View source for Politics of New Zealand

{{Short description|Political system of New Zealand}}
{{Use New Zealand English|date=August 2015}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=February 2024}}

[[File:20200508 New Zealand government structure.svg|thumb|upright=1.6|Organisational chart of the New Zealand political system]]
{{Politics of New Zealand}}

The '''politics of New Zealand''' function within a framework of an [[Independence of New Zealand|independent]], [[unitary state|unitary]], [[parliamentary democracy]]. The system of government is based on the [[Westminster system]], and the legal system is modelled on the [[English law|common law of England]]. New Zealand is a [[constitutional monarchy]] in which [[Charles III|King Charles III]] is the [[sovereign]] and [[head of state]], while his [[Prime Minister of New Zealand|prime minister]] serves as the [[head of government]].

The [[New Zealand Parliament]] holds [[legislative power]] and consists of the King and the [[New Zealand House of Representatives|House of Representatives]]. The King is represented by the [[Governor-General of New Zealand|governor-general]] when not present in the country himself. Members of Parliament (MPs) are each [[Elections in New Zealand|elected]] to the House of Representatives for a flexible term of office, with [[general elections in New Zealand|general elections]] held at least every three years using a [[Electoral system of New Zealand|mixed-member proportional (MMP) system]]. MPs usually belong to [[List of political parties in New Zealand|political parties]]. New Zealand has a [[multi-party system]], though the dominant parties have historically been the [[New Zealand Labour Party|Labour Party]] and the [[New Zealand National Party|National Party]] (or its predecessors). [[Minority government]]s are common and typically dependent on [[confidence-and-supply agreement]]s with other parties in the House of Representatives.

[[Executive (government)|Executive power]] in New Zealand is based on the principle that while the King ''reigns'', the Government ''rules''.<ref>{{cite web |title=The Office of the Governor-General |url=https://gg.govt.nz/office-governor-general |website=gg.govt.nz |date=27 February 2017 |publisher=Government House |access-date=27 January 2023 |language=en-NZ |quote=This arrangement is best described by the saying that 'while the Sovereign reigns, the Government rules.{{'-}}}}</ref> Although an integral part of the process of government, the King and his governor-general remain politically neutral and are not personally involved in the everyday aspects of governing. The [[New Zealand Government]] exercises [[authority]] on behalf of and by the consent of the sovereign. The government is made up of [[Ministers in the New Zealand Government|ministers]], who are selected from among MPs and [[responsible government|accountable to Parliament]]. Most ministers are members of the [[Cabinet of New Zealand|Cabinet]], which is the main decision-making body of the Government. It is headed by the prime minister, who is the most senior minister formally appointed by the governor-general. Other ministers are appointed by the governor-general on the [[advice (constitutional law)|advice]] of the head of government.

According to the [[V-Dem Democracy Indices]] New Zealand was the sixth-most electoral democratic country in the world in 2023.<ref name="vdem_dataset">{{cite web |last=V-Dem Institute |date=2023 |title=The V-Dem Dataset |url=https://www.v-dem.net/data/the-v-dem-dataset/ |access-date=14 October 2023}}</ref> The country ranks highly for [[government transparency]] and had the second lowest [[Corruption Perceptions Index|perceived level of corruption]] in the world in 2022.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.transparency.org/en/cpi/2022 |title=CPI 2022 |date=31 January 2023 |publisher=[[Transparency International]] |access-date=22 January 2024}}</ref>

== Legal framework ==
{{Main|Constitution of New Zealand}}

New Zealand is a [[unitary state|unitary]] parliamentary democracy under a [[constitutional monarchy]].<ref name="CLGF">{{cite web |title = The local government system in New Zealand |url = http://www.clgf.org.uk/default/assets/File/Country_profiles/New_Zealand.pdf |website=clgf.org.uk |publisher=[[Commonwealth Local Government Forum]] |access-date=25 August 2019 |year=2019 }}</ref> It has [[unwritten constitution|no formal]] [[Codification (law)|codified]] constitution; the constitutional framework consists of a mixture of various documents (including certain [[act of Parliament|acts]] of the United Kingdom and New Zealand Parliaments), the [[principles of the Treaty of Waitangi]], and [[constitutional convention (political custom)|constitutional conventions]].<ref name="constitution">{{cite web|title=On the Constitution of New Zealand|url= https://gg.govt.nz/role/constofnz/intro|publisher=The Governor-General of New Zealand Te Kawana Tianara o Aotearoa|access-date=8 May 2017}}</ref> The [[New Zealand Constitution Act 1852|Constitution Act in 1852]] established the system of government and these were later consolidated in [[Constitution Act 1986|1986]]. Constitutional rights are protected under common law and are strengthened by the [[New Zealand Bill of Rights Act 1990]] and [[New Zealand Human Rights Act 1993|Human Rights Act 1993]], although these are not [[Entrenched clause|entrenched]] and can be overturned by Parliament with a simple majority.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |first=John |last=Wilson |title = Government and nation – The constitution |encyclopedia=[[Te Ara: The Encyclopedia of New Zealand]]|date=March 2009 |url = http://www.TeAra.govt.nz/en/government-and-nation/ |access-date=28 February 2011 }}</ref> The Constitution Act 1986 describes the [[three branches of government]] in New Zealand: the executive (the Sovereign and the Executive Council), the legislature (Parliament) and the judiciary (Courts).<ref name=EIIR2.1/>

== Legislature ==
{{Main|New Zealand Parliament}}
{{office-table|float=right}}
|[[Monarchy of New Zealand|King]]
|colspan=2|[[Charles III]]
|8 September 2022
|-
|[[Governor-General of New Zealand|Governor-General]]
|colspan=2|Dame [[Cindy Kiro]]
|21 October 2021
|-
|[[Speaker of the New Zealand House of Representatives|Speaker of the House]]
|[[Gerry Brownlee]]
|[[New Zealand National Party|National]]
|5 December 2023
|-
|[[Leader of the House (New Zealand)|Leader of the House]]
|[[Chris Bishop]]
|National
|27 November 2023
|-
|}

Parliament is responsible for passing laws, adopting the [[New Zealand Budget|annual Budget]], and exercising control of the executive government.<ref>{{cite web |title = The business of Parliament in history |url = https://www.parliament.nz/en/visit-and-learn/how-parliament-works/fact-sheets/parl-in-history/ |publisher=New Zealand Parliament |access-date=8 May 2017 }}</ref> It currently has a [[unicameralism|single chamber]], the [[New Zealand House of Representatives|House of Representatives]]. Before 1951 there was a second chamber, the [[New Zealand Legislative Council|Legislative Council]].<ref>{{cite web |title = Legislative Council abolished |url = https://nzhistory.govt.nz/legislative-council-abolished |publisher=[[New Zealand History Online]] / [[Ministry for Culture and Heritage]]|website=nzhistory.govt.nz|access-date=8 May 2017|date=1 December 2016}}</ref> The House of Representatives meets in [[Parliament House, Wellington]].<ref>{{cite web|title=The Chamber|url= https://www.parliament.nz/en/visit-and-learn/history-and-buildings/buildings-and-grounds/parliament-house/the-chamber/|publisher=New Zealand Parliament|access-date=8 September 2017|language=en}}</ref>
[[File:Parliament Buildings, Wellington (4484506063).jpg|thumb|left|alt=Edwardian neoclassical building in grey stone with classic colonnade entry on grand stairs|[[Parliament House, Wellington|Parliament House]] is the home of the House of Representatives.]]
Laws are first proposed to the House of Representatives as [[bill (law)|bills]]. They have to go through a process of approval by the House and governor-general before becoming [[acts of Parliament]] (i.e. [[Lists of statutes of New Zealand|statutory law]]).<ref>{{cite web |title = The Royal assent |url = https://www.parliament.nz/en/get-involved/features-pre-2016/document/00NZPHomeNews031220091/the-royal-assent |website=parliament.nz |publisher = New Zealand Parliament |access-date=14 September 2019 |language=en |date=3 December 2009 }}</ref>

The [[legislator|lawmakers]] are called [[members of Parliament]], or MPs.<ref name="MPs">{{cite web |title=Members of Parliament |url = https://www.parliament.nz/en/mps-and-electorates/members-of-parliament/ |website=parliament.nz |publisher=New Zealand Parliament |access-date=13 September 2019 |language=en-NZ }}</ref> Parliament is elected for a maximum term of three years, although an election may be called earlier in exceptional circumstances.<ref name="electoral_cycle">{{cite web |title = The electoral cycle |url = https://cabinetmanual.cabinetoffice.govt.nz/6.2 |work=[[Cabinet Manual (New Zealand)|Cabinet Manual]] |publisher=Cabinet Office |access-date=8 May 2017 |year = 2008 }}</ref> [[Suffrage]] is nearly universal for permanent residents eighteen years of age and older,<ref>{{cite web |title =  Electoral Act 1993 No 87 |url = http://www.legislation.govt.nz/act/public/1993/0087/latest/DLM308839.html |publisher = Parliamentary Counsel Office |access-date = 17 September 2019 |date = 17 August 1993 }}</ref> women having gained the vote in {{NZ election link year|1893}}.<ref name="suffrage" /> As in many other parliamentary systems of government, the executive (called "the Government") is drawn from and is answerable to Parliament—for example, a successful [[motion of no confidence]] will force a government either to resign or to seek a [[parliamentary dissolution]] and an early [[general election]].<ref>{{cite web |title = Parties and Government |url = https://www.parliament.nz/en/visit-and-learn/how-parliament-works/parliamentary-practice-in-new-zealand/chapter-8-parties-and-government/ |website= parliament.nz |publisher=New Zealand Parliament |access-date=10 September 2019 |language=en-NZ }}</ref>

===Elections===
{{Further|Elections in New Zealand|Electoral system of New Zealand}}
Almost all parliamentary elections between {{NZ election link year|1853}} and {{NZ election link year|1996}} were held under the [[first-past-the-post voting|first past the post]] (FPP) [[electoral system]].<ref name="road">{{cite web |title = First past the post – the road to MMP |url = http://www.nzhistory.govt.nz/politics/fpp-to-mmp/first-past-the-post |publisher = New Zealand History Online |website=nzhistory.govt.nz |date=September 2009 |access-date=9 January 2011 }}</ref> Under FPP the candidate in a given [[New Zealand electorates|electorate]] (district) that received the most votes was elected to the House of Representatives. The only deviation from the FPP system during this time occurred in the {{NZ election link year|1908}} and {{NZ election link year|1911}} elections when a [[Two-round system|second-ballot]] system was used; the [[Second Ballot Act 1908|second-ballot legislation]] was repealed in 1913.<ref name="road" /> The elections since 1935 have been dominated by two [[political parties]], [[New Zealand National Party|National]] and [[New Zealand Labour Party|Labour]].<ref name="road" />

