View source for Pope Leo XIII

{{Short description|Head of the Catholic Church from 1878 to 1903}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=June 2022}}
{{Infobox Christian leader
| type = Pope
| honorific-prefix = [[List of popes|Pope]]
| title = [[Bishop of Rome]]
| name = Leo XIII
| image = Papa Leone XIII.jpeg
| caption = Portrait by Braun et Cie, 1878
| church = [[Catholic Church]]
| term_start = 20 February 1878
| term_end = 20 July 1903
| predecessor = [[Pius IX]]
| successor = [[Pius X]]
| previous_post = {{Indented plainlist|
* [[Titular Archbishop]] of [[Damietta|Tamiathis]] (1843{{nbnd}}1846)
* [[Apostolic Nuncio to Belgium]] (1843{{nbnd}}1846)
* [[Bishop of Perugia]] (1846{{nbnd}}1878)
* Cardinal Priest of [[San Crisogono]] (1853{{nbnd}}1878)
* [[Camerlengo of the Apostolic Chamber]] (1877{{nbnd}}1878)}}
| ordination = 31 December 1837
| ordained_by = [[Carlo Odescalchi]]
| consecration = 19 February 1843
| consecrated_by = [[Luigi Lambruschini]]
| cardinal = 19 December 1853
| created_cardinal_by = [[Pius IX]]
| rank = [[Cardinal priest]]
| birth_name = Gioacchino Vincenzo Raffaele&nbsp;Luigi Pecci
| birth_date = {{birth date|1810|03|02|df=y}}
| birth_place = [[Carpineto Romano]], [[Rome (department)|Rome]], [[First French Empire|French Empire]]
| death_date = {{death date and age|1903|07|20|1810|03|02|df=y}}
| death_place = [[Apostolic Palace]], Rome, Italy
| signature = Leo XIII signature.svg{{!}}class=skin-invert
| coat_of_arms = C o a Leon XIII.svg
| module = {{Ordination|embed=yes|denomination=Catholic
|ordained priest by          = [[Carlo Odescalchi]]
|date of priestly ordination = 31 December 1837
|consecrated by              = [[Luigi Lambruschini]]
|co-consecrators             = {{ubl|[[Fabio Maria Asquini]]|[[Giuseppe Maria Castellani]]}}
|date of consecration        = 19 February 1843
|elevated by                 = [[Pope Pius IX]]
|date of elevation           = 19 December 1853
|bishop 1                    = [[Antonio Briganti]]
|consecration date 1         = 19 November 1871
|bishop 2                    = [[Carmelo Pascucci]]
|consecration date 2         = 19 November 1871
|bishop 3                    = [[Carlo Laurenzi]]
|consecration date 3         = 24 June 1877
|bishop 4                    = [[Edoardo Borromeo]]
|consecration date 4         = 19 May 1878
|bishop 5                    = [[Francesco Latoni]]
|consecration date 5         = 1 June 1879
|bishop 6                    = [[Jean-Baptiste-François Pitra]]
|consecration date 6         = 1 June 1879
|bishop 7                    = [[Bartholomew Woodlock]]
|consecration date 7         = 1 June 1879
|bishop 8                    = [[Agostino Bausa]]
|consecration date 8         = 24 March 1889
|bishop 9                    = [[Giuseppe Antonio Ermenegildo Prisco]]
|consecration date 9         = 29 May 1898}}
| other = Leo
}}

'''Pope Leo XIII''' ({{langx|it|Leone XIII}}; born '''Gioacchino Vincenzo Raffaele Luigi Pecci''';{{efn|{{IPA|it|dʒoakˈkiːno vinˈtʃɛntso raffaˈɛːle luˈiːdʒi ˈpettʃi|lang}}; English: '''Joachim Vincent Raphael Louis Pecci'''.}} 2{{nbsp}}March 1810{{snd}}20{{nbsp}}July 1903) was head of the [[Catholic Church]] from 1878 until his death in 1903. He had the fourth-longest reign of any pope, behind those of [[Peter the Apostle]], [[Pius IX]] (his predecessor), and [[Pope John Paul II|John Paul II]].

