic (1943–1946) ''The Western Political Quarterly'' vol. 1 no. 3 (pp. 205–222), September 1948.{{JSTOR|442274}}</ref>

Italy has a parliamentary government based on a mixed [[proportional representation|proportional]] and majoritarian voting system. The parliament is perfectly [[bicameral]]; each house has the same powers. The two houses: the [[Chamber of Deputies of Italy|Chamber of Deputies]] meets in [[Palazzo Montecitorio]], and the [[Senate of Italy|Senate of the Republic]] in [[Palazzo Madama, Rome|Palazzo Madama]]. A peculiarity of the [[Italian Parliament]] is the representation given to [[Italian nationality law|Italian citizens]] permanently living abroad: 8 Deputies and 4 Senators are elected in four distinct [[Parliament of Italy#Overseas constituency|overseas constituencies]]. There are [[senator for life|senators for life]], appointed by the president "for outstanding patriotic merits in the social, scientific, artistic or literary field". Former presidents are ''ex officio'' life senators.
[[File:Palazzo Madama (Roma).jpg|thumb|[[Palazzo Madama, Rome|Palazzo Madama]] in Rome, seat of the [[Senate of the Republic (Italy)|Senate of the Republic]], the upper house of the [[Italian Parliament]]]]

The [[Prime Minister of Italy|prime minister of Italy]] is head of government and has executive authority, but must receive a vote of approval from the Council of Ministers to execute most policies. The prime minister and cabinet are appointed by the president, and confirmed by a vote of confidence in parliament. To remain as prime minister, one has to pass votes of confidence. The role of prime minister is similar to most other [[parliamentary system]]s, but they are not authorised to dissolve parliament. Another difference is that the political responsibility for intelligence is with the prime minister, who has exclusive power to coordinate intelligence policies, determine financial resources, strengthen cybersecurity, apply and protect State secrets, and authorise agents to carry out operations, in Italy or abroad.<ref>{{Cite web|title=About us – Sistema di informazione per la sicurezza della Repubblica|url=http://www.sicurezzanazionale.gov.it/sisr.nsf/english/about-us.html|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150329090926/http://www.sicurezzanazionale.gov.it/sisr.nsf/english/about-us.html|archive-date=29 March 2015|access-date=19 November 2015|website=sicurezzanazionale.gov.it}}</ref>

The major political parties are the Brothers of Italy, [[Democratic Party (Italy)|Democratic Party]], and Five Star Movement. During the 2022 general election, these three and their coalitions won 357 of the 400 seats in the Chamber of Deputies, and 187 of 200 in the Senate. The centre-right coalition, which included Giorgia Meloni's Brothers of Italy, [[Matteo Salvini]]'s League, Silvio Berlusconi's {{Lang|it|[[Forza Italia (2013)|Forza Italia]]|italic=no}}, and [[Maurizio Lupi]]'s [[Us Moderates]], won most seats in parliament. The rest were taken by the centre-left coalition, which included the Democratic Party, the [[Greens and Left Alliance]], [[Aosta Valley (political coalition)|Aosta Valley]], [[More Europe]], [[Civic Commitment]], the Five Star Movement, [[Action – Italia Viva]], [[South Tyrolean People's Party]], [[South calls North]], and the [[Associative Movement of Italians Abroad]].

===Moldova===
The eastern Moldovan region of [[Transnistria]], which has a large ethnic Russian and Ukrainian population,<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Potter|first=Benjamin|year=2022|title=Unrecognized Republic, Recognizable Consequences: Russian Troops in "Frozen" Transnistria|journal=Journal of Advanced Military Studies|volume=13|issue=1|pages=168–188|doi=10.21140/mcuj.2022SIstratcul010|s2cid=247608388|issn=2164-4217|doi-access=free}}</ref> has declared independence from Moldova on 2 September 1990 and is a member of the [[Community for Democracy and Rights of Nations]].<ref>{{Cite web|author=UNHCR|title=Refworld {{!}} World Directory of Minorities and Indigenous Peoples – Transnistria (unrecognised state)|url=https://www.refworld.org/docid/4954ce57c.html|access-date=2023-02-12|website=Refworld|language=en}}</ref> Despite having no control over the region, the Moldovan government refuses to recognise this claim. There is a significant movement in Moldova and Romania aiming at the [[Unification of Moldova and Romania|reunification]] of the two countries.

===Netherlands===
The [[Frisian National Party]] seeks more autonomy for [[Friesland]] without striving for complete independence. The preservation of Frisian culture is an important goal of the party.

