View source for Pope Innocent III

{{short description|Head of the Catholic Church from 1198 to 1216}}
{{distinguish|Antipope Innocent III}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=November 2025 |cs1-dates=ll}}
{{Infobox Christian leader
| type = pope
| honorific-prefix = [[List of popes|Pope]]
| name = Innocent III
| title = [[Bishop of Rome]]
| image = Innozenz3.jpg
| caption = Detail of a fresco at the cloister Sacro Speco, {{circa|1219}}
| church = [[Catholic Church]]
| term_start = 8 January 1198
| term_end = 16 July 1216
| predecessor = [[Celestine III]]
| successor = [[Honorius III]]
| ordination = 21 February 1198
| consecrated_by = [[Ottaviano di Paoli]]
| consecration = 22 February 1198
| cardinal = September 1190
| created_cardinal_by = [[Clement III]]
| birth_name = Lotario de' Conti di Segni
| birth_date = 22 February 1161
| birth_place = [[Gavignano]], Papal&nbsp;States
| parents = Trasimondo de' Conti di Segni<br/>Clarissa Scotti
| previous_post = {{Indented plainlist|
* [[Cardinal-Deacon]] of [[San Giorgio in Velabro|St. George in Velabro]] and [[Santi Sergio e Bacco|Sts.&nbsp;Sergius and Bacchus]] (1190–1191)
* [[Cardinal-Priest]] of [[Santa Pudenziana|St. Pudentiana]] (1191–1198)
}}
| death_date = 16 July 1216 (aged 55)
| death_place = [[Perugia]], Papal&nbsp;States
| coat_of_arms = C o a Inocentius III.png
| other = Innocent
| module = {{Ordination
| embed                       = yes
| ordained deacon by           =
| date of diaconal ordination  =
| place of diaconal ordination =
| ordained priest by           =
| date of priestly ordination  =
| place of priestly ordination =
| consecrated by               = Ottaviano di Paoli
| co-consecrators              =
| date of consecration         = 22 February 1198
| place of consecration        = [[Rome]]
| elevated by                  = [[Pope Clement III]]
| date of elevation            = September 1190
| sources                      = 
| bishop 1                     = [[Raynald of Nocera]]
| consecration date 1          = March 1198
| bishop 2                     = [[Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Poitiers#Bishops|Adhémar de Peirat]]
| consecration date 2          = 7 April 1198
| bishop 3                     = [[Bishop of Leighlin#Pre-Reformation bishops|John of Leighlin]]
| consecration date 3          = 18 September 1198
| bishop 4                     = [[Mauger of Worcester]]
| consecration date 4          = 4 June 1200
| bishop 5                     = [[Ekbert von Andechs-Meranien]]
| consecration date 5          =
| bishop 6                     = [[Roman Catholic Diocese of Ferentino#Bishops of Ferentino|Albert Longhi]]
| consecration date 6          = 22 June 1203
| bishop 7                     = [[Bishop of Lismore, Ireland#List of bishops of Lismore|Malachias of Lismore]]
| consecration date 7          = 5 November 1203
| bishop 8                     = [[Tommaso Morsini]]
| consecration date 8          = 27 March 1205
| bishop 9                     = [[Peter des Roches]]
| consecration date 9          = 25 September 1205
| bishop 10                    = [[Albert I of Käfernburg|Albrecht de Kevenburg]]
| consecration date 10         = 24 December 1206
| bishop 11                    = [[Guillaume II Amanieu de Genève|Guillaume Amanevi]]
| consecration date 11         = 1207
| bishop 12                    = [[Antelm of Cluny|Antelm of Patrae Veteres]]
| consecration date 12         = 29 April 1207
| bishop 13                    = [[Stephen Langton]]
| consecration date 13         = 17 June 1207
| bishop 14                    = [[Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Bourges#Bishops of Bourges|Gérard de Cros]]
| consecration date 14         = 1209
| bishop 15                    = [[Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Bari-Bitonto#Bishops and Archbishops of the diocese|Andrea de Celano]]
| consecration date 15         = 1214
| bishop 16                    = [[Roman Catholic Diocese of Troia#Ordinaries|Filippo of Troia]]
| consecration date 16         = October 1214
| bishop 17                    = [[Christian of Oliva|Christian to the Prussians]]
| consecration date 17         = 1215
| bishop 18                    = [[Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Siena–Colle di Val d'Elsa–Montalcino#Bishops and Archbishops of Siena|Bonfigli of Siena]]
| consecration date 18         = 10 April 1216
| bishop 19                    = [[Sylvester of Worcester|Silvester of Evesham]]
| consecration date 19         = 3 July 1216
}}
}}

'''Pope Innocent III''' ({{langx|la|Innocentius III}}; born '''Lotario de' Conti di Segni''';{{efn|Anglicized as '''Lothar of Segni'''}} 22 February 1161 – 16 July 1216)<ref>{{Cite web|title=Pope Innocent III (Lotario dei conti di Segni) [Catholic-Hierarchy]|url=https://www.catholic-hierarchy.org/bishop/bsegnil.html|access-date=6 January 2021|website=www.catholic-hierarchy.org}}</ref> was the head of the [[Catholic Church]] and sovereign of the [[Papal States]] from 8 January 1198 until his death in 1216.

Pope Innocent was one of the most powerful and influential of the medieval popes. He exerted a wide influence over the Christian states of Europe, claiming supremacy over all of Europe's kings. He was central in supporting the Catholic Church's reforms of ecclesiastical affairs through his [[decretal]]s and the [[Fourth Lateran Council]]. This resulted in a considerable refinement of Western [[canon law]]. He is furthermore notable for using [[interdict]] and other censures to compel princes to obey his decisions, although these measures were not uniformly successful.