Born in [[Carpineto Romano]], near Rome, Leo XIII is well known for his intellectualism and his attempts to define the position of the Catholic Church with regard to modern thinking. In his 1891 [[Papal encyclical|encyclical]] ''[[Rerum novarum]]'', Pope Leo outlined the [[Workers rights|rights of workers]] to a [[fair wage]], [[Occupational safety and health|safe working conditions]], and the formation of [[trade unions]], while affirming the [[rights to property]] and [[Market economy|free enterprise]], opposing both [[Atheism|atheistic]] [[socialism]] and ''[[laissez-faire]]'' [[capitalism]]. With that encyclical, he became popularly called the "Social Pope" and the "Pope of the Workers", also having created the foundations for modern thinking in the [[social doctrines of the Catholic Church]], influencing his successors. He influenced the [[Mariology of the Catholic Church]] and promoted both the [[rosary]] and the [[scapular]]. Upon his election, he immediately sought to revive [[Thomism]], the theological system of [[Augustine of Hippo]] and [[Thomas Aquinas]], wishing to make it the official political, theological, and philosophical foundation of the Catholic Church. As a result, he sponsored the ''[[Editio Leonina]]'' in 1879.

Leo XIII is remembered for his belief that pastoral activity in [[political sociology]] is also a vital mission of the church as a vehicle of [[social justice]] and maintaining the rights and dignities of the human person. He issued a record eleven papal encyclicals on the rosary, earning him the title "Rosary Pope". He also approved two new Marian scapulars. He was the first pope never to have held any control over the [[Papal States]], which had been dissolved by 1870, since [[Pope Stephen II|Stephen II]] in the 8th century. Similarly, many of his policies were oriented toward mitigating the loss of the Papal States in an attempt to overcome the loss of temporal power, but nonetheless continuing the [[Roman Question]]. After his death in 1903, he was buried in the [[Vatican Grottoes]]. In 1924, his remains were transferred to the [[Archbasilica of Saint John Lateran]].

== Early life and education (1810–1836) ==
[[File:Palazzo Pecci Carpineto italiano paolucci.jpg|thumb|right|The house in [[Carpineto Romano]] in which the Pecci brothers grew up]]

Gioacchino Vincenzo Raffaele Luigi Pecci was born in [[Carpineto Romano]], near Rome, the sixth of the seven children of [[Count]] Domenico Ludovico Pecci (2 June 1767 – 8 March 1833), [[Patrician (post-Roman Europe)|Patrician]] of [[Siena]], [[Colonel]] of the [[French Army]] under [[Napoleon]], and his wife Anna Francesca Prosperi-Buzzi (1773 – 9 August 1824).<ref>{{Cite web |title=Vincenzo Gioacchino Raffaele Luigi Pecci, aka Pope Leo XIII |url=https://www.familysearch.org/tree/person/G8SD-Y92 |access-date=2023-01-03 |website=www.familysearch.org}}</ref> His uncle Giuseppe Pecci was a [[protonotary apostolic]] and [[referendary]] of the Signature of Justice and died in 1806. His brothers included [[Giuseppe Pecci|Giuseppe]] and Giovanni Battista or Giambattista Pecci (26 October 1802 – 28 March 1882), 1st Count Pecci (''Comes Romanus'' by [[Papal brief]] in 1880), who married on 8 August 1851 Angela Salina (7 February 1830 – 9 October 1899) and had issue, and sister Anna Maria Pecci, wife of Michelangelo Pecci. Until 1818, he lived at home with his family "in which religion counted as the highest grace on earth, as through her, salvation can be earned for all eternity".{{Sfn|Kühne|1880|p=7}} Together with Giuseppe, he studied in the [[Jesuit]] College in [[Viterbo]] until 1824.{{Sfn|Kühne|1880|p=12}} He enjoyed [[Latin]] and was known to have written his own Latin poems at the age of eleven.{{efn|Leo is said to have been the last Pope to have directly composed his writings in Latin, rather than have them translated into Latin.<ref>Stravinskas, P., [https://web.archive.org/web/20221011093118/https://www.catholicworldreport.com/2022/10/11/on-pope-john-xxiiis-opening-address-at-the-second-vatican-council/ On Pope John XXIII’s opening Address at the Second Vatican Council], ''The Catholic World Report'', published and archived on 11 October 2022, accessed on 1 November 2024</ref>}} Leo was a descendant of the Italian leader [[Cola di Rienzo]] on his mother's side.<ref>{{Cite book |title=A Generation of Materialism 1871–1900 |last=Hayes |first=Carlton J.H |date=1941 |page=142}}</ref>

{{multiple image
| align             = left
| direction         = horizontal
| header            = 
| header_align      = left/right/center
| header_background = 
| footer            = Count and Countess Pecci, parents
| footer_align      = left/right/center
| footer_background = 
| width             = 
| image1            = Domenico Lodovico Pecci.jpg
| width1            = 120
| image2            = Anna Francesca Prosperi Buzi.jpg
| width2            = 132
}}

His siblings were:<ref name="LAT" />
*Carlo (1793–1879)
*Anna Maria (1798–1870)
*Caterina (1800–1867)
*Giovanni Battista (1802–1881)
*[[Giuseppe Pecci|Giuseppe]] (1807–1890)
*Fernando (1813–1830)

In 1824, he and Giuseppe were called to Rome, where their mother was dying. Count Pecci wanted his children near him after the loss of his wife and so they stayed with him in Rome and attended the Jesuit [[Collegium Romanum]].