===Romania===
Before the [[Treaty of Trianon]] after [[World War I]], [[Transylvania]] belonged to [[Austria-Hungary]], and it contains minorities of ethnic Hungarians who desire regional autonomy in the country.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Treaty of Trianon {{!}} World War I [1920] {{!}} Britannica|url=https://www.britannica.com/event/Treaty-of-Trianon|access-date=2023-02-12|website=Encyclopædia Britannica|language=en}}</ref>

===Russia===
Several of Russia's regions have independence movements, mostly in the state's north Caucasus border. The most notable of these are [[Chechnya]], [[Dagestan]] and [[Ingushetia]], which have well supported guerrilla groups involved in open conflict with the Russian authorities.<ref>{{Cite web|author=UNHCR|title=Refworld {{!}} Chronology for Chechens in Russia|url=https://www.refworld.org/docid/469f38d12.html|access-date=2023-02-12|website=Refworld|language=en}}</ref>

Some [[Tatars|Tatar]] people seek independence for the region of [[Tatarstan]]<ref>{{Cite web|author=UNHCR|title=Refworld {{!}} Chronology for Tatars in Russia|url=https://www.refworld.org/docid/469f38d434.html|access-date=2023-02-12|website=Refworld|language=en}}</ref>

===Serbia===
The status of [[Kosovo]] is the subject of a long-running political and territorial dispute between the Serbian (and previously, the Yugoslav) government and Kosovo's largely ethnic-Albanian population. International negotiations began in 2006 to determine final status (''See [[Kosovo status process]]'').  Kosovo declared independence on 17 February 2008.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Kosovo conflict {{!}} Summary & Facts {{!}} Britannica|url=https://www.britannica.com/event/Kosovo-conflict|access-date=2023-02-12|website=Encyclopædia Britannica|language=en}}</ref>

===Spain=== 
{{Main|Politics of Spain}}
Within Spain there are independence movements in some of the [[Autonomous communities of Spain|autonomous regions]], notably the regions that have co-official languages such as [[Catalonia]], the [[Basque Country (autonomous community)|Basque Country]], and [[Galicia (Spain)|Galicia]]. These are mostly peaceful but some, such as [[ETA (separatist group)|ETA]] and [[Terra Lliure]], have used violent means.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Shabad|first1=Goldie|last2=Gunther|first2=Richard|year=1982|title=Language, Nationalism, and Political Conflict in Spain|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/421632|journal=Comparative Politics|volume=14|issue=4|pages=443–477|doi=10.2307/421632|jstor=421632|issn=0010-4159|url-access=subscription}}</ref>

===Ukraine===
The Ukrainian autonomous region of Crimea has been annexed by the Russian Federation. The eastern, majority [[Russophone]] part of the country is divided, and there are calls from some groups for the area to leave Ukraine and join Russia.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Ukraine – The crisis in Crimea and eastern Ukraine {{!}} Britannica|url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Ukraine/The-crisis-in-Crimea-and-eastern-Ukraine|access-date=2023-02-12|website=Encyclopædia Britannica|language=en}}</ref>

===United Kingdom===
{{Main|Politics of the United Kingdom}}
In Northern Ireland, [[Sinn Féin]] and the [[Social Democratic and Labour Party]] achieve between them around 40% of the vote at elections,<ref>[https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/shared/vote2007/nielection/html/main.stm Northern Ireland election overview] BBC News, 13 March 2007</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Northern Ireland Assembly election 2017 results – BBC News|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/election/ni2017/results|access-date=2021-05-20|publisher=BBC|language=en-GB}}</ref> with both parties supporting Northern Ireland leaving the United Kingdom and joining Ireland to create a [[United Ireland]].<ref>{{Cite book|last=Maillot|first=Agnès.|title=The new Sinn Féin : Irish republicanism in the twenty-first century|date=2005|publisher=Routledge|isbn=0-415-32196-4|location=London|oclc=54853257}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|date=6 March 2017|title=One step closer to a united Ireland? Explaining Sinn Féin's electoral success|url=https://blogs.lse.ac.uk/politicsandpolicy/explaining-sinn-feins-electoral-success/|last=Whiting|first=Matthew|access-date=20 May 2021|website=British Politics and Policy at LSE}}</ref>