Innocent greatly extended the scope of the [[Crusades]], directing crusades against [[Muslim Iberia]] and the [[Holy Land]] as well as the [[Albigensian Crusade]] against the [[Cathar]]s in southern France. He organized the [[Fourth Crusade]] of 1202&ndash;1204, which ended in the [[sack of Constantinople]]. Although the attack on Constantinople went against his explicit orders, and the Crusaders were subsequently excommunicated, Innocent reluctantly accepted this result, seeing it as the [[will of God]] to reunite the [[Latin Church|Latin]] and [[Eastern Orthodox Church]]es. In the event, the sack of Constantinople and the subsequent period of ''[[Frankokratia]]'' heightened the hostility between the Latin and Greek churches; the Byzantine Empire was restored [[Byzantine Empire under the Palaiologos dynasty|in 1261]], albeit in a much weaker state.{{sfn|Moore|2003|pp=102–134}}

==Biography==

===Early life===
Lotario de' Conti was born in [[Gavignano]], near [[Anagni]], southeast of [[Rome]].<ref name="catholic.encyclopedia.ott.michael.1910"/> His father, Trasimondo de' Conti di Segni (''de comitibus Signiae''), Count belonging to the notables of the city of [[Segni]],<ref>{{cite web|access-date=6 March 2017 |title=INNOCENZO III in "Federiciana" |url=http://www.treccani.it/enciclopedia/innocenzo-iii_(Federiciana)/}}<!-- auto-translated from Italian by Module:CS1 translator --></ref> was from the family of the [[counts of Segni]], who eventually produced nine cardinals and four popes, including [[Gregory IX]], [[Pope Alexander IV|Alexander IV]], and [[Innocent XIII]]. Lotario's mother, Clarissa Scotti (Romani de Scotti), was according to some scholars related to [[Pope Clement III]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.treccani.it/enciclopedia/papa-clemente-iii_(Dizionario-Biografico)/|title=CLEMENTE III, papa - Enciclopedia|website=Treccani}}</ref>{{sfn|Williams|1998|p=25}}

Lotario received his early education in [[Rome]], probably at the [[Camaldolese|Camaldolese Benedictine]] abbey of [[San Gregorio Magno al Celio|Sant'Andrea al Celio]] under Peter Ismael.<ref>Jane Sayers, ''Innocent III: Leader of Europe 1199–1216'' London 1994, p.&nbsp;17</ref> He studied theology in [[Paris]] under the theologians [[Peter of Poitiers]], [[Melior (cardinal)|Melior of Pisa]], and [[Peter of Corbeil]],<ref>Jane Sayers, ''Innocent III: Leader of Europe 1199–1216'' London 1994, p.&nbsp;18</ref> and (possibly) jurisprudence in [[Bologna]], according to the ''Gesta'' (between 1187 and 1189).<ref>Jane Sayers, ''Innocent III: Leader of Europe 1199–1216'' London 1994, p.&nbsp;21</ref> As pope, Lotario was to play a major role in the shaping of canon law through conciliar canons and decretal letters.<ref name="catholic.encyclopedia.ott.michael.1910"/>

Shortly after the death of [[Pope Alexander III|Alexander III]] (30 August 1181), Lotario returned to Rome and held various ecclesiastical offices during the short reigns of [[Pope Lucius III|Lucius III]], [[Pope Urban III|Urban III]], [[Pope Gregory VIII|Gregory VIII]], and Clement III, being ordained a [[Subdeacon]] by Gregory VIII and reaching the rank of [[Cardinal-Priest]] under Clement III in 1191.

As a cardinal, Lotario wrote ''[[De Miseria Condicionis Humane]]'' "On the Misery of the Human Condition".<ref>{{cite book|author=Innocentius III |title=On the misery of the human condition, De miseria humane conditions |ol=21246851M }}</ref><ref name="Moore 1981">{{cite journal|last1=Moore|first1=John C.|title=Innocent III's 'De Miseria Humanae Conditions: A Speculum Curiae?'|jstor=25021212|journal=The Catholic Historical Review |volume=67 |issue=4  |year=1981 |pages=553–564}}</ref> The work was very popular for centuries, surviving in more than 700 [[manuscript]]s.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.textmanuscripts.com/descriptions_manuscripts/description_246.pdf|title=Lotario Dei Continue Dei Segni [Pope Innocent III], De miseria humanae conditionis [On the Misery of Human Condition] In Latin, manuscript on parchment likely Italy, c. 1250|year=2006|publisher=Les Enluminures, Ltd|access-date=13 January 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130517112552/http://www.textmanuscripts.com/descriptions_manuscripts/description_246.pdf|archive-date=17 May 2013|url-status=dead}}</ref> Although he never returned to the complementary work he intended to write, ''On the Dignity of Human Nature'', [[Bartolomeo Facio]] (1400–1457) took up the task writing ''De excellentia ac praestantia hominis''.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jJnyxg3xxTEC&q=on+the+dignity+of+human+nature+pope+innocent+iii&pg=PA306 |title=The Cambridge history of Renaissance |via= Google Books |access-date=17 February 2010|isbn=978-0521397483 |last1=Schmitt |first1=C. B. |year=1988 |publisher=Cambridge University Press }}</ref>

===Election to the papacy===
{{Main|1198 papal election}}
[[File:Coat of arms of Innocent III.png|thumb|Arms of Innocent III at [[Santo Spirito in Sassia]], Rome]]
[[Celestine III]] died on 8 January 1198. Before his death he had urged the [[College of Cardinals]] to elect [[Giovanni di San Paolo]] as his successor, but Lotario de' Conti was elected pope in the ruins of the ancient [[Septizodium]], near the [[Circus Maximus]] in Rome after only two ballots on the very day on which Celestine III died. He was only thirty-seven years old at the time.<ref name="catholic.encyclopedia.ott.michael.1910"/> He took the name Innocent III, maybe as a reference to his predecessor [[Innocent II]] (1130–1143), who had succeeded in asserting the papacy's authority over the emperor (in contrast with [[Celestine III]]'s recent policy).<ref>See Julien Théry-Astruc, [https://www.academia.edu/12086889/_Introduction_dans_Innocent_III_et_le_Midi._Cahiers_de_Fanjeaux_50_%C3%A9d._D._Le_Bl%C3%A9vec_D._Carraz_M._Fourni%C3%A9_J._Th%C3%A9ry-Astruc_2015_p._11-35 "Introduction", in ''Innocent III et le Midi'' (''Cahiers de Fanjeaux'', 50), Toulouse, Privat, 2015, pp. 11–35, at pp. 13–14].</ref>