In 1828, the 18-year-old Vincenzo decided in favour of [[secular clergy]], and Giuseppe entered the Jesuit order.{{Sfn|Kühne|1880|p=20}} Vincenzo studied at the [[Pontifical Ecclesiastical Academy|Academia dei Nobili]], mainly diplomacy and law. In 1834, he gave a student presentation, attended by several [[cardinal (Catholicism)|cardinals]], on papal judgments. For his presentation, he received awards for academic excellence and gained the attention of Vatican officials.{{Sfn|Kühne|1880|p=23}} [[Cardinal Secretary of State]] [[Luigi Lambruschini]] introduced him to Vatican congregations. During a cholera epidemic in Rome, he assisted Cardinal [[Giuseppe Antonio Sala]] in his duties as overseer of all the city hospitals.<ref name=Benigni>{{cite web|url=http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/09169a.htm|title=Catholic Encyclopedia : Pope Leo XIII|website=www.newadvent.org}}</ref> In 1836, he received his doctorate in theology and doctorates of civil and [[Canon law (Catholic Church)|Canon Law]] in Rome.

== Provincial administrator (1837–1843) ==

On 14 February 1837, [[Pope Gregory XVI]] appointed the 27-year-old Pecci as personal [[prelate]] even before he was ordained a priest on 31 December 1837 by the [[Cardinal Vicar]] [[Carlo Odescalchi]]. He celebrated his first Mass with his priest brother Giuseppe.{{Sfn|Kühne|1880|p=24}} Shortly thereafter, Gregory XVI appointed Pecci as [[Papal legate]] (provincial administrator) to [[Benevento]], the smallest Papal province, with a population of about 20,000.<ref name=Benigni />

The main problems facing Pecci were a decaying local economy, insecurity from widespread bandits, and pervasive Mafia or [[Camorra]] structures, which were often allied with aristocratic families. Pecci arrested the most powerful aristocrat in Benevento  his troops captured others, who were either killed or imprisoned by him. With public order restored, he turned to the economy and a reform of the tax system to stimulate trade with the neighboring provinces.{{Sfn|Kühne|1880|p=31}}

Pecci was first destined for [[Spoleto]], a province of 100,000. On 17 July 1841, he was sent to [[Perugia]] with 200,000 inhabitants.<ref name=Benigni /> His immediate concern was to prepare the province for a papal visitation in the same year. [[Pope Gregory XVI]] visited hospitals and educational institutions for several days, asking for advice and listing questions. The fight against corruption continued in [[Perugia]], where Pecci investigated several incidents. When it was claimed that a bakery was selling bread below the prescribed pound weight, he personally went there, had all bread weighed and confiscated it if below legal weight. The confiscated bread was distributed to the poor.{{Sfn|Kühne|1880|p=37}}

== Nuncio to Belgium (1843–1846) ==

[[File:Nuncio Gioacchino Pecci.jpg|thumb|right|upright|Archbishop Pecci as [[Apostolic Nuncio to Belgium|Nuncio]] in [[Brussels]]]]

In 1843, Pecci, at only 33, was appointed [[Apostolic Nuncio to Belgium]],<ref name=Miranda>[https://cardinals.fiu.edu/bios1853-ii.htm#Pecci Miranda, Salvador. "Pecci, Gioacchino", ''The Cardinals of the Holy Roman Church'']</ref> a position that guaranteed the [[Cardinal (Catholic Church)|cardinal]]'s hat after completion of the tour.

On 27 April 1843, Pope Gregory XVI appointed Pecci [[Archbishop]] and asked his Cardinal Secretary of State Lambruschini to consecrate him.<ref name=Miranda /> Pecci developed excellent relations with the royal family and used the location to visit neighboring Germany, where he was particularly interested in the architectural completion of the [[Cologne Cathedral]].