Public criticism of the FPP system began in the 1950s and intensified after Labour lost elections in {{NZ election link year|1978}} and {{NZ election link year|1981}} despite having more overall votes than National.<ref name="elections">{{cite web |url = http://www.elections.org.nz/voting/mmp/history-mmp.html |title = From FPP to MMP |publisher=Elections New Zealand |access-date = 9 January 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20101224153630/http://www.elections.org.nz/voting/mmp/history-mmp.html |archive-date=24 December 2010 }}</ref> An indicative (non-binding) referendum to [[Electoral reform in New Zealand|change the voting system]] was held in 1992, which led to a binding referendum during the {{NZ election link|1993}}.<ref name="elections" /> As a result, New Zealand has used the [[mixed-member proportional]] (MMP) system since 1996.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |last = Roberts |first = Nigel S. |title = Electoral systems |url = http://www.teara.govt.nz/en/electoral-systems |encyclopedia = Te Ara: The Encyclopedia of New Zealand |access-date=8 May 2017 |date=February 2015 }}</ref> Under MMP, each member of Parliament is either directly elected by voters in a single-member district via FPP or appointed from their [[list MP|party's list]].<ref name="MPs" /> Parliament normally has 120 [[legislative seat|seats]],<ref name="MPs" /> though some elections have resulted in [[overhang seat|overhang]], as is currently the case ({{As of|December 2023|alt=as of December 2023}}).<ref>{{cite news |title=The $5m cost of Parliament's 3 overhang MPs – and how only 29% is salary |url=https://www.nzherald.co.nz/nz/election-2023-the-cost-of-parliaments-three-seat-overhang-mps-and-how-only-29-is-salary/RYTY7BLHDZELFKAQ5WDJIMXLEI/ |access-date=17 December 2023 |work=[[The New Zealand Herald]] |date=12 December 2023 |language=en-NZ}}</ref>  In the first eight elections under MMP, from 1996 to {{NZ election link year|2017}}, no party won a majority of seats.<ref name="Martin">{{cite encyclopedia |last1=Martin |first1=John E. |title=Impact of MMP |url=https://teara.govt.nz/en/parliament/page-9 |encyclopedia=Te Ara: The Encyclopedia of New Zealand |access-date=20 July 2023 |language=en-NZ |date=20 June 2012}}</ref>

[[Māori electorates|Seven electorates]] are [[reserved political positions|reserved]] for MPs elected on a separate [[Māori people|Māori]] roll. In 1967, the law was changed to allow Māori to stand for election in the general (non-reserved) electorates, resulting in many Māori entering Parliament outside of the reserved seats.<ref name="NZHistory2">{{cite web |title=Māori and the vote – Change in the 20th century |url=https://nzhistory.govt.nz/page/change-20th-century |website=nzhistory.govt.nz |publisher=[[New Zealand History Online]] |access-date=11 January 2025 |date=21 November 2024}}</ref> Since 1975, all Māori have had the option to enrol to vote in either the reserved Māori electorates or general electorates.<ref name="NZHistory2" /><ref>{{cite web |title = Māori Electoral Option |url = https://elections.nz/democracy-in-nz/what-is-an-electoral-roll/what-is-the-maori-electoral-option/ |publisher = New Zealand Electoral Commission |access-date=8 May 2017 }}</ref>

=== Party politics ===
{{Main|List of political parties in New Zealand}}
[[File:Nzelection2011 ballot4.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Ballot]] showing parties, [[2011 New Zealand general election|2011 general election]]]]
The first organised political party in New Zealand was founded in 1891, and its main rival was founded in 1909—New Zealand had a ''de facto'' [[two-party system]] from that point until the adoption of MMP in 1996.<ref name="parties">{{cite encyclopedia |last1=Curtin |first1=Jennifer |last2=Miller |first2=Raymond |author1-link=Jennifer Curtin |title=Political parties |url=https://teara.govt.nz/en/political-parties |encyclopedia=Te Ara: The Encyclopedia of New Zealand |access-date=19 October 2022 |date=21 July 2015}}</ref> Since then New Zealand has been a multi-party system, with at least five parties elected in every general election since. By rarely producing an overall majority for one party, MMP also ensures that parties need to agree with other parties to pass laws.<ref>{{cite web |title = What is MMP? |url = https://elections.nz/democracy-in-nz/what-is-mmp/ |publisher=[[Electoral Commission]] |access-date = 13 September 2019 }}</ref> In the late 1990s, a phenomenon called "[[waka-jumping]]" emerged as MPs increasingly switched their party allegiance while in Parliament, prompting the implementation of a 2001 law mandating the resignation of waka-jumping MPs; this legislation expired in 2005, but a renewed effort to prevent waka-jumping emerged with the passage of the [[Electoral (Integrity) Amendment Act 2018]].<ref name="Martin"/>

Historically the two largest, and oldest, parties are the [[New Zealand Labour Party]] (formed in 1916) and the [[New Zealand National Party]] (formed in 1936).<ref name="parties"/> Labour has generally positioned itself as [[centre-left]] in New Zealand politics,<ref name="Papillon">{{cite book |last1= Papillon |first1= Martin |last2= Turgeon |first2= Luc |last3= Wallner |first3= Jennifer |last4= White |first4= Stephen |title= Comparing Canada: Methods and Perspectives on Canadian Politics |year = 2014 |publisher=UBC Press |isbn= 9780774827867 |page = 126 |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=WpU8BAAAQBAJ&pg=PA126 |access-date= 30 August 2016 |quote= ...in New Zealand politics, by the centre-left Labour Party and the centre-right National Party }}</ref> and has featured [[socialism in New Zealand|socialist (historically)]] and [[social-democratic]] principles in its platform and legislation,<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |last=Aimer |first=Peter |title=Labour Party: Ideology and the role of unions|url=http://www.teara.govt.nz/en/labour-party/page-5 |encyclopedia=Te Ara: The Encyclopedia of New Zealand|date=1 June 2015|access-date=19 October 2022}}</ref> while National has generally positioned itself as [[centre-right]],<ref name="Papillon"/> and has [[liberalism|liberal]] and [[conservative]] tendencies.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|title= National Party: Party principles |author-link=Colin James (journalist) |first=Colin |last=James |url= http://www.teara.govt.nz/en/national-party/page-4 |encyclopedia=Te Ara: The Encyclopedia of New Zealand |date=13 December 2016 |access-date=19 October 2022}}</ref> Other smaller parties represented in Parliament, following the {{as of|2023|lc=on|alt=October 2023 general election}}, are the [[ACT New Zealand|ACT Party]] (right-wing, [[classical-liberal]] and [[Conservatism|conservative]]), the [[Green Party of Aotearoa New Zealand|Green Party]] (left-wing, [[green politics]]), [[New Zealand First]] (right-wing, [[populism in New Zealand|populist]] and [[nationalist]]), and [[Te Pāti Māori]] (left-wing, [[Māori rights]]-based).<ref>{{cite web |title = Parliamentary parties |url = https://www.parliament.nz/en/mps-and-electorates/political-parties/ |publisher=New Zealand Parliament |access-date=31 October 2020 |language=en-NZ }}</ref>

Parties must register with the [[Electoral Commission (New Zealand)|Electoral Commission]] in order to contest the [[party vote]] in an election.<ref>{{cite web |title = Register of political parties |url = https://elections.nz/democracy-in-nz/political-parties-in-new-zealand/register-of-political-parties |publisher=Electoral Commission |access-date=17 September 2019 }}</ref>

The table below summarises the [[Results of the 2023 New Zealand general election|results of the latest general election]].
{{#section:Results of the 2023 New Zealand general election|Results}}

==== Party funding ====
{{Main|Political funding in New Zealand}}

In recent years, there has been a growing recognition of the importance of [[political party funding]] as a public policy concern. To address this, specific regulations have been implemented to set limits on foreign donations, ensuring that they do not exceed NZ$50<ref>{{Cite web |date=3 December 2019 |title=New Zealand bans foreign political donations amid interference concerns |url=http://www.theguardian.com/world/2019/dec/03/new-zealand-bans-foreign-political-donations-amid-interference-concerns |website=[[the Guardian]]|access-date=19 July 2023}}</ref> and placing restrictions on anonymous donations, which are limited to a maximum of NZ$1,500. These limitations aim to promote transparency and accountability in the political process by curbing the potential influence of foreign and anonymous contributions.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Donations protected from disclosure|url=https://elections.nz/democracy-in-nz/political-parties-in-new-zealand/donations-protected-from-disclosure/|access-date=10 July 2023|website=elections.nz|language=en-NZ}}</ref>

==Executive Government==
{{Further|New Zealand Government}}
[[File:SIF-Beehive-3-Cropped.jpg|thumb|upright|alt=A circular, latticed building resembling a natural beehive (skep).|The [[Beehive (New Zealand)|Beehive]] is the seat of the New Zealand Government.]]