===Reassertion of papal power===
[[File:Papal Bulla of Innocent III (FindID 235228).jpg|thumb| [[Bulla (seal)|Bulla]] of Innocent III ]]

As pope, Innocent III began with a very wide sense of his responsibility and his authority. During Innocent III's reign, the papacy was at the height of its powers. He was considered the most powerful person in Europe at the time.<ref>''Civilization in the West'', Kishlansky, Geary, O'Brien, Volume A to 1500, Seventh Edition, p.&nbsp;278</ref> In 1198, Innocent wrote to the prefect Acerbius and the nobles of Tuscany expressing his support of the medieval political [[Sun and Moon allegory]].<ref>[http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/source/innIII-policies.html Medieval Sourcebook: Innocent III: Letters on Papal Polices]. Fordham.edu</ref> His papacy asserted the absolute spiritual authority of his office, while still respecting the temporal authority of kings.<ref name=Muldoon>Muldoon, James. [https://books.google.com/books?id=oXqJDAAAQBAJ&dq=Pope+Innocent+III+%2B+Involvement+in+Imperial+elections&pg=PA86 ''Empire and Order''], Springer, 1999, p. 81, {{ISBN|978-0230512238}}</ref>

There was scarcely a country in Europe over which Innocent III did not in some way or other assert the supremacy which he claimed for the papacy. He [[Excommunication in the Catholic Church|excommunicated]] King [[Alfonso IX of León]] for marrying a near relative, [[Berengaria of Castile]], contrary to the laws of the Church, and effected their separation in 1204. He received Aragon in vassalage from [[Pedro II of Aragon|Peter II]] and crowned him king at Rome in 1204.<ref name="catholic.encyclopedia.ott.michael.1910">{{Cite encyclopedia |last1=Ott |first1=Michael |title=Pope Innocent III |encyclopedia=[[Catholic Encyclopedia]] |url=https://www.newadvent.org/cathen/08013a.htm |volume=8 |location=New York |publisher=Robert Appleton Company |date=1910 |access-date=6 January 2021 |via=[[New Advent]]}}</ref>

The Muslim recapture of [[Jerusalem]] in 1187 was to him a divine judgment on the moral lapses of Christian princes. He was also determined to protect what he called "the liberty of the Church" from inroads by [[secular]] princes. This determination meant, among other things, that princes should not be involved in the selection of [[bishop]]s. It was particularly focused on the [[Patrimony of Saint Peter]], the section of central Italy claimed by the popes and later called the [[Papal States]]. The patrimonium was routinely threatened by the [[Holy Roman Empire]] of the [[House of Hohenstaufen]], which claimed it. [[Emperor Henry VI]] expected his infant son [[Frederick II, Holy Roman Emperor|Frederick]] to bring Germany, Italy, and Sicily under a single ruler, which would leave the Papal States exceedingly vulnerable.<ref name="catholic.encyclopedia.ott.michael.1910"/>

Henry's early death left his three-year-old son Frederick as king of Sicily. Henry VI's widow, Queen [[Constance I of Sicily]], was as eager as Pope Innocent III to remove German power from the kingdom of Sicily, and therefore in her Will named Innocent as the guardian of her young son, Frederick, when she died in 1198. In exchange, Innocent was also able to recover papal rights in Sicily that had been surrendered decades earlier to King [[William I of Sicily|William I]] by [[Pope Adrian IV]]. The pope invested the young Frederick as [[king of Sicily]] in November 1198. He also later induced Frederick to marry [[Constance of Aragon, Holy Roman Empress|Constance of Aragon]], the widow of King [[Emeric of Hungary]], in 1209.<ref name="catholic.encyclopedia.ott.michael.1910"/>

===Involvement in Imperial elections===
Innocent was concerned that the marriage of Henry VI and Constance of Sicily gave the Hohenstaufens a claim to all the Italian peninsula except for the Patrimony, which would be surrounded by Imperial territory.<ref name=Muldoon/>

After the death of [[Henry VI, Holy Roman Emperor|Emperor Henry VI]], who had recently also conquered the [[Kingdom of Sicily]], the succession became [[German throne dispute|disputed]]: as Henry's son [[Frederick II, Holy Roman Emperor|Frederick]] was still a small child, the partisans of the [[Hohenstaufen|Staufen]] dynasty elected Henry's brother, [[Philip, Duke of Swabia]], king in March 1198, whereas the princes opposed to the Staufen dynasty elected [[Otto IV, Holy Roman Emperor|Otto, Duke of Brunswick]], of the [[House of Welf]]. King [[Philip II of France]] supported Philip's claim, whereas [[Richard I of England|King Richard I of England]] supported his nephew Otto.<ref name="Comyn, pg. 275">Comyn, p.&nbsp;275</ref>

In 1201, the pope openly espoused the side of Otto IV, whose family had always been opposed to the house of Hohenstaufen.<ref name="Bryce, pg. 206">Bryce, p.&nbsp;206</ref>{{blockquote|It is the business of the pope to look after the interests of the Roman empire, since the empire derives its origin and its final authority from the papacy; its origin, because it was originally transferred from Greece by and for the sake of the papacy; ... its final authority, because the emperor is raised to his position by the pope who blesses him, crowns him and invests him with the empire. ...Therefore, since three persons have lately been elected king by different parties, namely the youth [Frederick, son of Henry VI], Philip [of Hohenstaufen, brother of Henry VI], and Otto [of Brunswick, of the Welf family], so also three things must be taken into account in regard to each one, namely: the legality, the suitability and the expediency of his election. ...Far be it from us that we should defer to man rather than to God, or that we should fear the countenance of the powerful. ...On the foregoing grounds, then, we decide that the youth should not at present be given the empire; we utterly reject Philip for his manifest unfitness and we order his usurpation to be resisted by all ... since Otto is not only himself devoted to the church, but comes from devout ancestors on both sides, ... therefore we decree that he ought to be accepted and supported as king, and ought to be given the crown of empire, after the rights of the Roman church have been secured.|''Papal Decree on the choice of a German King'', 1201<ref name="MS"/>}}