In 1844, upon his initiative, a [[Belgian Pontifical College|Belgian College]] in Rome was opened; 102 years later, in 1946, the future [[Pope John Paul II]] would begin his Roman studies there. Pecci spent several weeks in England with Bishop [[Nicholas Wiseman]], carefully reviewing the condition of the [[Catholic Church in England#Nineteenth century|Catholic Church in that country]].{{Sfn|Kühne|1880|p=52}}

In Belgium, the school question was sharply debated between the Catholic majority and the liberal minority. Pecci encouraged the struggle for Catholic schools, but he was able to win the good will of the Court not only of the pious [[Louise-Marie of France|Queen Louise]] but also of King [[Leopold I of Belgium|Leopold I]], who was strongly liberal in his views. The new nuncio succeeded in uniting Catholics. At the end of his mission, the King granted him the Grand Cordon in the [[Order of Leopold (Belgium)|Order of Leopold]].<ref>Laatste Nieuws (Het) 1 January 1910</ref>

== Archbishop-Bishop of Perugia (1846–1878) ==
=== Papal assistant ===

[[File:Leo entryperugia.jpg|thumb|Archbishop Pecci enters [[Perugia]] in 1846.]]

In 1843, Pecci had been named [[Assistant at the Pontifical Throne|papal assistant]]. From 1846 to 1877, he was considered a popular and successful [[Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Perugia–Città della Pieve|Archbishop of Perugia]]. In 1847, after [[Pope Pius IX]] granted unlimited freedom for the press in the Papal States,<ref>Kühne 62</ref> Pecci, who had been highly popular in the first years of his episcopate, became the object of attacks in the media and at his residence.{{Sfn|Kühne|1880|p=66}} In 1848, [[revolutions of 1848|revolutionary movements]] developed throughout Western Europe, including France, Germany and Italy. [[Austrian Empire|Austrian]], [[Second French Republic|French]] and [[History of Spain (1808-1874)|Spanish]] troops reversed the revolutionary gains but at a price for Pecci and the Catholic Church, who could not regain their former popularity.

=== Provincial council ===

Pecci called a provincial council in 1849 to reform the religious life in his dioceses in [[Spoleto]] and it was in this council that the need for a [[Syllabus of Errors]] was discussed.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Lang |first=Ariella |title=A Modern Inquisition and the Unification of Italy |publisher=Palgrave MacMillan |year=2008 |isbn=978-1-349-37407-6 |edition=1st |location=United Kingdom |pages=178 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |date=1888 |title=Notices of books |journal=The Dublin Review |volume=104 |pages=483}}</ref> He invested in enlarging the seminary for future priests and in hiring new and prominent professors, preferably [[Thomist]]s. He called on his brother [[Giuseppe Pecci]], a noted Thomist scholar, to resign his professorship in Rome and to teach in Perugia instead.{{Sfn|Kühne|1880|p=76}} His own residence was next to the seminary, which facilitated his daily contacts with the students.
[[File:Archbishop Pecci aids the poor.jpg|thumb|Archbishop Pecci aids the poor in Perugia.]]

=== Charitable activities ===

While archbishop, Pecci developed several activities in support of various [[Catholic charities]]. He founded [[homeless shelter]]s for boys, girls and elderly women. Throughout his dioceses, he opened branches of a ''Bank, Monte di Pietà'', which focused on low-income people and provided [[low-interest loan]]s.{{Sfn|Kühne|1880|p=78}} He created [[soup kitchen]]s, which were run by the Capuchins. Upon his elevation to the cardinalate in late 1853, and in light of continuing [[earthquakes]] and floods, he donated all resources for the festivities of his elevation to the victims. Much of the public attention turned on the conflict between the [[Papal States]] and [[Italian nationalism]], which aimed at the Papal States' annihilation to achieve the [[Unification of Italy]].

=== Cardinalate ===

In the consistory of 19 December 1853, he was elevated to the [[College of Cardinals]], as [[Cardinal-Priest]] of [[San Crisogono]]. Pope Gregory XVI originally intended to name him as a cardinal; however, his death in 1846 put pause to that idea while the events that characterized the beginning of the papacy of Pius IX further postponed the idea of Pecci's elevation. By the time that Gregory XVI died, [[Leopold II, Grand Duke of Tuscany|Leopold II]] repeatedly asked that Pecci be named as a cardinal.<ref name=NA>{{cite web|url=https://www.newadvent.org/cathen/09169a.htm|title=Pope Leo XIII|publisher=New Advent|date=1910|author=|accessdate=12 February 2022}}</ref> While Pius IX strongly desired having Pecci as close to Rome as possible, and repeatedly offered him a [[suburbicarian diocese]], Pecci continually refused due to his preference for Perugia. It is possible that the archbishop did not share the views of the [[Cardinal Secretary of State]], [[Giacomo Antonelli]]. It is not true that Pius IX deliberately sent him to Perugia as a way of exiling him from Rome simply because Pecci's views were perceived to be liberalistic and conciliatory, as opposed to the conservatism of the papal court.<ref name=NA/>