{{multiple image
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Main office-holders
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 | image1            = King Charles III (July 2023).jpg
 | width1            = 
 | caption1          = The [[King of New Zealand]]:<br />'''[[Charles III]]'''<br />since<br />{{nowrap|8 September 2022}}

 | image2            = Cindy Kiro Jan 2023 (cropped).jpg
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 | caption2          = The [[Governor-General of New Zealand]]:<br />'''[[Dame Cindy Kiro]]'''<br />since<br />{{nowrap|21 October 2021}}

 | image3            = Prime Minister Marin in New Zealand 1.12.2022 (52535372229) (cropped).jpg
 | width3            = 
 | caption3          = The [[Prime Minister of New Zealand]]:<br />'''[[Christopher Luxon]]'''<br />since<br />{{nowrap|27 November 2023}}

 }}

King [[Charles III]] is New Zealand's [[sovereign]] and [[head of state]].<ref name=EIIR2.1>{{Citation| last=Elizabeth II| author-link=Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom| date=13 December 1986| title=Constitution Act 1986| series=2.1| location=Wellington| publisher=Queen's Printer for New Zealand| url=http://www.legislation.govt.nz/act/public/1986/0114/latest/whole.html#dlm94204| access-date=30 December 2009| ref=CITEREF_Elizabeth_II_1986}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=New Zealand's new Sovereign: King Charles III |url=https://www.parliament.nz/en/visit-and-learn/history-and-buildings/special-topics/the-demise-of-the-crown/new-zealand-s-new-sovereign-king-charles-iii/ |website=www.parliament.nz |publisher=New Zealand Parliament |access-date=10 February 2023 |language=en-NZ |date=9 September 2022}}</ref> The New Zealand monarchy has been legally distinct from the [[Monarchy of the United Kingdom|British monarchy]] following the [[Statute of Westminster Adoption Act 1947]], and all Charles III's official business in New Zealand is conducted in the name of the "[[Monarchy of New Zealand|King of New Zealand]]".{{sfn|Boyce|2008|p=172}}<ref>{{cite book|last1=Peaslee|first1=Amos J.|title=Constitutions of Nations|date=1985|publisher=Nijhoff.|location=Dordrecht|isbn=9789024729050|page=882|edition=Rev. 4th|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1YDkjh7p-xYC&pg=PA882|access-date=7 May 2017}}</ref> The King's role is largely ceremonial, and his residual powers—called collectively the "[[royal prerogative]]"—are mostly exercised through the government of the day. These include the power to enact [[legislation]], to sign treaties and to declare war.<ref name="Cox">{{cite journal|last1=Cox|first1=Noel|title=The Royal Prerogative in the Realms|journal=Commonwealth Law Bulletin|volume=33|issue=4|pages=611–638|doi=10.1080/03050710701814839|date=1 December 2007 |url=http://www.austlii.edu.au/au/journals/ALRS/2007/7.html|publisher=ALTA Law Research Series |s2cid=143050540|access-date=30 April 2017|url-access=subscription}}</ref>

Since the King is not usually resident in New Zealand,<ref>{{cite web |title=The Queen's constitutional and public ceremonial roles |url=https://gg.govt.nz/office-governor-general/roles-and-functions-governor-general/constitutional-role/queen-public-ceremonial-roles |website=gg.govt.nz |publisher=Government House |access-date=4 November 2021 |language=en-NZ}}</ref> the functions of the sovereign are delegated to their representative, the governor-general.<ref>{{cite web|title=Governor-General|url=https://cabinetmanual.cabinetoffice.govt.nz/1.2|work=Cabinet Manual|publisher=Cabinet Office|access-date=7 May 2017|date=2008}}</ref> {{As of|2021}}, the incumbent Governor-General is [[Cindy Kiro|Dame Cindy Kiro]].<ref>{{cite news |last1=Trevett |first1=Claire |title=New Governor-General Dame Cindy Kiro sworn-in |url=https://www.nzherald.co.nz/nz/new-governor-general-dame-cindy-kiro-sworn-in/ID2M2DXFTYVYLLBAPI5SJG6MFY/ |access-date=21 October 2021 |work=[[The New Zealand Herald]] |date=21 October 2021 |language=en-NZ}}</ref> A governor-general formally has the power to appoint and dismiss [[Ministers in the New Zealand Government|ministers]] and to [[dissolution of parliament|dissolve]] Parliament; and the power to reject or sign bills into law by [[royal assent]] after passage by the House of Representatives.<ref>{{cite web|title=Modern duties|url=https://nzhistory.govt.nz/politics/history-of-the-governor-general/modern-duties|publisher=New Zealand History Online|website=nzhistory.govt.nz|access-date=1 July 2017|date=18 December 2018}}</ref> The governor-general chairs the [[Executive Council of New Zealand|Executive Council]], which is a formal committee consisting of all ministers, who [[advice (constitutional)|advise]] the governor-general on the exercising of the prerogative powers. Members of the Executive Council are required to be members of Parliament (MPs), and most are also in the Cabinet.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://cabinetmanual.cabinetoffice.govt.nz/1.18|title=Executive Council|work=Cabinet Manual|date=2008|publisher=Cabinet Office|access-date=8 January 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110519124008/http://www.cabinetmanual.cabinetoffice.govt.nz/1.18|archive-date=19 May 2011|url-status=dead}}</ref>

[[Cabinet of New Zealand|Cabinet]] is the senior decision-making body in Government, led by the [[Prime Minister of New Zealand|prime minister]] (currently [[Christopher Luxon]]<ref>{{cite news |title=Luxon sworn in as PM, new Govt gets underway |url=https://www.nzherald.co.nz/nz/politics/national-nz-first-act-coalition-christopher-luxon-to-be-sworn-in-as-prime-minister-today-along-with-ministers-new-government-kicks-into-gear/4ACAOUV6RBBOPJTNUJBF3UWYLM/ |access-date=27 November 2023 |work=[[The New Zealand Herald]] |date=27 November 2023 |language=en-NZ}}</ref>), who is also, by convention, the [[parliamentary leader]] of the largest governing party.<ref name="te ara">{{cite encyclopedia|first= Gavin|last= McLean|title= Premiers and prime ministers – The role of prime minister|url= http://www.teara.govt.nz/en/premiers-and-prime-ministers/page-1|encyclopedia= Te Ara: The Encyclopedia of New Zealand|date= 1 December 2016|access-date=29 November 2019}}</ref> The prime minister, being the ''de facto'' leader of New Zealand, exercises executive functions that are formally vested in the sovereign (by way of the prerogative powers).<ref name="Cox"/> Ministers within Cabinet make major decisions collectively and are therefore [[Cabinet collective responsibility|collectively responsible]] for the consequences of these decisions.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|last1=Eichbaum|first1=Chris|title=Cabinet government – Collective responsibility|url=http://www.teara.govt.nz/en/cabinet-government/page-4|encyclopedia=Te Ara: The Encyclopedia of New Zealand|access-date=1 May 2017|date=20 June 2012}}</ref>

For [[List of New Zealand governments|a government]] to be formed, typically following a general election, it must be able to command the support of the majority of MPs in the House of Representatives.<ref>{{cite web |title=How government works |url=https://www.govt.nz/browse/engaging-with-government/government-in-new-zealand/ |website=govt.nz |publisher=New Zealand Government |access-date=30 November 2019}}</ref> This entails having their [[Confidence and supply#Confidence|confidence]] and the ability to pass [[supply bill]]s. While it is rare for a single party to have an outright majority, [[coalition government|coalitions]] may be formed between parties;<ref name="coalitions">{{cite web |title = Coalition and minority governments |url = https://www.parliament.nz/resource/mi-nz/00PLLawRP99071/52e3e8f5c5960d88fc9bfa046bb1d6408e17b345 |publisher=Parliamentary Counsel Office |access-date=8 September 2017 |date=23 November 1999 }}</ref> even if a single party or coalition lacks a majority, it can form a Cabinet with agreed confidence and supply from minor parties.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Bracewell-Worrall |first1=Anna |title=What is confidence and supply… and how does it differ from a coalition? |url=https://www.newshub.co.nz/home/election/2017/10/what-is-confidence-and-supply-and-how-does-it-differ-from-a-coalition.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171005171310/http://www.newshub.co.nz/home/election/2017/10/what-is-confidence-and-supply-and-how-does-it-differ-from-a-coalition.html |url-status=dead |archive-date=5 October 2017 |access-date=20 July 2023 |work=[[Newshub]] |date=4 October 2017 |language=en-NZ}}</ref> After a government is formed, it also requires practical support from a majority for [[government bill (law)|government bills]] to be enacted.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |last1=Martin |first1=John E. |title=Legislating |url=https://teara.govt.nz/en/parliament/page-3 |encyclopedia=Te Ara: The Encyclopedia of New Zealand |date=20 June 2012 |access-date=12 March 2024 |quote=[G]overnment bills, introduced by ministers to advance the policies of the governing party or parties.}}</ref> Parties in government are said to have a "[[Mandate (politics)|mandate]]" from voters and authority to implement [[manifesto]]s (although this view has been criticised as being simplistic when applied to coalition arrangements).<ref>{{cite book |last1=Quinn |first1=Thomas |title=Mandates, Manifestos and Coalitions |date=2014 |location=London |isbn=978-09928904-14|pages=8–9}}</ref> The National Party won the largest number of seats in the [[2023 New Zealand general election|2023 general election]] and, following negotiations, formed a majority three-party coalition government with the ACT and NZ First parties.<ref name="Sixth National Government">{{cite news |title=National, ACT, NZ First will lead NZ's first three-party govt |url=https://www.rnz.co.nz/national/programmes/checkpoint/audio/2018916811/national-act-nz-first-will-lead-nz-s-first-three-party-govt |access-date=7 December 2023 |work=[[RNZ]] |date=24 November 2023 |language=en-nz}}</ref>

{{As of|2023|alt=Since November 2023}}, the Labour Party has formed the [[Official Opposition (New Zealand)|Official Opposition]] to the National–ACT–NZ First Government. The [[Leader of the Opposition (New Zealand)|leader of the Opposition]] heads a [[Shadow Cabinet (New Zealand)|Shadow Cabinet]], which scrutinises the actions of the Cabinet led by the prime minister. The Opposition within Parliament helps to hold the Government to account through [[parliamentary questions]], non-government bills, and the possibility of [[Motion of no confidence|no-confidence motions]].<ref>{{cite web|title=The Relationship between the Government and the Opposition or Minority Parties in Selected Places|url=http://www.legco.gov.hk/yr02-03/english/sec/library/0203rp01e.pdf|access-date=18 December 2018|date=13 November 2002|pages=14–16}}</ref>

==Judiciary==
{{Main|Judiciary of New Zealand}}
{{See also|Judicial review in New Zealand}}

[[File:New Zealand Supreme Court entrance 2015.JPG|thumb|The Supreme Court building, Wellington]]

The New Zealand judiciary has four basic levels of courts:<ref name="Judiciary">{{cite web|title=Structure of the Court System: Overview|url=https://www.courtsofnz.govt.nz/about-the-judiciary/structure-of-the-court-system|publisher=Courts of New Zealand|access-date=8 September 2017|language=en-nz}}</ref>
*The [[Supreme Court of New Zealand|Supreme Court]];
*the [[Court of Appeal of New Zealand|Court of Appeal]];
*the [[High Court of New Zealand|High Court]];
*and the [[District Court of New Zealand|District Court]] (including the Youth Court).