The confusion in the Empire allowed Innocent to drive out the imperial feudal lords installed by Emperor Henry VI from [[Ancona]], [[Spoleto]] and [[Perugia]].<ref name="Comyn, pg. 277">Comyn, p.&nbsp;277</ref> On 3 July 1201, the [[papal legate]], [[Cardinal-Bishop]] Guido of [[Palestrina]], announced in [[Köln Cathedral]] that Otto IV had been approved by the pope as Roman king and threatened with [[excommunication]] all those who refused to acknowledge him. At the same time, Innocent encouraged the cities in [[March of Tuscany|Tuscany]] to form a league called the [[League of San Genesio]] against German imperial interests in Italy, and they placed themselves under Innocent's protection.<ref name="Comyn, pg. 277"/>

In May 1202, Innocent issued the decree ''Per Venerabilem'', addressed to [[William VIII of Montpellier]], explaining his thinking on the relation between the papacy and the Empire. This decree was afterwards embodied in the {{lang|la|[[Corpus Juris Canonici]]}} and contained the following items:
* The German princes have the right to elect the king, who is afterwards to become emperor. This right was given by the [[Apostolic See]] when it transferred the [[dignitas (Roman concept)|imperial dignity]] from the Greeks to the Germans in the person of [[Charlemagne]].
* The right to investigate and decide whether a king thus elected is worthy of the imperial dignity belongs to the pope, whose office it is to anoint, consecrate, and crown him; otherwise it might happen that the pope would be obliged to [[anointing|anoint]], [[consecration|consecrate]], and crown a king who was excommunicated, a [[heresy|heretic]], or a [[paganism|pagan]].
* If the pope finds that the king the princes have elected is unworthy of the imperial dignity, the princes must elect a new king or, if they refuse, the pope will confer the imperial dignity upon another king because the Church requires a patron and defender.
* In case of a double election, the pope must exhort the princes to agree. If, after a due interval, they have not reached an agreement, they must ask the pope to arbitrate. If this fails, the pope must decide in favour of one of the claimants. The pope's decision need not be based on the greater legality of either election but the qualifications of the claimants.<ref name="catholic.encyclopedia.ott.michael.1910"/>

Despite papal support, Otto could not oust his rival Philip before the latter was murdered in a private feud. Otto's rule was undisputed, and he reneged on his earlier promises. He set his sights on reestablishing imperial power in Italy, claiming even the Kingdom of Sicily. Given the papal interests in keeping the Holy Roman Empire and Sicily apart, Innocent now supported his ward, King Frederick of Sicily, to resist Otto's advances and restore the Staufen dynasty to the Holy Roman Empire. Frederick was elected by Staufen partisans.<ref>{{Cite journal |date=1998|title=Innocent, III |url=http://link.galegroup.com/apps/doc/K1631003270/UHIC?u=aubu98092&xid=db6e947a |journal=Encyclopedia of World Biography |via=Gale}} {{registration required}}</ref>

The conflict was decided by the [[Battle of Bouvines]] on 27 July 1214, which pitted Otto and [[John, King of England]] and the [[Angevin Empire]] against [[Philip II of France|Philip II]] of [[Capetian dynasty|Capetian France]]. The French defeated Otto, and he lost all influence. He died on 19 May 1218, leaving Frederick II as undisputed emperor. King John was forced to acknowledge the Pope as his feudal lord and accept [[Stephen Langton]] as [[Archbishop of Canterbury]].<ref name="autogenerated1994">Powell, James M. ''Innocent III: Vicar of Christ or Lord of the World?'' Washington: Catholic University of American Press, 2nd ed., 1994. {{ISBN|0-8132-0783-5}}</ref> In his turn, Frederick II would later become a bitter opponent of the papacy once his empire was secure. The victory of the Capetians in this battle permitted the [[Invasion of Normandy by Philip II of France]] and ended the Angevin Empire.

===Federal power over Europe===

Innocent III played further roles in the politics of Norway,<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.dokpro.uio.no/perl/middelalder/diplom_vise_tekst.prl?b=5743&s=10&str=|title=Diplomatarium Norvegicum|website=www.dokpro.uio.no}}</ref> France, Sweden, Bulgaria, Spain and England.<ref name="autogenerated1994"/> At the request of England's King John, Pope Innocent III declared [[Magna Carta]] annulled, which resulted in a rebellion by the English barons who rejected the disenfranchisement.<ref>{{cite web|title=Magna Carta: people and society|url=http://www.bl.uk/magna-carta/articles/magna-carta-people-and-society|website=British Library|access-date=23 January 2017|archive-date=1 July 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170701001635/http://www.bl.uk/magna-carta/articles/magna-carta-people-and-society|url-status=dead}}</ref>

===Crusades and suppression of [[heresy]]===

====Fourth Crusade====
Pope Innocent III spent the majority of his tenure as Pope (1198–1216) preparing for a great crusade on the [[Holy Land]]. His first attempt was the [[Fourth Crusade]] (1202–1204), which he decreed by the papal bull ''[[Post miserabile]]'' in 1198.<ref>{{cite book|last=Packard|first=Sidney Raymond|title=Europe and the Church under Innocent III|url=https://archive.org/details/europechurchunde0000pack_p12|url-access=registration|year=1927|publisher=H. Holt|location=New York}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Innocent III|first=Pope|title=On the Misery of the Human Condition. De Miseria Humane Conditionis, trans. Donald Roy Howard|year=1969|publisher=Bobbs-Merrill|location=Indianapolis}}</ref> Unlike past popes, Innocent III displayed interest in leading the crusade himself, rather than simply instigating it and allowing secular leaders to organize the expedition according to their aspirations.<ref name="Cheney"/>