Allegedly, Pecci had been a cardinal reserved "''[[in pectore]]''" by Gregory XVI in the consistory of 19 January 1846, with the pope's death just over four months later invalidating the appointment since his name was never actually revealed publicly.<ref name=LAT/>

==== Defending the papacy ====

Pecci defended the papacy and its claims. When [[Kingdom of Italy|Italian]] authorities expropriated convents and monasteries of Catholic orders, turning them into administration or military buildings, Pecci protested but acted moderately. When the Italian state took over Catholic schools, Pecci, fearing for his theological seminary, simply added all secular topics from other schools and opened the seminary to non-theologians.{{Sfn|Kühne|1880|p=102}} The new government also levied taxes on the Catholic Church and issued legislation according to which all episcopal or papal utterances were to be approved by the government before their publication.{{Sfn|Kühne|1880|p=105}}

==== Organization of the First Vatican Council ====

On 8 December 1869, an [[Catholic Ecumenical Councils|ecumenical council]], which became known as the [[First Vatican Council]], was to take place in the Vatican per [[Pope Pius IX]]. Pecci was likely well informed since the pope named his brother Giuseppe to help prepare the event.

During the 1870s, in his last years in Perugia, Pecci addressed the role of the church in modern society several times, defining the church as ''the mother of material civilization'' because it upheld human dignity of working people, opposed the excesses of industrialization, and developed large-scale charities for the needy.{{Sfn|Kühne|1880|p=129}}

In August 1877, on the death of Cardinal [[Filippo de Angelis]], Pope Pius IX appointed him [[Camerlengo of the Holy Roman Church|Camerlengo]], which required him to reside in Rome.<ref name="Oreilly">{{Cite book|last=O'Reilly, D.D.|first=Bernard|url=http://archive.org/details/lifepopeleoxiii00ldgoog|title=Life of Pope Leo XIII|date=1886|others=Jubilee edition|language=en}}</ref> Reportedly, Pius IX is alleged to have said to Pecci: "Monsignor, I have decided to summon you to the Senate of the Church. I feel sure this will be the first act of my pontificate that you will not feel called upon to criticize." These comments were reported to have been said due to the stories that Pecci and Pius IX had a mutual animosity for each other and disagreed with each other in terms of policy; however, this purported animosity has never been proven. It was further alleged that by this stage Pecci desired a change of scenery from Perugia and hoped for either the [[Roman Catholic Diocese of Albano|bishopric of Albano]] or the position of datary of the [[Apostolic Dataria]]. It has also been said that Pecci was reportedly in line to succeed Cardinal [[Alessandro Barnabò]] as the prefect for [[Congregation for the Evangelization of Peoples|Propaganda Fide]]; however, it was stymied by his opponent, Cardinal Antonelli.<ref name=LAT/>

== Papacy (1878–1903) ==
=== Election ===
{{Main|1878 papal conclave}}

[[File:The story of the greatest nations, from the dawn of history to the twentieth century - a comprehensive history, founded upon the leading authorities, including a complete chronology of the world, and (14775157511).jpg|thumb|left|180px|Depiction of Leo XIII's papal coronation – image c. 1900]]
[[File:XIII.Leoneogotikustiaraban.jpg|thumb|left|180px|Portrait depiction of Leo XIII's papal coronation. He is wearing a [[papal tiara]].]]
[[Pope Pius IX]] died on 7 February 1878,<ref name=Oreilly /> In the conclave, the cardinals faced varied questions and discussed issues like [[church-state relations (Catholic Church)|church–state relations]] in Europe, specifically Italy; divisions in the church; and the status of the First Vatican Council. It was also debated that the conclave be moved elsewhere, but Pecci decided otherwise in his capacity as the camerlengo. On 18 February 1878, the conclave assembled in Rome. Cardinal Pecci was elected on the third ballot and chose the name Leo XIII.<ref name=Oreilly /> He was crowned on 3 March 1878.