The Supreme Court was established in 2004, under the [[Supreme Court Act 2003]],<ref>{{cite web|title=Supreme Court Act 2003 No 53 (as at 01 March 2017), Public Act Contents|url=http://www.legislation.govt.nz/act/public/2003/0053/latest/DLM214028.html|publisher=Parliamentary Counsel Office|access-date=8 September 2017|language=en-NZ}}</ref> and replaced the [[Judicial Committee of the Privy Council|Privy Council]] in London as New Zealand's [[court of last resort]].<ref>{{cite web|title=History of court system|url=https://www.courtsofnz.govt.nz/about-the-judiciary/copy_of_overview|publisher=Courts of New Zealand|access-date=8 September 2017|language=en-nz}}</ref> The High Court deals with serious criminal offences and civil matters, and hears appeals from subordinate courts. The Court of Appeal hears appeals from the High Court on points of law.<ref name="Judiciary"/>

The [[Chief Justice of New Zealand|chief justice]], the head of the judiciary, presides over the Supreme Court and is appointed by the governor-general on the advice of the prime minister.<ref name="Joseph2012">{{cite encyclopedia|last1=Joseph|first1=Philip A.|last2=Joseph|first2=Thomas|title=Judicial system – Judges|url=http://www.teara.govt.nz/en/judicial-system/page-7|encyclopedia=Te Ara: The Encyclopedia of New Zealand|access-date=8 September 2017|date=20 June 2012}}</ref> {{As of|2019}} the incumbent Chief Justice is [[Helen Winkelmann|Dame Helen Winkelmann]].<ref>{{cite web|title=Current Chief Justice|url=https://www.courtsofnz.govt.nz/about-the-judiciary/role-judges/current-chief|publisher=Courts of New Zealand|access-date=8 September 2017|language=en-nz}}</ref> All other superior court judges are appointed on the advice of the chief justice, the [[Attorney-General (New Zealand)|attorney-general]], and the [[Solicitor-General (New Zealand)|solicitor-general]].<ref name="Joseph2012"/><ref name="appointments">{{cite web|title=Appointments|url=https://www.courtsofnz.govt.nz/about-the-judiciary/role-judges/appointments|publisher=Courts of New Zealand|access-date=31 January 2017|language=en-nz}}</ref> Judges and judicial officers are appointed non-politically and under strict rules regarding tenure to help maintain [[judicial independence]] from the executive government.<ref name="Joseph2012"/> Judges are appointed according to their qualifications, personal qualities, and relevant experience.<ref name="appointments"/> A judge may not be removed from office except by the attorney-general upon an address of the House of Representatives for proved misbehaviour.<ref name="Joseph2012" />

[[New Zealand law]] has three principal sources: [[English law|English]] [[common law]], certain statutes of the United Kingdom Parliament enacted before 1947 (notably the [[Bill of Rights 1689]]), and [[Lists of acts of the New Zealand Parliament|statutes of the New Zealand Parliament]].<ref>{{cite web|title=An Introduction to New Zealand Law & Sources of Legal Information – GlobaLex|url=http://www.nyulawglobal.org/globalex/New_Zealand.html|publisher=New York University School of Law|date=April 2011|access-date=8 September 2017|language=en}}</ref> In interpreting common law, the courts have endeavoured to preserve uniformity with common law as interpreted in the United Kingdom and related jurisdictions.<ref name="McLintock">{{cite encyclopedia |url=https://teara.govt.nz/en/1966/law-history-of |title=Law, History of |editor-first=A. H. | editor-last=McLintock | editor-link=Alexander Hare McLintock |orig-year=1966 |date=18 September 2007 |encyclopedia=[[An Encyclopaedia of New Zealand]] |access-date=8 September 2017}}</ref>

==Local government==
{{Main|Local government in New Zealand}}
New Zealand is a [[unitary state]] rather than a [[federation]]—local government has only the powers conferred upon it by the national Parliament.<ref>{{cite web|title=Local government in New Zealand|url=http://www.localcouncils.govt.nz/lgip.nsf/wpg_url/About-Local-Government-Local-Government-in-New-Zealand-Index|publisher=[[Department of Internal Affairs (New Zealand)|Department of Internal Affairs]]|access-date=8 September 2017|language=en}}</ref> These powers have traditionally been distinctly fewer than in some other countries; for example, police and education are run by [[central government]].<ref>{{cite web|title=A guide to New Zealand's central government agencies|url=https://www.ssc.govt.nz/sites/all/files/guide-to-central-govt-agencies-1feb15.pdf|publisher=New Zealand Government|access-date=27 October 2017|date=1 February 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161001081957/http://www.ssc.govt.nz/sites/all/files/guide-to-central-govt-agencies-1feb15.pdf|archive-date=1 October 2016|url-status=dead}}</ref> Local government is established by statute, with the first Municipal Corporations Act having been passed by the Legislative Council in 1842. Local governance is currently defined by the [[Local Government Act 2002]].<ref name="CLGF"/>

[[Local elections in New Zealand|Local elections]] are held every three years to choose [[Regions of New Zealand|regional]], [[Cities of New Zealand|city]] and [[Districts of New Zealand|district]] councillors, including [[mayors in New Zealand|mayors]], and [[Community boards in New Zealand|community board]] members.<ref>{{cite web|title=Local Electoral Act 2001 No 35 (as at 21 March 2017), Public Act 10 Triennial general election|url=http://www.legislation.govt.nz/act/public/2001/0035/latest/DLM93441.html?search=ts_act_\Electoral++Act_resel&p=1#DLM93441|publisher=Parliamentary Counsel Office|access-date=8 September 2017|language=en-NZ}}</ref>

==Foreign relations==
{{Main|Foreign relations of New Zealand}}
[[File:Helen Clark UNDP 2010.jpg|thumb|upright|Former New Zealand Prime Minister [[Helen Clark]] served as administrator of the [[United Nations Development Programme]], a senior official at the UN, from 2009 to 2017.]]

New Zealand maintains a network of 32 embassies, 20 [[High commissioner (Commonwealth)|high commission]]s and 95 consulates abroad, and holds relations with about 150 countries.<ref>{{cite web |title=Embassies |url=https://www.mfat.govt.nz/en/embassies/ |website=www.mfat.govt.nz |publisher=New Zealand Ministry of Foreign Affairs and Trade |access-date=16 March 2024 |language=en-NZ}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=New Zealand – Embassies and Consulates Worldwide |url=https://www.embassy-worldwide.com/country/new-zealand/ |website=Embassy WorldWide |access-date=16 March 2024}}</ref> New Zealand is involved in the [[Pacific Islands Forum]], the [[Pacific Community]], [[Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation]], the [[East Asia Summit]], and the [[ASEAN Regional Forum]].<ref>{{cite web |title=New Zealand country brief |url = https://dfat.gov.au/geo/new-zealand/pages/new-zealand-country-brief.aspx |publisher=[[Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade (Australia)]] |access-date=9 November 2019 |language=en-us}}</ref> It is a member of the [[Commonwealth of Nations]],<ref>{{cite web |title=The Commonwealth |url = https://www.mfat.govt.nz/en/peace-rights-and-security/the-commonwealth/ |website=mfat.govt.nz |publisher=Ministry of Foreign Affairs and Trade |access-date=9 November 2019}}</ref> [[Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development]] (OECD),<ref>{{cite web |title=Our global reach |url=http://www.oecd.org/about/members-and-partners/ |website=oecd.org |publisher=OECD |access-date=9 November 2019 |language=en }}</ref> and [[New Zealand and the United Nations|a founding member]] of the [[United Nations]] (UN).<ref>{{cite web |title=New Zealand and the United Nations |url = https://nzhistory.govt.nz/politics/new-zealand-and-the-united-nations |website=nzhistory.govt.nz |publisher=New Zealand History Online / Ministry for Culture and Heritage |access-date=9 November 2019 |date=5 August 2014}}</ref> New Zealand is party to a number of [[Free-trade agreements of New Zealand|free-trade agreements]], most prominently [[Closer Economic Relations]] with Australia<ref name="Green">{{cite encyclopedia |last=Green |first=Michael |title=Foreign policy and diplomatic representation |url = https://teara.govt.nz/en/foreign-policy-and-diplomatic-representation/page-6 |encyclopedia=Te Ara: The Encyclopedia of New Zealand |access-date=9 November 2019 |language=en |date=17 May 2016 }}</ref> and the [[New Zealand–China Free Trade Agreement]].<ref>{{cite web |last1 = Chen |first1=Shu-Ching Jean |title = Landmark Trade Deal Struck By China, New Zealand |url = https://www.forbes.com/2008/04/07/china-nz-fta-markets-econ-cx_jc_0407markets2.html |work=[[Forbes]] |date=7 April 2008 |access-date=29 November 2019 |language=en}}</ref>

Historically New Zealand [[New Zealand–United Kingdom relations|aligned itself strongly with the United Kingdom]] and had few bilateral relations with other countries. In the later 20th century, relationships in the [[Asia-Pacific]] region became more important. New Zealand has also traditionally [[Australia–New Zealand relations|worked closely with Australia]], whose foreign policy followed a similar historical trend.<ref name="Green"/> In turn, many Pacific Islands (such as [[Samoa]]) have looked to New Zealand's lead. A large proportion of [[New Zealand Agency for International Development|New Zealand's foreign aid]] goes to these countries and many Pacific people migrate to New Zealand for employment.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|first=Geoff|last=Bertram|title=South Pacific economic relations|encyclopedia=Te Ara: The Encyclopedia of New Zealand|date=11 March 2010|url=http://www.teara.govt.nz/en/south-pacific-economic-relations/4|access-date=9 November 2019}}</ref> Despite the 1986 rupture in the [[ANZUS]] military alliance (as a result of [[New Zealand's nuclear-free policy]]), New Zealand has maintained good working relations with the United States<ref>{{cite web |title=U.S. Relations With New Zealand |url=https://www.state.gov/u-s-relations-with-new-zealand/ |publisher=[[United States Department of State]] |access-date=9 November 2019}}</ref> and Australia on a broad array of international issues.