Innocent III's first order of business in [[preaching the crusade]] was to send missionaries to every Catholic state to endorse the campaign. He sent [[Peter of Capua the Elder]] to the kings of France and England with specific instructions to convince them to settle their differences, resulting in a truce of five years between the two nations, beginning in 1199. The intent of the truce was not to allow the two kings to lead the crusade, but rather to free their resources to assist the Crusade. For the army's leadership, Innocent aimed his pleas at the knights and nobles of Europe,<ref name=Cheney /> succeeding in France, where many lords answered the pope's call, including the army's two eventual leaders, [[Theobald III of Champagne]] and [[Boniface I, Marquess of Montferrat]]. The pope's calls to action were not received with as much enthusiasm in England or Germany, and the expedition became mainly a French affair.<ref name=Clayton>{{cite book|last=Clayton|first=Joseph|title=Pope Innocent III and His Times|year=1941|publisher=Bruce Pub.|location=Milwaukee}}</ref>

The Fourth Crusade was an expensive endeavor. Innocent III raised funds with a new approach: requiring all clergy to donate one-fortieth of their income. This marked the first time a pope ever imposed a direct tax on the clergy. He faced many difficulties collecting this tax, including corrupt tax collectors and disregard in England. He also sent envoys to [[John, King of England|King John]] of England and [[Philip II of France|King Philip]] of France, who pledged to contribute to the campaign,{{Citation needed|date=May 2018}} and John also declared his support for the clerical tax in his kingdom. The Crusaders also contributed funds: Innocent declared that those who took the [[crusader's vow]] but could no longer fulfill it could be released by a contribution of funds. The pope put Archbishop [[Hubert Walter]] in charge of collecting these dues.<ref name=Cheney /><ref>{{cite book|last=Migne|first=Jacques Paul|title=Patrologia Latina. Vol. 214–217|year=1849–1855|publisher=S.I.|location=Paris}}</ref>

At the onset of the crusade, the intended destination was Egypt, as the Christians and Muslims were under a truce at the time.<ref name=Clayton /> An agreement was made between the French Crusaders and the Venetians. The Venetians would supply vessels and supplies for the Crusaders, who would pay 85,000 [[Mark (currency)|marks]].<ref>{{cite book|last=Villhardouin|first=Geoffrey De|title=Memoirs or Chronicle of the Fourth Crusade and The Conquest of Constantinople, trans. Frank T. Marzials|year=1908|publisher=J.M. Dent|location=London}}</ref> Innocent approved under two conditions: a representative of the pope must accompany the crusade, and the attack on other Christians was strictly forbidden.

The French failed to raise sufficient funds for the payment of the Venetians. As a result, the Crusaders diverted the crusade to the Christian [[Dalmatia]]n city of [[Zadar]] in 1202 at the will of the Venetian [[Enrico Dandolo]] to subsidize the debt. This diversion was adopted without the consent of Innocent III, who threatened excommunication to any who took part. Most French ignored the threat and therefore were excommunicated by Innocent III, but soon were forgiven. A second diversion occurred when the crusaders engaged in the [[sack of Constantinople]], capital of the [[Byzantine Empire]], at the behest of the exiled prince Alexios. This diversion was taken without any knowledge by Innocent III and he did not learn of it until after the city had been plundered and Alexios was crowned as [[Alexios IV Angelos]].<ref>{{cite book|last=Elliott-Binns|first=Leonard|title=Innocent III|year=1931|publisher=Archon|location=Hamden, Conn}}</ref>

Innocent III was heavily opposed to an attack on Constantinople and sent many letters warning the crusaders. He excommunicated the crusaders who attacked Byzantine cities, but could not stop them. One of the pope's goals had been to persuade [[Alexios III Angelos]], uncle of the exiled prince, to participate in the crusade. Subsequently, Alexios IV was overthrown and [[Baldwin I, Latin Emperor|Baldwin I]] was crowned king of the new [[Latin Empire]], which lasted for the next sixty years.<ref>{{cite book|last=Roscher|first=Helmut|title=Papst Innocenz III. Und Die Kreuzzuge|year=1969|publisher=Vandenhoeck U. Ruprecht|location=Gottingen}}</ref>

====Albigensian Crusade====
[[File:Albigensian Crusade 01.jpg|thumb|280px|left|Innocent III launched the [[Albigensian Crusade]] against the Cathars.]]

Pope Innocent III was also a zealous protector of the Catholic faith and a strenuous opponent of [[Heresy in Christianity|heretics]]. His chief activity was turned against the [[Albigenses]] whose expansion he viewed as a mortal threat to Catholicism.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Catholic Encyclopedia : Pope Innocent III |url=https://www.newadvent.org/cathen/08013a.htm |access-date=2 February 2024 |website=www.newadvent.org}}</ref> They were especially numerous in a few cities of Northern and Southern France. During the first year of his pontificate, Innocent sent the two [[Cistercian]] monks Rainer and Guido to the Albigenses in France to preach to them the true doctrines of the Catholic faith and dispute with them on controverted topics of religion. The two Cistercian missionaries were soon followed by [[Diego of Osma|Diego, Bishop of Osma]], then by [[Saint Dominic]] and the two papal legates, [[Peter of Castelnau]] and Raoul.