During the conclave, he secured his election on the third scrutiny with 44 out of 61 votes, more than the requisite two-thirds majority. While the 1878 conclave was characterized by fewer political influences than in previous conclaves due to a variety of European political crises, it was generally believed that the long papacy of the conservative Pius IX led many of the cardinals to vote for Pecci because his age and health created the expectation that his papacy would be somewhat brief.<ref name=EB>{{Cite EB1911|wstitle= Leo (popes)/Leo XIII |volume= 16 |last1= Hutton |first1= Arthur Wollaston |author1-link= Arthur Wollaston Hutton |last2= Bryant |first2= Margaret | pages = 437&ndash;439 |short= 1}}</ref> Following the conclave, [[John Henry Newman]] is reported to have said: "In the successor of Pius I recognize a depth of thought, a tenderness of heart, a winning simplicity, and a power answering to the name of Leo, which prevent me from lamenting that Pius is no longer here."<ref name=EB/> In the conclave, Pecci was perceived as the main "''[[papabile]]''" candidate; however, Cardinals Flavio Chigi and [[Tommaso Martinelli]] were also considered as potential candidates. But some cardinals who opposed Pecci, and were alarmed at the rising votes he was securing, banded together to cast their ballots for Cardinal [[Alessandro Franchi (cardinal)|Alessandro Franchi]]; however, Franchi secured no votes in the final ballot that saw Pecci duly elected. Allegedly, those who were dedicated to thwarting his election were Cardinals [[Luigi Oreglia di Santo Stefano]], [[Pietro Giannelli]], Chigi, Lorenzo Ilarione Randi, [[Carlo Sacconi]], [[Raffaele Monaco La Valletta]], [[Luigi Amat di San Filippo e Sorso]], and [[Johann Baptist Franzelin]]. It was also suggested that, before his death, Pius IX heavily favored Cardinal [[Luigi Bilio]] to succeed him, and while many of the cardinals created by the late pope intended to vote for Bilio to honor the man who elevated them in the first place, they feared that voting for an ultra-conservative could potentially evoke a veto from one of the European powers and stall the election more than was necessary. To that end, there had been early talks about Austria possibly [[Jus exclusivae|vetoing]] Bilio; however, this never occurred.<ref name=EB/> Before the conclave, Cardinals Domenico Bartolini, Monaco, Bilio, [[Henry Edward Manning]], [[Lorenzo Nina]], and Franchi (proposed by Pecci's opponents) all agreed on supporting Pecci's candidacy, also determining that the next pope needed to be an Italian. Both Manning and [[Edward Henry Howard]] agreed to persuade the foreign cardinals to back Pecci's candidacy.<ref name=BT/><ref name=EB/>

Upon his election, he announced that he would assume the name "Leo" in memory of [[Pope Leo XII]] due to his admiration for the late pope's interest in education and his conciliatory attitude toward foreign governments.<ref name=BT>{{cite web|url=https://www.britannica.com/biography/Leo-XIII|title=Leo XIII|publisher=Britannica|author=Roger-François-Marie Aubert|date=|accessdate=12 February 2022}}</ref> When asked what name he would take, the new pope responded: "As Leo XIII, in remembrance of Leo XII, whom I have always venerated". His election was formally announced to the people of Rome and the world at 1:15{{nbsp}}pm.<ref name=LAT/>

He retained the administration of the Perugia see until 1880.

=== Pontificate ===
{{Social teachings of the popes}}

As soon as he was elected to the papacy, Leo XIII worked to encourage understanding between the church and the modern world. When he firmly reasserted the [[scholasticism|scholastic]] doctrine that science and religion coexist, he required the study of [[Thomas Aquinas]]<ref>{{Citation |url=http://www.catholic-forum.com/saints/pope0256dd.htm |title=Aeterni Patris&nbsp;– On the Restoration of Christian Philosophy |publisher=Catholic forum |type=encyclical |date=4 August 1879 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070225040233/http://www.catholic-forum.com/saints/pope0256dd.htm |archive-date=25 February 2007 }}.</ref> and opened the [[Vatican Secret Archives]] to qualified researchers, among whom was the noted historian of the Papacy [[Ludwig von Pastor]]. He also refounded the [[Vatican Observatory]]
"so that everyone might see clearly that the Church and her Pastors are not opposed to true and solid science, whether human or divine, but that they embrace it, encourage it, and promote it with the fullest possible devotion."<ref>{{Citation |last=Pecci |first=Vincenzo Gioacchino Raffaele Luigi |author-link=Pope Leo XIII |title=Ut Mysticam |language=la |date=14 March 1891}}.</ref>

[[File:Pope leo xiii and court at the vatican 1878.jpg|thumb|left|Pope Leo XIII and his inner court at the Vatican, photographed by [[Jules David (photographer)|Jules David]] in June 1878]]

Leo XIII brought normality back to the Catholic Church after the tumultuous years of Pius IX. Leo's intellectual and diplomatic skills helped regain much of the prestige lost with the fall of the Papal States. He tried to reconcile the church with the working class, particularly by dealing with the social changes that were sweeping Europe. The new economic order had resulted in the growth of an impoverished working class who had increasing anticlerical and socialist sympathies. Leo helped reverse that trend.