In Scotland, the [[Scottish National Party]] (SNP), the [[Scottish Greens]], the [[Scottish Socialist Party]] (SSP) and the [[Alba Party]] all support [[Scottish independence]].<ref>{{cite web|title=Scottish National Party's fourth election win threatens UK breakup|url=https://www.wsws.org/en/articles/2021/05/10/scot-m10.html|access-date=20 May 2021|last=James|first=Steve|website=World Socialist Web Site|language=en}}</ref> The SNP won an outright majority at the [[2011 Scottish Parliament election]] and held the [[2014 Scottish independence referendum]], in the majority of Scottish voters backed remaining part of the United Kingdom by a 55% – 45% margin. There have, however, been revived calls for independence since the [[2016 United Kingdom European Union membership referendum|2016 EU referendum]], which saw both Scotland and Northern Ireland vote to Remain.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/politics/brexit/scottish-independence-rejoin-eu-sturgeon-b1841276.html|title=Could an independent Scotland re-join the EU by 2031?|last=Forrest|first=Adam|date=4 May 2021|work=The Independent|access-date=20 May 2021}}</ref>

In Wales, [[Plaid Cymru]] and the [[Propel (political party)|Propel]] support [[Welsh independence]]. Polls generally show support for Welsh independence at around 20–25%.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.npr.org/2021/05/03/993205349/behind-the-surge-in-support-for-welsh-independence|title=Behind The Surge in Support For Welsh Independence|last=Langfitt|first=Frank|date=3 May 2021|access-date=2021-05-20|publisher=NPR|language=en}}</ref>

In England, there are movements, such as the [[English Democrats]], calling for a devolved [[English Parliament]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.englishdemocrats.org.uk/policies-english-parliament.html|title=English Parliament|access-date=4 July 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130604044721/http://www.englishdemocrats.org.uk/policies-english-parliament.html|archive-date=4 June 2013|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/politics/4792120.stm|title=No English parliament – Falconer|date=10 March 2006|access-date=4 July 2013}}</ref> There are also movements, such as the [[Wessex Regionalists]], calling for devolution of power to the [[English regions]]. Movements seeking autonomy<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.cornishassembly.org/about.htm|title=About the Campaign for a Cornish Assembly|access-date=29 December 2008}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.mebyonkernow.org/policies/|title=Policies – Mebyon Kernow|access-date=29 December 2008}}</ref> or independence<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/uk/2002/jan/19/humanities.britishidentity|title=How three Cornish men and a raid on King Arthur's castle rocked English Heritage|newspaper=The Guardian|date=19 January 2002|access-date=4 July 2013|last1=Morris|first1=Steven}}</ref> include [[Mebyon Kernow]] in the peninsula of [[Cornwall]].<ref>{{Cite web|date=2021-01-05|title=Cornwall's independence party Mebyon Kernow celebrates its 70th anniversary|url=https://www.inyourarea.co.uk/news/cornwalls-independent-party-is-celebrating-its-70-anniversary/|access-date=2021-05-20|website=InYourArea.co.uk}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=Leigh-Hewitson|first=Nadia|date=2021-04-29|title=Why Cornish independence could be no joke|url=https://www.prospectmagazine.co.uk/politics/why-cornish-independence-could-be-no-joke|access-date=2021-05-20|website=Prospect Magazine|language=en-US}}</ref>

As of 24 June 2016, the United Kingdom officially [[Brexit|voted to leave]] the European Union. It is currently an ongoing process before the process of withdrawing officially begun on 29 March 2019. However, individual constituent countries within the United Kingdom, more specifically Scotland and Northern Ireland voted to remain in the European Union, prompting calls for another independence referendum in Scotland as well as raising the possibility of Irish reunification.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Wharton|first=Jane|date=2020-01-31|title=What does Brexit mean for Scotland and Northern Ireland?|url=https://metro.co.uk/2020/01/31/what-does-brexit-mean-for-scotland-and-northern-ireland-12162534/|access-date=2021-05-20|website=Metro|language=en}}</ref>

==See also==
{{Commons category|Politics of Europe}}
*[[Council of Europe]]
*[[International organisations in Europe|International organizations in Europe]]
*[[Politics of the European Union]]
*[[European Neighbourhood Policy|European Neighborhood Policy]]
*[[European integration]]
*[[Eurovoc]]
*[[Eurosphere]]
*[[Culture of Europe]]
*[[Economy of Europe]]
*[[Future enlargement of the European Union]]
*[[Geography of Europe]]
*[[History of Europe]]
*[[List of conflicts in Europe]]
*[[List of Europe-related topics]]
*[[OSCE countries statistics]]
*[[Paneuropean Union]]
*[[Pro-Europeanism]]
*[[Regions of Europe]]
*[[Democracy in Europe]]
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==References==
{{Reflist}}

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