When, however, these missionaries were ridiculed and despised by the Albigenses, and the papal legate Castelnau was assassinated in 1208, Innocent resorted to force. He ordered the bishops of Southern France to put under interdict the participants in the murder and all the towns that gave shelter to them. He was especially incensed against [[Raymond VI, Count of Toulouse|Count Raymond of Toulouse]] who had previously been excommunicated by the murdered legate and whom the pope suspected as the instigator of the murder. The count protested his innocence and submitted to the pope but the pope placed no further trust in him. He called upon the King of France, [[Philip II Augustus of France|Philip II]] to raise an army for the suppression of the Albigenses. Under the leadership of [[Simon de Montfort, 5th Earl of Leicester|Simon de Montfort]] a cruel campaign ensued against the Albigenses which, despite the protest of Innocent, soon turned into a war of conquest.<ref name="catholic.encyclopedia.ott.michael.1910"/> During the siege of [[Béziers]], the [[Arnaud Amalric|leader]] of the crusader assault famously but dubiously declared upon being asked how to distinguish [[Cathars]] from [[Catholics]] at the besieged town "[[Caedite eos. Novit enim Dominus qui sunt eius]]",<ref>{{cite web |url=http://gahom.ehess.fr/relex/dialogusmiraculorum1/CdH-Dialog.mir.-Vol1/CdH-Dialog.mir.-Volume1-308.html |title=Dialogus Miraculorum |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120220034410/http://gahom.ehess.fr/relex/dialogusmiraculorum1/CdH-Dialog.mir.-Vol1/CdH-Dialog.mir.-Volume1-308.html |archive-date=20 February 2012 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Berlioz|first=Jacques|title="Tuez-les tous, Dieu reconnaîtra les siens" – La croisade contre les Albigeois vue par Césaire de Heisterbach|year=1994|publisher=Éditions Loubatières|location=Portet-sur-Garonne}}</ref> which translates as: "Slay them all, God will recognize his own." This statement is often cited as "Kill them all and let God sort them out."

The [[Albigensian Crusade]] led to the deaths of approximately 20,000 men, women and children, Cathar and Catholic alike, decimating the number of practising Cathars and diminishing the region's distinct culture.<ref name=Cheney>{{cite book|last=Cheney|first=Christopher R.|author-link = C. R. Cheney|title=Innocent III and England|year=1976|publisher=Anton Hiersemann|location=Stuttgart}}</ref> The conflict took on a political flavor, directed not only against the heretics, but also the nobility of [[Toulouse]] and vassals of the [[Crown of Aragon]], and finally brought the region firmly under the control of the king of France. [[Peter II of Aragon|King Peter II of Aragon]], Count of Barcelona, was directly involved in the conflict, and was killed in the course of the [[Battle of Muret]] in 1213. The conflict largely ended with the [[Treaty of Paris (1229)|Treaty of Paris of 1229]], in which the integration of the [[Occitania|Occitan]] territory in the French crown was agreed upon.

===Francis of Assisi===
In 1209, [[Francis of Assisi]] led his first eleven followers to Rome to seek permission from Pope Innocent III to found a new religious order which was ultimately granted.<ref name="chest107">St. Francis of Assisi by G.K. Chesterton (1924), pp.&nbsp;107–108</ref> Upon entry to Rome, the brothers encountered Bishop [[Guido of Assisi]], who had in his company [[Giovanni di San Paolo]], the [[Cardinal-Bishop of Sabina]]. The cardinal, who was the confessor of Pope Innocent III, was immediately sympathetic to Francis and agreed to represent Francis to the pope. Reluctantly, Pope Innocent agreed to meet with Francis and the brothers the next day. After several days, the pope agreed to admit the group informally, adding that when God increased the group in grace and number, they could return for an official admittance. The group was [[tonsure]]d.<ref name="Francis of Assisi and His World">Galli (2002), pp.&nbsp;74–80</ref> This was important in part because it recognized Church authority and protected his followers from possible accusations of heresy, as had happened to the [[Waldensians]] decades earlier. Though Pope Innocent initially had his doubts, following a dream in which he saw Francis holding up the [[Basilica of St. John Lateran]] (the [[cathedral]] of Rome, thus the 'home church' of all Christendom), he decided to endorse Francis's order. This occurred, according to tradition, on 16 April 1210, and constituted the official founding of the [[Franciscan Order]]. The group, then the "Lesser Brothers" (''Order of Friars Minor'' also known as the ''Franciscan Order''), preached on the streets and had no possessions. They were centered in Porziuncola and preached first in Umbria, before expanding throughout Italy.<ref>[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/06221a.htm Robinson, Paschal. "St. Francis of Assisi." The Catholic Encyclopedia] Vol. 6. New York: Robert Appleton Company, 1909. 16 December 2018</ref>

===Other religious orders===
The lesser religious orders which Pope Innocent III approved are the [[Order of the Holy Ghost|Hospitallers of the Holy Ghost]] on 23 April 1198, the [[Trinitarians]] on 17 December 1198, and the [[Humiliati]], in June 1201.

===Fourth Council of the Lateran===
[[File:Giuseppe lucchetti, tomba di innocenzo III, 1861.jpg|thumb|left|Tomb of Pope Innocent III at Saint John Lateran basilica]]
On 15 November 1215, Pope Innocent III convened the [[Fourth Council of the Lateran|Fourth Lateran Council]] which was considered to be the most important Church council of the [[Middle Ages]]. By its conclusion, it issued seventy reformatory decrees. Among other things, it encouraged creating schools and holding clergy to a higher standard than the laity. Canon 18 forbade clergymen to participate in the practice of the [[Trial by ordeal|judicial ordeal]], effectively banning its use.<ref name=Pennington>{{Cite web |url=http://faculty.cua.edu/pennington/Fourth%20Lateran%20Council/PenningtonLateranIV.pdf |title=Pennington, Kenneth. "The Fourth Lateran Council, its Legislation, and the Development of Legal Procedure", CUA |access-date=17 December 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160308012241/http://faculty.cua.edu/pennington/Fourth%20Lateran%20Council/PenningtonLateranIV.pdf |archive-date=8 March 2016 |url-status=dead }}</ref>

In order to define fundamental doctrines, the council reviewed the nature of the [[Holy Eucharist]], the ordered annual confession of sins, and prescribed detailed procedures for the election of bishops. The council also mandated a strict lifestyle for clergy. Canon 68 states: Jews and Muslims shall wear a special dress to enable them to be distinguished from Christians so that no Christian shall come to marry them ignorant of who they are.<ref name="je">{{Cite web|title=Church Councils – JewishEncyclopedia.com|url=http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/4379-church-councils|access-date=26 July 2020|website=www.jewishencyclopedia.com}}</ref> Canon 69 forbade "that Jews be given preferment in public office since this offers them the pretext to vent their wrath against the Christians."<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/basis/lateran4.html |title=Medieval Sourcebook: Twelfth Ecumenical Council: Lateran IV 1215 |publisher=Fordham.edu |access-date=17 February 2010}}</ref> It assumes that Jews blaspheme Christ, and therefore, as it would be "too absurd for a blasphemer of Christ to exercise power over Christians",<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ewtn.com/library/councils/lateran4.htm#67|title=Lateran 4 – 1215|access-date=30 August 2014|archive-date=20 August 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160820183422/http://www.ewtn.com/library/councils/lateran4.htm#67|url-status=dead}}</ref> Jews should not be appointed to public offices.