==Political culture==
{{See also|Human rights in New Zealand|Corruption in New Zealand|Culture of New Zealand#Attitudes}}

Political change in New Zealand has been gradual and pragmatic, rather than revolutionary.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |last=Levine |first=Stephen |title=Political values – New Zealand politics and political values |url=https://teara.govt.nz/en/political-values/page-1 |encyclopedia=Te Ara: The Encyclopedia of New Zealand |access-date=15 December 2018 |date=20 June 2012}}</ref> The nation's approach to governance has emphasised [[social welfare]],<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |last=Levine |first=Stephen |title=Political values – The fair society |url=https://teara.govt.nz/en/political-values/page-4 |encyclopedia=Te Ara: The Encyclopedia of New Zealand |access-date=15 December 2018 |date=20 June 2012}}</ref> and [[multiculturalism]],<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |last=Phillips |first=Jock |title=The New Zealanders – Multicultural New Zealand |url=https://teara.govt.nz/en/the-new-zealanders/page-13 |encyclopedia=Te Ara: The Encyclopedia of New Zealand |access-date=15 December 2018 |date=20 May 2015}}</ref> which is based on [[Immigration to New Zealand|immigration]], social integration,<ref name="political values">{{cite encyclopedia |last=Levine |first=Stephen |title = Political values – Values and political change |url = https://teara.govt.nz/en/political-values/page-7 |encyclopedia = Te Ara: The Encyclopedia of New Zealand |access-date=15 December 2018 |date=20 June 2012 }}</ref> and suppression of [[far-right politics]],<ref>{{cite news |last = di Maio |first = Matteo |title = As the rest of the world slides further right, New Zealand is a haven of liberal politics |url = https://www.independent.co.uk/voices/trump-new-zealand-jacinda-ardern-liberal-politics-democracy-a8442561.html |access-date=15 December 2018 |work=[[The Independent]] |date=11 July 2018 |language=en }}</ref> that has wide public and political support.<ref name="political values" /><ref name="Geddis2016">{{cite journal |last1=Geddis |first1=Andrew |title=Parliamentary government in New Zealand: Lines of continuity and moments of change |journal=International Journal of Constitutional Law |date=January 2016 |volume=14 |issue=1 |pages=99–118 |doi=10.1093/icon/mow001|doi-access=free }}</ref> New Zealand is regarded as one of the most honest countries in the world, and it was ranked first in the world in 2017 for [[Corruption Perceptions Index|lowest perceived level of corruption]] by the organisation [[Transparency International]].<ref>{{cite web |url = https://www.transparency.org/news/feature/corruption_perceptions_index_2017#table |title = Corruption Perceptions Index 2017 |date=21 February 2018 |access-date=14 August 2019 }}</ref> [[Democracy]] and [[rule of law]] are founding political principles in New Zealand. Early [[European settlers in New Zealand|European settlers]] believed that traditional British legal principles (including individual [[Title (property)|title]] to land) would be upheld in New Zealand.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |last = Levine |first = Stephen |title = Political values – Enduring political values |url = https://teara.govt.nz/en/political-values/page-3 |encyclopedia = Te Ara: The Encyclopedia of New Zealand |access-date=15 December 2018 |date=20 June 2012 }}</ref> The nation's history, such as the legacy of the British colonial rule evidenced in the [[Westminster system]], continues to have an impact on political culture, despite New Zealand's [[Independence of New Zealand|political independence]].<ref name="Geddis2016"/> {{As of|2021|alt=As at 2021}}, New Zealand is identified as a "[[Democracy Index#Definitions|full democracy]]" in the [[Economist Intelligence Unit]]'s [[Democracy Index]].<ref name="Daly2021">{{cite news |last1=Daly |first1=Michael |title=New Zealand rated world's second most democratic country by Economist Intelligence Unit |url=https://www.stuff.co.nz/world/127741812/new-zealand-rated-worlds-second-most-democratic-country-by-economist-intelligence-unit|access-date=19 February 2022 |work=[[Stuff (website)|Stuff]] |date=10 February 2022 |language=en}}</ref> The country rates highly for [[civic participation]] in the political process, with 82% [[voter turnout]] during recent elections,<!--As of 2020 election--> compared with the {{abbr|OECD|Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development}} average of 69%.<ref>{{cite web|title=New Zealand|url=http://www.oecdbetterlifeindex.org/countries/new-zealand/|publisher=[[OECD Better Life Index]]|access-date=6 June 2022|date=2020}}</ref> 

Human rights remain a central focus in New Zealand politics, with a strong commitment to ensuring the protection and promotion of individual freedoms and equality.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/hrrpt/2009/eap/136003.htm|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100324230732/http://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/hrrpt/2009/eap/136003.htm|url-status=dead|archive-date=24 March 2010|title=New Zealand}}</ref> However, the [[New Zealand Human Rights Commission]] asserts there is clear evidence that [[structural discrimination in New Zealand|structural discrimination]] is a real and ongoing socioeconomic issue,<ref>{{cite web |url= http://www.hrc.co.nz/wp-content/uploads/2012/08/HRC-Structural-Report_final_webV1.pdf/ |title=A fair go for all? Rite tahi tätou katoa? Addressing Structural Discrimination in Public Services |date=2012 |publisher=Human Rights Commission |url-status=dead |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20140330134905/http://www.hrc.co.nz/wp-content/uploads/2012/08/HRC-Structural-Report_final_webV1.pdf/ |archive-date=30 March 2014 |access-date=22 July 2023 |page=50}}</ref> exemplified by Māori overrepresentation in the criminal justice system, comprising 45% of convicted individuals and 53% of those imprisoned.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Cornish |first=Sophie |date=1 May 2022 |title=Māori even more overrepresented in prisons, despite $98m strategy |url=https://www.stuff.co.nz/national/128306867/mori-even-more-overrepresented-in-prisons-despite-98m-strategy |access-date=22 July 2023 |website=Stuff |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Hāpaitia te Oranga Tangata |publisher=New Zealand Ministry of Justice |url=https://www.justice.govt.nz/justice-sector-policy/key-initiatives/key-initiatives-archive/hapaitia-te-oranga-tangata |access-date=22 July 2023 |website=www.justice.govt.nz}}</ref> Political redress for historical grievances is also ongoing {{see below|{{section link||Māori politics and legislation}}}}.

Since the 1970s, New Zealand has shown a more socially [[cultural liberalism|liberal]] outlook.<ref name="political values" /> Beginning with the [[Homosexual Law Reform Act 1986|decriminalisation of same-sex sexual activity]] in 1986,<ref name="political values"/><ref>{{cite web |title=Homosexual law reform |url=https://nzhistory.govt.nz/culture/homosexual-law-reform/homosexual-law-reform |publisher=New Zealand History Online|website=nzhistory.govt.nz|access-date=15 December 2018 |date=14 June 2016}}</ref> successive governments have progressively increased the [[LGBT rights in New Zealand|protection of LGBT rights]], culminating in the [[Same-sex marriage in New Zealand|legalisation of same-sex marriage]] in 2013.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Gattey |first1=Megan |title=How same-sex marriage has changed New Zealand |url=https://www.stuff.co.nz/world/australia/98893126/how-samesex-marriage-has-changed-new-zealand |access-date=15 December 2018 |date=16 November 2017 |work=Stuff}}</ref> In 2020, the [[Abortion Legislation Act 2020|Abortion Legislation Act]], which fully decriminalised [[abortion in New Zealand]], was supported by members across all parties in Parliament.<ref>{{cite news |title=Abortion Legislation Bill passes third and final reading in Parliament |url=https://www.rnz.co.nz/news/political/412087/abortion-legislation-bill-passes-third-and-final-reading-in-parliament |access-date=30 March 2020 |work=[[Radio New Zealand]] |date=18 March 2020}}</ref>

The idea of serving as a moral example to the world has been an important element of New Zealand [[national identity]]. The [[New Zealand–South Africa relations|opposition to apartheid in South Africa]] in the 1970s and 1980s,<ref>{{cite web |title=Apartheid |url=https://nzhistory.govt.nz/keyword/protest-apartheid |publisher=New Zealand History Online|website=nzhistory.govt.nz |access-date=15 December 2018}}</ref> protests against [[France and weapons of mass destruction|French nuclear testing]] at [[Moruroa]] atoll in the 1970s, and popular support for New Zealand's anti-nuclear policy in the 1980s {{see below|{{section link||Modern political history}}}} are manifestations of this. From the 1990s New Zealand's anti-nuclear position has become a key element of government policy (irrespective of party) and of the country's "distinctive political identity".<ref name="political values"/>

<gallery heights="175" widths="200">
File:Hiroshima Day Activist 2014.JPG|An [[anti-nuclear movement|anti-nuclear]] activist hands out peace cranes in [[Wellington]]. New Zealand's foreign policy is often symbolised by its anti-nuclear stance.
File:Auckland pride parade 2016 14.jpg|Commemorating the 30th anniversary of [[Homosexual Law Reform Act 1986|Homosexual Law Reform]] at the 2016 [[Auckland Pride Festival]]
File:Hikoi-foreshore.jpg|A ''[[hīkoi]]'' protest outside [[New Zealand Parliament Buildings|Parliament Buildings]] over the [[foreshore and seabed controversy]], 2004
</gallery>

==History==
{{Main|Political history of New Zealand}}

===Pre-colonial politics===
{{Further|Māori politics#Pre-colonial Māori governance}}
Before New Zealand becoming a British colony in 1840, politics in New Zealand was dominated by Māori chiefs as leaders of [[hapū]] and [[iwi]], utilising [[tikanga|Māori customs]] as a political system.<ref>{{cite book|last=Ballara|first=Angela|title=Iwi: The Dynamics of Māori Tribal Organisation from C.1769 to C.1945 |year=1998|publisher=Victoria University Press|location=Wellington|isbn=9780864733283|edition=1st}}</ref> The Māori were organised into large, extended family groups known as iwi, and these iwi were further divided into smaller hapū (subtribes). Each hapū had its own leadership structure, with chiefs ([[rangatira]]) who were responsible for the well-being and governance of their people.<ref>Rāwiri Taonui, 'Tribal organisation', Te Ara – The Encyclopedia of New Zealand, published 8 February 2005, http://www.TeAra.govt.nz/en/tribal-organisation (accessed 6 October 2024).</ref>

===Colonial politics===
[[File:The Treaty of Waitangi (in Maori).jpeg|thumb|Manuscript copy of the [[Treaty of Waitangi]] (in [[Māori language|Māori]])]]

After the 1840 [[Treaty of Waitangi]], a colonial governor and his small staff acted on behalf of the British Government based on the British political system.<ref name="Timeline" /> Whereas Māori systems had dominated before 1840, governors attempting to introduce British systems met with mixed success in Māori communities. More isolated Māori were little influenced by the Government. Most influences were felt in and around [[Okiato|Old Russell]], the [[Capital of New Zealand|first capital]], and [[Auckland]], the second capital.