Although Leo XIII was no radical in either theology or politics, his papacy moved the Catholic Church back to the mainstream of European life. Considered a great diplomat, he managed to improve relations with [[Russian Empire|Russia]], [[German Empire|Germany]], [[French Third Republic|France]], [[United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland|Britain]] and other countries.

Pope Leo XIII was able to reach several agreements in 1896 that resulted in better conditions for the faithful and additional appointments of bishops. During the [[fifth cholera pandemic]] in 1891, he ordered the construction of a [[hospice]] inside the Vatican. That building would be torn down in 1996 to make way for construction of the [[Domus Sanctae Marthae]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ewtn.com/HolySee/Interregnum/domus.asp |title=Domus Sanctae Marthae & The New Urns Used in the Election of the Pope |publisher=EWTN |date=22 February 1996 |access-date=15 February 2010 |archive-date=12 July 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180712081751/http://www.ewtn.com/HolySee/Interregnum/domus.asp |url-status=dead }}</ref>

Leo was a drinker of the [[cocaine]]-infused wine tonic [[Vin Mariani]], a precursor drink to [[Coca-Cola]].<ref>{{Cite book|title=Poison Pills: The Untold Story of the Vioxx Drug Scandal|last=Nesi|first=Thomas|date=2008|publisher=Thomas Dunne Books|isbn=9780312369590|edition=1st|location=New York|pages=[https://archive.org/details/poisonpillsuntol0000nesi/page/53 53]|oclc=227205792|url-access=registration|url=https://archive.org/details/poisonpillsuntol0000nesi/page/53}}</ref> He awarded a [[Vatican City|Vatican]] gold medal to the wine's creator, [[Angelo Mariani (chemist)|Angelo Mariani]], and also appeared on a poster endorsing it.<ref name=inciardi>{{cite book |last=Inciardi |first=James A. |title=The War on Drugs II |publisher=Mayfield Publishing Company |year=1992 |page=6 |isbn=978-1-55934-016-8}}</ref> Leo XIII was a [[semi-vegetarianism|semi-vegetarian]]. In 1903, he attributed his longevity to the sparing use of meat and the consumption of eggs, milk and vegetables.<ref>[https://chroniclingamerica.loc.gov/lccn/sn84020558/1903-03-09/ed-1/seq-2/ ''The Elusive Secret of Long Life'']. ''Arizona Republican''. (9 March 1903). p. 2</ref>

His favourite poets were [[Virgil]] and [[Dante Alighieri|Dante]].<ref name="centurymag">[https://books.google.com/books?id=WngAAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA596  "Pope Leo XIII and his Household"] in ''The Century Illustrated Monthly Magazine'', p. 596</ref>

===Foreign relations===

====Russia====

{{Main |Pope Leo XIII and Russia|Pope Leo XIII and Poland}}

Pope Leo XIII began his pontificate with a friendly letter to Tsar [[Alexander II of Russia|Alexander II]] in which he reminded the [[Russian Empire|Russian]] monarch of the millions of Catholics living in his empire who would like to be good Russian subjects if their dignity were respected.

After the assassination of Alexander II, the pope sent a high ranking representative to the coronation of his successor, [[Alexander III of Russia|Alexander III]], who was grateful and asked for all religious forces to unify. He asked the pope to ensure that his bishops abstain from political [[Political demonstration|agitation]]. Relations improved further when Pope Leo XIII, because of Italian considerations, distanced the Vatican from the Rome-Vienna-Berlin alliance, and helped to facilitate a rapprochement between Paris and St. Petersburg.

====Germany====

Under [[Otto von Bismarck]], the [[anti-Catholic]] ''[[Kulturkampf]]'' in [[Prussia]] led to significant restrictions on the Catholic Church in the [[German Empire]], including the [[Jesuits Law (1872)|Jesuits Law of 1872]]. During Leo's papacy, compromises were informally reached and the anti-Catholic attacks subsided.<ref>{{cite book |first=Ronald J. |last=Ross |title=The failure of Bismarck's Kulturkampf: Catholicism and state power in imperial Germany, 1871–1887 |year=1998 |location= Washington, DC |publisher= Catholic University of America Press |isbn= 978-0-81320894-7}}</ref>

The [[Centre Party (Germany)|Centre Party]] in Germany represented Catholic interests and was a force for social change. It was encouraged by Leo's support for social welfare legislation and the rights of working people. Leo's forward-looking approach encouraged [[Catholic Action]] in other European countries, where the social teachings of the church were incorporated into the agenda of Catholic parties, particularly the [[Christian democracy|Christian democratic]] parties, which became an acceptable alternative to socialist parties. Leo's social teachings were reiterated throughout the 20th century by his successors.