===Death and legacy===
[[File:Innocent III bas-relief in the U.S. House of Representatives chamber.jpg|thumb|Innocent III honored by the [[U.S. House of Representatives]]]]
The Council had set the beginning of the Fifth Crusade for 1217, under the direct leadership of the Church. After the Council, in the spring of 1216, Innocent moved to northern Italy in an attempt to reconcile the maritime cities of [[Pisa]] and [[Genoa]] by removing the excommunication cast over Pisa by his predecessor Celestine III and concluding a pact with Genoa.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://sthweb.bu.edu/archives |title=School of Theology |publisher=Sthweb.bu.edu |date=2 September 2009 |access-date=17 February 2010 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090703201605/http://sthweb.bu.edu/archives/ |archive-date=3 July 2009 }}</ref>

Innocent III, however, died suddenly at [[Perugia]]<ref name="catholic.encyclopedia.ott.michael.1910"/> on 16 July 1216.{{sfn|Moore|2003|p=288}} He was buried in the [[cathedral of Perugia]], where his body remained until [[Pope Leo XIII]] had it transferred to the [[Lateran]] in December 1891.<ref name="catholic.encyclopedia.ott.michael.1910"/>

Innocent is one of two popes (the other being [[Pope Gregory IX|Gregory IX]]) among the 23 historical figures depicted in marble relief portraits above the gallery doors of the [[U.S. House of Representatives]] in honor of their influence on the development of American law.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.aoc.gov/art/relief-portrait-plaques-lawgivers/innocent-iii |title=Innocent III |publisher=Architect of the Capitol |access-date=14 April 2020}}</ref> Polish–American sculptor [[Joseph Kiselewski]] created the likeness of Innocent in the House in 1951.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Sculpture |url=https://www.kiselewskisculpture.com/ |access-date=19 April 2023 |website=Joseph Kiselewski |language=en}}</ref>

==Works==
His Latin works include ''[[De Miseria Condicionis Humane|De miseria humanae conditionis]]'', a tract on [[asceticism]] that Innocent III wrote before becoming pope, and ''De sacro altaris mysterio'', a description and [[exegesis]] of the [[Catholic liturgy|liturgy]].<ref name="Moore 1981" /> According to ''Gesta Innocentii III'', the works of Innocent were evidence that he surpasses his contemporaries in philosophy and theology.

* ''De missarum mysteriis'', 1195
* ''De quadripartita specie nuptiarum''
* ''On Heresy: Letter to the Archbishop of Auch'', 1198
* ''On Usury: Letter to the French bishops'', 1198
* ''On Church Independence/Tithes: Letter to a bishop'', 1198
* ''On the crusade and Trade with Saracens: Letter to the Venetians'', 1198
* ''[[Sicut Judaeis|On Jews: Decree of 1199]]''<ref name="MS">[http://sourcebooks.fordham.edu/source/innIII-policies.asp Medieval Sourcebook: Innocent III: Letters on Papal Polices]. Fordham.edu</ref>

==See also==
* [[List of popes]]
* [[Cardinals created by Innocent III]]

== Notes ==
{{Notelist}}

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

== Sources ==
* {{in lang|it|la}} ''Constitutiones Concilii quarti lateranensis – Costituzioni del quarto Concilio lateranense'', ed. by di M. Albertazzi, La Finestra editrice, Lavis 2016.
* {{cite book|first=Geoffrey|last=Barraclough|title=The Medieval Papacy|url=https://archive.org/details/medievalpapacy00barr|url-access=registration|location=London|publisher=Thames and Hudson|year=1968}}
* Bolton, Brenda, ''Innocent III. Studies on Papal Authority and Pastoral Care'', Variorum, "Collected Studies Series", Aldershot, 1995.
* ''The Catholic Encyclopedia'', Volume VIII. Published 1910. New York: Robert Appleton Company.
* {{in lang|it}} Maccarrone, Michele (ed.), ''Chiesa e Stato nella dottrina di papa Innocenzo III'', Roma: Ateneo lateranense, 1941.
* {{in lang|it}} Maccarone, Michele, ''Studi su Innocenzo III'', Padoue, 1972.
* {{in lang|it}} Maccarone, Michele, ''Nuovi studi su Innocenzo III'', éd. Roberto Lambertini, Rome, Istituto storico italiano per il Medio Evo, 1995.
* {{in lang|de}} Maleczek, Werner, ''Papst und Kardinalskolleg von 1191 bis 1216'', Wien, 1984.
* Moore, John C. "Pope Innocent III, Sardinia, and the Papal State." ''Speculum'', Vol. 62, No. 1. (Jan. 1987), pp.&nbsp;81–101. {{doi|10.2307/2852567}}. {{JSTOR|2852567}}.
*{{cite book |last=Moore |first=John C. |title=Pope Innocent III (1160/61–1216): To Root Up and to Plant |publisher=Brill |year=2003 }}
* Powell, James M., ''Innocent III: Vicar of Christ or Lord of the World?'' 2nd ed.(Washington: Catholic University of American Press, 1994).
* Sayers, Janet E. ''Innocent III: Leader of Europe 1198–1216'', London, New York, Longman (The Medieval World), 1994.
*{{cite book|last=Smith|first=Damian J. |title=Innocent III and the Crown of Aragon: The Limits of Papal Authority|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xgskDwAAQBAJ|year=2017 |orig-date=2004|publisher=Taylor & Francis|location=New York|isbn=978-1-351-92743-7}}
* {{in lang|it|fr|de}} Andrea Sommerlechner, Andrea (dir.), ''Innocenzo III. Urbs et Orbis'', Rome, Istituto storico italiano per il Medio Evo, 2003, 2 vol.
* Tillman, Helen, ''Pope Innocent III'', New York, 1980.
* {{in lang|fr}} [https://www.academia.edu/12086889/_Introduction_dans_Innocent_III_et_le_Midi._Cahiers_de_Fanjeaux_50_%C3%A9d._D._Le_Bl%C3%A9vec_D._Carraz_M._Fourni%C3%A9_J._Th%C3%A9ry-Astruc_2015_p._11-35 Théry-Astruc, Julien, "Introduction", in ''Innocent III et le Midi'' (''Cahiers de Fanjeaux'', 50), Toulouse, Privat, 2015, pp.&nbsp;11–35].
*{{cite book |title=Papal Genealogy: The Families and Descendants of the Popes |first=George L. |last=Williams |publisher=McFarland & Company Inc. |year=1998 }}