The first voting rights in New Zealand were legislated in 1852 as the [[New Zealand Constitution Act 1852|New Zealand Constitution Act]] for the 1853 elections and reflected contemporary British practice.<ref name="Timeline">{{cite web |title = Political and constitutional timeline |url= https://nzhistory.govt.nz/politics/milestones |publisher=New Zealand History Online|website=nzhistory.govt.nz|access-date=1 May 2017|date=4 November 2016}}</ref> The [[electoral franchise]] was limited to property-owning male [[British subject]]s over 21 years old. The [[property qualification]] was relatively liberal in New Zealand compared to Britain, such that by the late 1850s 75% of adult New Zealand European males were eligible to vote, compared to 20% in England and 12% in Scotland.<ref name="Atkinson1">{{cite encyclopedia |last1=Atkinson |first1=Neil |title=Voting rights – First voting rights, 1852 |url=https://teara.govt.nz/en/voting-rights/page-1 |encyclopedia=Te Ara: The Encyclopedia of New Zealand |access-date=24 January 2022 |date=17 February 2015}}</ref> Around 100 Māori chiefs voted in the 1853 election.<ref>{{cite web |title = Setting up the Māori seats |url = https://nzhistory.govt.nz/politics/maori-and-the-vote/setting-up-seats |publisher=New Zealand History Online |website=nzhistory.govt.nz |access-date=1 May 2017|date=28 November 2016}}</ref>

During the 1850s [[Provinces of New Zealand|provincial]]-based government was the norm. Provincial councils were abolished in 1876.<ref name="Timeline" /> Politics was initially dominated by [[Historic conservatism in New Zealand|conservative]] and wealthy "wool lords" who owned multiple sheep farms, mainly in [[Canterbury Region|Canterbury]]. During the [[gold rush]] era starting 1858 suffrage was extended to all British gold miners who owned a one-pound mining license. The conservatives had been influenced by the militant action of gold miners in [[Colony of Victoria|Victoria]] at Eureka. Many gold miners had moved to the New Zealand fields bringing their radical ideas. The extended franchise was modelled on the Victorian system.<ref name="Atkinson2">{{cite encyclopedia |last=Atkinson|first=Neill|title=Voting rights – Miners and Māori |url = https://teara.govt.nz/en/voting-rights/page-2 |encyclopedia = Te Ara: The Encyclopedia of New Zealand |access-date=1 May 2017 |date=17 February 2015 }}</ref> In 1863 the mining franchise was extended to goldfield business owners. In 1870, the number of registered voters was only 41,500, but an additional 20,000 miners were also entitled to vote.<ref name="Atkinson2"/>

After the brief Land War period ending in 1864, Parliament moved to extend the franchise to more Māori. [[Donald McLean (New Zealand politician)|Donald McLean]] introduced a bill for four temporary [[Māori electorates]] and extended the franchise to all Māori men over 21 in 1867. As such, Māori were universally franchised 12 years before European men.<ref name="Atkinson2"/>

In 1879 an [[economic depression]] hit, resulting in poverty and many people, especially miners, returning to Australia. Between 1879 and 1881 Government was concerned at the activities of Māori activists based on confiscated land at [[Parihaka]]. Activists destroyed settlers' farm fences and ploughed up roads and land, which incensed local farmers.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Cowan |first1=James |title=The New Zealand Wars: a History of the Maori Campaigns and the Pioneering Period. Volume II: The Hauhau Wars, 1864–72 |date=1983 |page=478}}</ref> Arrests followed but the activities persisted. Fears grew among settlers that the resistance campaign was a prelude to armed conflict.<ref>King, Michael (2003). ''The Penguin History of New Zealand''. Chapter 15.</ref> The Government itself was puzzled as to why the land had been confiscated and offered a huge 25,000-acre reserve to the activists, provided they stopped the destruction.{{sfn|Riseborough|2002|pp=95,98,111}} Commissioners set up to investigate the issue said that the activities "could fairly be called hostile".{{sfn|Riseborough|2002|pp=95,98,111}} A power struggle ensued resulting in the arrest of all the prominent leaders by a large government force in 1881. Historian Hazel Riseborough describes the event as a conflict over who had authority or ''[[Mana (Oceanian mythology)|mana]]''—the Government or the Parihaka protestors.{{sfn|Riseborough|2002|p=212}}

[[File:Seddon Statue, Wellington, New Zealand (94).JPG|thumb|right|upright|[[Richard Seddon]]'s statue stands outside Parliament buildings in Wellington.]]
In 1882 the export of meat in the first refrigerated ship started a period of sustained economic export-led growth. This period is notable for the influence of new social ideas and movements such as the [[Fabians]] and the creation in 1890 of the first political party, the [[New Zealand Liberal Party|Liberals]]. Their leader, former gold miner [[Richard Seddon]] from Lancashire, was premier from 1893 to 1906. The Liberals introduced new [[Taxation in New Zealand|taxes]] to break the influence of the wealthy conservative sheep farm owners. They also purchased more land from Māori.<ref>{{DNZB|last=Hamer |first=David |id=2s11 |title= Seddon, Richard John |access-date=1 May 2017}}</ref> (By 1910, Māori in parts of the North Island retained very little land, and the amount of Māori land would decrease precipitously as a result of government purchases.<ref>{{cite web |title = Maori land loss, 1860–2000 |url = https://nzhistory.govt.nz/media/interactive/maori-land-1860-2000 |website=nzhistory.govt.nz |publisher = New Zealand History Online |access-date=17 July 2020}} Map adapted from Appendix four of [[Claudia Orange]] (2004), ''Illustrated History of the Treaty of Waitangi''.</ref>)

The early 20th century saw the rise of the [[trade union movement]] and labour parties {{Crossreference|(see {{section link|Socialism in New Zealand|Unions and workers' parties}})}}, which represented organised workers. The [[West Coast Region|West Coast]] town of [[Blackball, New Zealand|Blackball]] is often regarded as the birthplace of the labour movement in New Zealand,<ref>{{cite web|date=18 April 2016|title=Returning to Labour's Roots|url=http://www.labour.org.nz/returning_to_labours_roots|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190403123839/https://www.labour.org.nz/returning_to_labours_roots|archive-date=3 April 2019|access-date=19 June 2017|website=www.labour.org.nz|publisher=New Zealand Labour Party|language=en}}</ref> as it was the location of the founding of one of the main political organisations which became part of the New Zealand Labour Party.

=== Māori politics and legislation ===
{{Main|Māori politics}}
{{See also|Māori protest movement}}
Māori political affairs have been developing through legislation<ref name="Taonga">{{cite encyclopedia |url = https://teara.govt.nz/en/te-ture-maori-and-legislation/page-5 |title = Te ture – Māori and legislation |language = en-NZ |access-date = 28 May 2018 |encyclopedia = Te Ara: The Encyclopedia of New Zealand }}</ref> such as the [[Resource Management Act 1991]] and the [[Te Ture Whenua Māori Act 1993]] and many more.<ref name="Taonga" /> Since colonisation in the 1800s, Māori have had their customary laws oppressed, with the imposition of a Westminster democracy and political style. As reparations from the colonial war and general discrepancies during colonisation, the New Zealand Government has formally apologised to those ''[[iwi]]'' affected, through settlements and legislation. In the 1960s Māori Politics Relations began to exhibit more positivity. The legislature enacted a law to help Māori retrieve back their land, not hinder them, through the Māori Affairs Amendment Act 1967.<ref>{{cite web |url = http://nzetc.victoria.ac.nz/tm/scholarly/tei-HilMaor-t1-body-d7-d4.html |title = The Maori Affairs Amendment Act {{!}} NZETC |website = nzetc.victoria.ac.nz |access-date = 28 May 2018 }}</ref> Since then, this progressive change in attitude has materialised as legislation to protect the natural environment or Taonga, and the courts by establishing treaty principles that always have to be considered when deciding laws in the courts.<ref>{{cite web |url = https://nzhistory.govt.nz/politics/treaty/treaty-timeline/treaty-events-1950 |title = Treaty events since 1950 – Treaty timeline |website = New Zealand History Online |language = en-NZ |access-date = 28 May 2018 }}</ref> Moreover, the Māori Lands Act 2016 was printed both in {{lang|mi|[[te reo Māori]]}} and English—the act itself affirms the equal legal status of {{lang|mi|te reo}}.

=== Women in politics ===
{{Further|Women's suffrage in New Zealand}}
{{See also|Women in New Zealand}}

[[File:Mrs. K. W. Sheppard (cropped).jpg|thumb|upright=0.65|[[Kate Sheppard]] is the country's most famous [[suffragist]].]]