==Further reading==
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20110816002222/http://faculty.nmu.edu/kkendall/ Kendall, Keith]. "'Mute Dogs, Unable to Bark': Innocent III's Call to Combat Heresy." In ''Medieval Church Law and the Origins of the Western Legal Tradition: A Tribute to Kenneth Pennington'', edited by Wolfgang P. Müller and Mary E. Sommar, 170–178. Washington, D.C.: The Catholic University of America Press, 2006.
* Kendall, Keith. "Sermons of Pope Innocent III: The 'Moral Theology' of a Pastor and Pope." PhD diss., University of Syracuse, 2003.
* {{Cite EB1911|wstitle= Innocent/Innocent III | volume= 14 |last=Phillips|first=Walter Alison |author-link=Walter Alison Phillips| pages = 578&ndash;579 |short= 1}}

==External links==
{{Commons}}
{{Wikiquote}}
{{wikisource|works=or}}
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20110211163550/http://www.historyofthepopes.com/GalleryofHistory/INNOCENT_III_THE-GREAT/Life-Door.html Innocent III The Great. An Essay on His Life and Times. By C. H. C. Pirie-Gordon (btm format)]
* [http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/08013a.htm Innocent III] at the Catholic Encyclopedia
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20070225125651/http://www.paradoxplace.com/Perspectives/Italian%20Images/Single%20frames/Portraits/Innocent_III.htm Adrian Fletcher's Paradoxplace – Portrait (Subiaco) and Tomb (Lateran) of Innocent III]
* [http://www.documentacatholicaomnia.eu/01_01_1198-1216-_Innocentius_III.html Innocent III's Opera Omnia]
* [https://books.google.com/books?id=jJnyxg3xxTEC&dq=on+the+dignity+of+human+nature+pope+innocent+iii&pg=PA306 Cambridge History of Renassiance Philosophy]
* [http://historymedren.about.com/library/who/blwwinnocent3.htm History Medren] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160413104546/http://historymedren.about.com/library/who/blwwinnocent3.htm |date=13 April 2016 }}
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20090319022621/http://ecole.evansville.edu/glossary/albigenses.html Ecole Glossary]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20101010122301/http://crusades.boisestate.edu/ Crusades]
* [http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/basis/lateran4.html Lateran Council]
* [http://catholicism.org/pope-innocent-iii-and-the-marks-of-a-great-papacy.html Pope Innocent III and the Marks of a Great Papacy], article at Catholicism.org
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20150810053756/http://bogomilism.eu/Studies/Bugger%20case.html Traces of the Bogomil Movement in English]
* [http://www.bl.uk/people/pope-innocent-iii Pope Innocent III] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220807062539/http://www.bl.uk/people/pope-innocent-iii |date=7 August 2022 }} at the British Library
* {{DNB-Portal|118555642|NAME=Innozenz III.}}
* {{DDB|Person|118555642}}
* {{Geschichtsquellen Person|118555642|Innocentius III papa}}
* [http://www.eckhart.de/index.htm?papste.htm#Inno3 Meister Eckhart und seine Zeit – Päpste – Innozenz III.]
* [http://www.documentacatholicaomnia.eu/01_01_1198-1216-_Innocentius_III.html Complete works by Migne Patrologia Latina mit Inhaltsverzeichnis]
* Deed by Innocence III for the Stendal Cathedral Chapter, 6 May 1206, {{LBALink|5652}}

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{{s-bef|before=[[Celestine III]]}}
{{s-ttl|title=[[Pope]]|years=1198–1216}}
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{{Portal bar|Biography|Christianity|History|Italy}}
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{{DEFAULTSORT:Innocent 03}}
[[Category:Pope Innocent III| ]]
[[Category:1161 births|Innocent]]
[[Category:1216 deaths|Innocent]]
[[Category:12th-century apocalypticists|Innocent]]
[[Category:12th-century writers in Latin|Innocent]]
[[Category:12th-century popes]]
[[Category:12th-century Italian cardinals|Conti, Lotario]]
[[Category:13th-century apocalypticists]]
[[Category:13th-century popes]]
[[Category:Conti di Segni|Lotario]]
[[Category:Cardinal-nephews|Conti, Lotario]]
[[Category:Christians of the Fifth Crusade|Innocent]]
[[Category:Christians of the Fourth Crusade|Innocent]]
[[Category:Christians of the Livonian Crusade|Innocent]]
[[Category:Italian popes]]
[[Category:Italian Roman Catholic writers]]
[[Category:People from the Metropolitan City of Rome Capital]]
[[Category:People of the Albigensian Crusade|Innocent]]
[[Category:Trinitarians|Innocent]]
[[Category:12th-century Italian jurists|Innocent]]
[[Category:Burials at the Archbasilica of Saint John Lateran]]