Women's suffrage was granted after about two decades of campaigning by women such as [[Kate Sheppard]] and [[Mary Ann Müller]] and organisations such as the New Zealand branch of the [[Women's Christian Temperance Union]]. On 19 September 1893 the governor, [[David Boyle, 7th Earl of Glasgow|Lord Glasgow]], signed a new Electoral Act into law.<ref name="womens_suffrage">{{cite web |title = Women and the vote – Brief history |url = https://nzhistory.govt.nz/politics/womens-suffrage/brief-history |publisher = New Zealand History Online |website = nzhistory.govt.nz |access-date = 31 January 2017 |date = 13 January 2016 }}</ref> As a result, New Zealand became the first self-governing nation in the world in which all women had the right to vote in parliamentary elections.<ref name="suffrage">{{cite web |title = Votes for Women |url = http://www.elections.org.nz/book/export/html/646 |website = elections.org.nz |publisher = Electoral Commission |access-date = 31 January 2017 |language = en-NZ |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20190125071304/https://www.elections.org.nz/book/export/html/646 |archive-date = 25 January 2019 |url-status = dead }}</ref> Women first voted in the [[1893 New Zealand general election|1893 election]], with a high 85% turnout (compared to 70% of men).<ref>{{cite web |title = Women, the vote and the 1893 election |url = https://www.parliament.nz/en/get-involved/features-pre-2016/document/00NZPHomeNews201311281/women-the-vote-and-the-1893-election |website = parliament.nz |publisher = New Zealand Parliament |access-date = 31 January 2017 |language = en-NZ }}</ref> The achievement of women's suffrage in New Zealand was groundbreaking, as most other democracies did not grant women the right to vote until after World War I.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://nzhistory.govt.nz/politics/womens-suffrage |title=Women's Suffrage |publisher=New Zealand History |access-date=28 July 2024}}</ref>

Women were not eligible to be elected to the House of Representatives until {{NZ election link year|1919}} though, when three women, including [[Ellen Melville]] stood. The first woman to win an election (to the seat held by her late husband) was [[Elizabeth McCombs]] in 1933.<ref name="womens_suffrage" /> [[Mabel Howard]] became the first female cabinet minister in 1947, being appointed to the First Labour Government.<ref>{{cite web|title=Mabel Howard becomes first female Cabinet minister|url=https://nzhistory.govt.nz/page/mabel-howard-becomes-first-woman-cabinet-minister|publisher=New Zealand History Online|website=nzhistory.govt.nz|access-date=31 January 2017|date=21 December 2016}}</ref> 

New Zealand was the first country in the world in which all the highest offices were occupied by women, between March 2005 and August 2006: the Sovereign [[Queen Elizabeth II]], Governor-General [[Silvia Cartwright|Dame Silvia Cartwright]]<!-- This is the GG in 2005, don't change to the current one -->, Prime Minister [[Helen Clark]], [[Speaker of the New Zealand House of Representatives|Speaker of the House]] [[Margaret Wilson]], and [[Chief Justice of New Zealand|Chief Justice]] [[Sian Elias|Dame Sian Elias]].<ref>{{cite news|title=Women run the country but it doesn't show in pay packets|first=Simon|last=Collins|date=May 2005|work=[[The New Zealand Herald]]|url=http://www.nzherald.co.nz/nz/news/article.cfm?c_id=1&objectid=10127960|access-date=31 January 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Paxton |first1=Pamela |last2=Hughes |first2=Melanie M. |title=Women, Politics, and Power: A Global Perspective |date=2015 |publisher=CQ Press |isbn=978-1-48-337701-8 |page=107 |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=lf4QCgAAQBAJ&pg=PT107 |access-date=25 July 2017}}</ref>

After the 2020 election, women made up half of the 120 MPs in the House of Representatives, marking the highest level of [[Women in government|women's political representation]] since they were first allowed to stand for Parliament in 1919.<ref>{{cite web |title=Women members of the New Zealand Parliament, 1933 onwards |url=https://www.parliament.nz/en/visit-and-learn/mps-and-parliaments-1854-onwards/women-members-of-the-new-zealand-parliament-1933-onwards/ |website=www.parliament.nz |publisher=New Zealand Parliament |access-date=25 November 2020 |language=en |date=9 November 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Election 2020: 'Historical high' – New Zealand Parliament readies for more diversity |url=https://www.rnz.co.nz/news/political/428672/election-2020-historical-high-new-zealand-parliament-readies-for-more-diversity |access-date=25 November 2020 |work=[[RNZ]] |date=19 October 2020 |language=en}}</ref>
{{Clear}}

===Modern political history===
{{See also|List of New Zealand governments}}
{{New Zealand postwar governments timeline}}
The right-leaning [[New Zealand National Party|National Party]] and the left-leaning [[New Zealand Labour Party|Labour Party]] have dominated New Zealand political life since a Labour government came to power in 1935. During fourteen years in office (1935–1949), the Labour Party implemented a broad array of social and economic legislation, including comprehensive [[social security]], a large-scale [[public works]] programme, a forty-hour working week, and compulsory [[Trade union|union]]ism.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |last1=McLintock |first1=A. H. |author-link1=Alexander Hare McLintock |title=1935–49 The Labour Regime |url=https://teara.govt.nz/en/1966/history-settlement-and-development/page-19 |encyclopedia=[[An Encyclopaedia of New Zealand]] |date=1966 |access-date=18 August 2019}}</ref><ref name="Aimer2">{{cite encyclopedia|last1=Aimer |first1=Peter |title=Labour Party – First Labour government, 1935 to 1949 |url=https://teara.govt.nz/en/labour-party/page-2 |encyclopedia=Te Ara: The Encyclopedia of New Zealand |access-date=18 August 2019 |date=20 June 2012}}</ref> The National Party won control of the government in 1949, accepting most of Labour's welfare measures. Except for two brief periods of Labour governments in 1957–1960 and 1972–1975, National held power until 1984.<ref name="Aimer2"/>

The greatest challenge to the first and later Labour governments' policies on the welfare state and a regulated economy that combined state and private enterprise came from the Labour Party itself.<ref name=Aimer4>{{cite web |last=Aimer |first=Peter |title=Labour Party – Fourth, fifth and sixth Labour governments |url = https://teara.govt.nz/en/labour-party/page-4 |access-date=18 August 2019 |date=20 June 2012}}</ref> After regaining control in 1984, the fourth Labour government instituted a series of radical [[free market|market]]-oriented reforms. It privatised state assets and reduced the role of the state in the economy.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Mitchell |first1=Austin |title=Roger's Revolution: Blitzkrieg in Kiwiland |journal=The Journal of Legislative Studies |date=March 2005 |volume=11 |issue=1 |pages=1–15 |doi=10.1080/13572330500158219 |s2cid=153653062 }}</ref> It also instituted several other more left-wing reforms, such as allowing the [[Waitangi Tribunal]] to hear claims of breaches of the Treaty of Waitangi to be made back to 1840.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|last1=Derby |first1=Mark |title=Waitangi Tribunal – Te Rōpū Whakamana – Developing the tribunal, 1980s |url=https://teara.govt.nz/en/waitangi-tribunal-te-ropu-whakamana/page-2 |encyclopedia=Te Ara: The Encyclopedia of New Zealand |access-date=18 August 2019 |language=en |date=20 June 2012}}</ref> In 1987, the government introduced the [[New Zealand Nuclear Free Zone, Disarmament, and Arms Control Act]], banning visits by nuclear powered ships; the implementation of a [[New Zealand nuclear-free zone|nuclear-free zone]] brought about New Zealand's suspension from the [[ANZUS]] [[Military alliance|security alliance]] with the United States and Australia.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |last1=Ayson |first1=Robert |last2=Phillips |first2=Jock |title=United States and New Zealand – Nuclear-free 1980s |url=https://teara.govt.nz/en/united-states-and-new-zealand/page-3 |encyclopedia=Te Ara: The Encyclopedia of New Zealand |access-date=17 August 2019 |date=20 June 2012}}</ref>

In October 1990, the National Party again formed a government, for the first of three three-year terms. Despite [[election promise]]s to halt the unpopular reform process, the new National government largely advanced the free-market policies of the preceding government. Public disillusionment resulting from perceived "broken promises" of the previous two governments fuelled demand for [[electoral reform in New Zealand]].<ref>{{cite web |last1=Roberts |first1=Nigel S. |title=Electoral systems – The call for electoral reform |url=https://teara.govt.nz/en/electoral-systems/page-4 |website=Te Ara: The Encyclopedia of New Zealand |language=en-NZ |date=1 February 2015}}</ref> In 1996, New Zealand inaugurated the new electoral system (mixed-member proportional representation, or MMP) to [[Electoral system of New Zealand|elect its Parliament]].<ref>{{cite web|title=New Zealand's Change to MMP |url=http://aceproject.org/main/english/ei/eiy_nz01.htm |website=aceproject.org |publisher=ACE Electoral Knowledge Network |access-date=24 June 2017 |language=en}}</ref> The MMP system was expected (among numerous other goals) to increase representation of smaller parties in Parliament and appears to have done so in the MMP elections to date. Between 1996 and 2020, neither National nor Labour had an absolute majority in Parliament, and for all but two of those years a [[minority government]] ruled (however, every government has been led by one or other of the two main parties).<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|last1=Roberts |first1=Nigel S. |title=Electoral systems – MMP in practice |url=https://teara.govt.nz/en/electoral-systems/page-6 |encyclopedia=Te Ara: The Encyclopedia of New Zealand |access-date=18 August 2019 |date=17 February 2015}}</ref>

MMP parliaments have been markedly more diverse, with greater representation of women, ethnic minorities and other [[minority group]]s.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Barker |first1=Fiona |last2=Coffé |first2=Hilde |title=Representing Diversity in Mixed Electoral Systems: The Case of New Zealand |journal=Parliamentary Affairs |date=1 July 2018 |volume=71 |issue=3 |pages=603–632 |doi=10.1093/pa/gsx073 |url=https://academic.oup.com/pa/article-abstract/71/3/603/4781509 |access-date=8 May 2020 |language=en |issn=0031-2290|url-access=subscription }}</ref> In 1996, [[Tim Barnett (politician)|Tim Barnett]] was the first of several New Zealand MPs to be elected as an openly gay person.<ref>{{cite web |title=I used to be the only gay in the House – Barnett |url=https://www.stuff.co.nz/national/politics/645363/I-used-to-be-the-only-gay-in-the-House-Barnett |date=31 January 2009 |work=Stuff |access-date=8 May 2020 |language=en}}</ref> In 1999, [[Georgina Beyer]] became the world's [[List of transgender political office-holders|first openly transgender MP]] elected to a national parliament.<ref>{{cite news |title=Georgina Beyer: The double life of Georgie |url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/people/profiles/georgina-beyer-the-double-life-of-georgie-184803.html |access-date=19 October 2022 |work=The Independent |date=18 July 2002 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Anderson |first1=Atholl |last2=Binney |first2=Judith |last3=Harris |first3=Aroha |title=Tangata Whenua: A History |date=19 November 2015 |publisher=Bridget Williams Books |isbn=978-0-908321-54-4 |page=418 |language=en}}</ref>

After nine years in government, the National Party lost the [[1999 New Zealand general election|November 1999 election]]. Labour under [[Helen Clark]] out-polled National and formed a coalition government with [[Jim Anderton]]'s [[Alliance (New Zealand political party)|Alliance]], a party to the left of Labour. The coalition partners pioneered "agree to disagree" procedures to manage policy differences.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|last1=Palmer |first1=Matthew |title=Constitution – Constitutional change |url=https://teara.govt.nz/en/photograph/35909/helen-clark-and-jim-anderton-with-their-coalition-agreement-1999 |encyclopedia=Te Ara: The Encyclopedia of New Zealand |access-date=18 August 2019 |date=20 June 2012}}</ref> The minority government often relied on support from the [[Green Party of Aotearoa New Zealand|Green Party]] to pass legislation. Labour retained power in the [[2002 New Zealand general election|July 2002 election]], forming a coalition with Anderton's new [[New Zealand Progressive Party|Progressive Party]], and reaching an agreement for support with the [[United Future]] party. Helen Clark remained prime minister. In early 2004, Labour came under attack for its policies on the [[New Zealand foreshore and seabed controversy|ownership of the foreshore and seabed]],<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|last1=Barker|first1=Fiona|title=Debate about the foreshore and seabed|url=https://teara.govt.nz/en/video/34605/debate-about-the-foreshore-and-seabed|encyclopedia=Te Ara: The Encyclopedia of New Zealand|access-date=22 November 2019|date=June 2012}}</ref> eventually culminating in the establishment of a new break-away party, the [[Māori Party]].<ref>{{cite news|last1=Dunne|first1=Peter|title=What to do about that foreshore and seabed?|url=http://www.stuff.co.nz/dominion-post/comment/3236512/What-to-do-about-that-foreshore-and-seabed|access-date=22 November 2019|work=[[The Dominion Post (Wellington)|The Dominion Post]]|date=18 January 2010|language=en}}</ref> Following the [[2005 New Zealand general election|September 2005 election]], negotiations between parties culminated in Clark announcing a third consecutive term of Labour-led government. The Labour Party again formed a coalition with the Progressive Party, with confidence and supply from [[Winston Peters]]' [[New Zealand First]] and [[Peter Dunne]]'s United Future.<ref>{{cite work |last = Hicks |first = Bruce M. |title = New Zealand: Learning How to Govern in Coalition or Minority |url = http://revparl.ca/36/4/36n4e_13_Hicks.pdf |publisher=[[Canadian Parliamentary Review]] |page = 35 |year=2013 }}</ref>

After the [[2008 New Zealand general election|general election in November 2008]], the National Party moved quickly to form a minority government with [[ACT New Zealand|ACT]], the Māori Party and United Future. This arrangement allowed National to decrease its reliance on the right-wing ACT party, whose free-market policies are sometimes controversial with the greater New Zealand public. In 2008, [[John Key]] was appointed prime minister, with [[Bill English]] as his deputy. This arrangement conformed to a tradition of having a north-south split in the major parties' leadership, as Key's residence is in Auckland and English's electorate is in the South Island. On 12 December 2016, English was elected as leader, and thus prime minister, by the National Party caucus after Key's unexpected resignation a week earlier. [[Paula Bennett]] (member for [[Upper Harbour (New Zealand electorate)|Upper Harbour]]) was appointed [[Deputy Prime Minister of New Zealand|deputy prime minister]], thus continuing the tradition.<ref>{{cite news|url= http://www.smh.com.au/world/bill-english-is-nzs-new-prime-minister-paula-bennett-new-deputy-20161211-gt8wmf.html|title=Bill English is NZ's new Prime Minister, Paula Bennett new Deputy|date=12 December 2016|work=The Sydney Morning Herald|access-date=1 May 2017}}</ref>{{original research?|date=November 2022}} This north-south arrangement ceased with the next government.

Following the [[2017 New Zealand general election|September 2017 general election]] National retained its [[Plurality (voting)|plurality]] in the House of Representatives, while Labour greatly increased its proportion of the vote and number of seats. Following negotiations between the major and minor parties, Labour formed a minority government after securing a coalition arrangement with New Zealand First. The new government also agreed on a confidence-and-supply arrangement with the Green Party.<ref name="Phipps">{{cite news|last1=Phipps|first1=Claire|title=Jacinda Ardern is next prime minister of New Zealand, Winston Peters confirms – as it happened|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/live/2017/oct/19/new-zealand-election-winston-peters-prime-minister-bill-english-jacinda-ardern-live|access-date=27 October 2017|work=[[The Guardian]]|date=19 October 2017}}</ref> On 26 October 2017, Labour leader [[Jacinda Ardern]] was sworn in as prime minister and Winston Peters became her deputy.<ref name="Walters">{{cite news|last1=Walters|first1=Laura|title=Jacinda Ardern's new government sworn in|url=https://www.stuff.co.nz/national/politics/98242220/jacinda-arderns-new-government-sworn-in|access-date=27 October 2017|work=Stuff|date=26 October 2017}}</ref> In the [[2020 New Zealand general election|2020 general election]] Labour won by a [[landslide election|landslide]] and gained an overall majority of seats in Parliament, sufficient to govern alone—a first under the MMP system.<ref name="Ardern_government">{{cite news |title=New Zealand's Ardern sworn in for second term |url=https://www.france24.com/en/live-news/20201106-new-zealand-s-ardern-sworn-in-for-second-term |access-date=13 January 2021 |publisher=[[France 24]]|date=6 November 2020 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=New Zealand election: Jacinda Ardern's Labour Party scores landslide win |url = https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-54519628 |access-date=19 October 2020 |work=BBC News |date=17 October 2020}}</ref> Labour's coalition partner New Zealand First lost its representation in Parliament.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Fisher |first1=David |last2=Jones |first2=Nicholas |title=Election results 2020: Winston Peters concedes defeat – 'wait and see' for his next move |url = https://www.nzherald.co.nz/nz/election-results-2020-winston-peters-concedes-defeat-wait-and-see-for-his-next-move/VYWEU62LJV3TKUEFHKER5GMEME/#:~:text=New%20Zealand%20First%20is%20out%20of%20Parliament%20-,volunteers%20and%20NZ%20First%20staff%20around%20New%20Zealand. |access-date=1 November 2020 |work=[[The New Zealand Herald]] |date=17 October 2020 |language=en-NZ}}</ref> Ardern's government was sworn in for a second term on 6 November 2020.<ref name="Ardern_government"/> [[Chris Hipkins]] became prime minister after [[resignation of Jacinda Ardern|Ardern's resignation]].<ref>{{cite news |last1=Neilson |first1=Michael |last2=Pearse |first2=Adam |last3=Coughlan |first3=Thomas |title=Chris Hipkins sworn in as Prime Minister, Carmel Sepuloni as deputy, Jacinda Ardern vacates top job |url=https://www.nzherald.co.nz/nz/politics/chris-hipkins-sworn-in-as-prime-minister-carmel-sepuloni-as-deputy-jacinda-ardern-vacates-top-job/IERZGZV2BFAE5AWLNJHMMGHYQ4/ |work=[[The New Zealand Herald]] |date=25 January 2023 |access-date=28 January 2023 |language=en-NZ}}</ref>

The [[2023 New Zealand general election|2023 general election]] saw the worst defeat of a sitting government since the introduction of the MMP system, with Labour losing nearly half of its seats.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.stuff.co.nz/national/133123290/devastating-defeat-how-the-world-reacted-to-the-new-zealand-election-result|title='Devastating defeat': How the world reacted to the New Zealand election result|first=Troels|last=Sommerville|date=15 October 2023|website=Stuff|access-date=22 October 2023|archive-date=16 October 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231016071552/https://www.stuff.co.nz/national/133123290/devastating-defeat-how-the-world-reacted-to-the-new-zealand-election-result|url-status=live}}</ref> Subsequently, National, ACT and New Zealand First formed the country's first [[Sixth National Government of New Zealand|three-party coalition government]]. National leader [[Christopher Luxon]] became prime minister. In another first, Winston Peters and [[David Seymour]] will take turns as deputy prime minister.<ref name="Sixth National Government"/>

==See also==
{{Portal|New Zealand|Politics}}
* [[The Crown (New Zealand)]]
* [[List of political parties in New Zealand]]
* [[List of New Zealand left-wing activists]]
* [[List of New Zealand politicians]]
* [[List of political scandals in New Zealand]]
* [[List of public sector organisations in New Zealand]]
* [[Censorship in New Zealand]]
* [[Christian politics in New Zealand]]
* [[Contents of the United States diplomatic cables leak (New Zealand)]]
* [[Far-right politics in New Zealand]]
* [[Hate speech laws by country#New Zealand|Hate speech laws in New Zealand]]

== References ==
=== Citations ===
{{Reflist}}

=== Sources ===
{{Refbegin}}
* {{cite book |last = Boyce |first = Peter John |title = The Queen's Other Realms: The Crown and Its Legacy in Australia, Canada and New Zealand |year = 2008 |publisher = Federation Press |isbn = 9781862877009 |url = https://books.google.com/books?id=kY-Tk0-quyoC }}
* {{cite book |last=Riseborough |first=Hazel |title = Days of Darkness |year=2002 |location=Auckland |publisher=Penguin Books |edition=2nd }}
* {{cite book |last = Miller |first=Raymond |title = New Zealand government and politics |year=2009 |publisher = Oxford University Press |location = [[South Melbourne]], Victoria |isbn = 978-0-195-58509-4 |edition=5th }}
* {{cite book |last=Mulgan |first=Richard |title = Politics in New Zealand |year=2004 |publisher = Auckland University Press |location=Auckland |isbn = 978-1-869-40318-8 |edition=3rd }}
{{Refend}}

== Further reading ==
* {{cite book|last1=Palmer|first1=Geoffrey|last2=Palmer|first2=Matthew|title=Bridled Power: New Zealand's Constitution and Government|year=2004|publisher=Oxford University Press|location=South Melbourne, Vic. [u.a.]|isbn=978-0-195-58463-9|edition=4th}}

==External links ==
*[https://nzhistory.govt.nz/politics-and-government Politics and Government] at NZ History Online
*[https://teara.govt.nz/en/institutions-of-government Institutions of Government] at Te Ara: The Encyclopedia of New Zealand

{{New Zealand political parties}}
{{New Zealand elections}}
{{Oceania topic|Politics of}}
{{New Zealand topics}}
{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Politics of New Zealand}}
[[Category:Politics of New Zealand| ]]