In his ''Memoirs'',<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ywZoAAAAMAAJ&q=kaiser+%22My+Memoirs |title=Memoirs |pages=204–207 |access-date=23 June 2013 |last1=Emperor) |first1=William I.I. (German |year=1922}}</ref> Emperor [[Wilhelm II]] discussed the "friendly, trustful relationship that existed between me and Pope Leo XIII." During Wilhelm's third visit to Leo: "It was of interest to me that the Pope said on this occasion that Germany must be the sword of the Catholic Church. I remarked that the old [[Roman Empire of the German nation]] no longer existed, and that conditions had changed. But he adhered to his words."

====France====

Leo XIII possessed a great affection for France, and feared that the [[Third French Republic|Third Republic]] would take advantage of the fact that most French Catholics were [[French Royalists|Royalists]] to abolish the [[Concordat of 1801]]. At the advisement of [[Cardinal Rampolla]], he urged French Catholics to "rally" to the republic.<ref>{{cite book|last=Coulombe|first=Charles A.|title=A History of the Popes: Vicars of Christ|publisher=MJF Books|year=2003|pages=404–405}}</ref> Leo's decision upset many French monarchists, who felt they were being forced to betray their king for their faith. Ultimately, this move split the French Church politically and decreased its influence in France. Leo's move also failed to prevent the Concordat's eventual repealment, as it was later abrogated by the [[1905 French law on the Separation of the Churches and the State]].<ref>{{cite book|last=Fehér|first=Ferenc|title=The French Revolution and the Birth of Modernity|date=1990|publisher=University of California Press|isbn=9780520071209|page=55|url=http://www.ucpress.edu/op.php?isbn=9780520071209|access-date=17 September 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100529212627/http://www.ucpress.edu/op.php?isbn=9780520071209|archive-date=29 May 2010}}</ref>

====Italy====

[[File:Vatican Observatory 1891.jpg|thumb|right|Silver medal celebrating Pope Leo XIII's 1891 inauguration of the new observatory]]

In the light of a climate hostile to the Catholic Church, Leo continued the policies of Pius IX towards [[Kingdom of Italy|Italy]] without major modifications.{{Sfn|Schmidlin|1934|p=409}} In his relations with the Italian state, Leo continued the Papacy's self-imposed [[prisoner in the Vatican|incarceration-in-the-Vatican]] stance and continued to insist that Italian Catholics should not vote in Italian elections or hold any elected office. In his first [[papal consistory|consistory]] in 1879, he elevated his older brother, [[Giuseppe Pecci|Giuseppe]], to the cardinalate. He had to defend the freedom of the church against what Catholics considered Italian persecution and discrimination in the area of education, expropriation and violation of Catholic Churches, legal measures against the church and acts of terrorism such as anticlerical groups attempting to throw the corpse of Pope Pius IX into the [[Tiber]] on 13 July 1881.{{Sfn|Schmidlin|1934|p=413}} The pope even considered moving his residence to [[Trieste]] or [[Salzburg]], two cities in [[Cisleithania|Austria]], an idea that Emperor [[Franz Joseph I of Austria|Franz Joseph I]] gently rejected.{{Sfn|Schmidlin|1934|p=414}}

====United Kingdom====

Among the activities of Leo XIII that were important for the English-speaking world, he [[Restoration of the Scottish hierarchy|restored the Scottish hierarchy]] in 1878. The following year, on 12 May 1879, he raised to the rank of [[cardinal (Catholicism)|cardinal]] the convert theologian [[John Henry Newman]],<ref name="auto">{{cite book |last=Martire |first=Egilberto |date=1951 |title=Enciclopedia Cattolica |trans-title=Catholic Encyclopedia |language=it|location=Firenze |publisher=[[Sansoni (publisher)|Casa Editrice G. C. Sansoni]] |volume=7}}</ref> who would eventually be [[beatification|beatified]] by [[Pope Benedict XVI]] in 2010 and [[canonization|canonized]] by [[Pope Francis]] in 2019. In [[British India]], too, Leo established a Catholic hierarchy in 1886 and regulated some longstanding conflicts with the [[Portuguese India|Portuguese authorities]]. A papal [[rescript]] (20 April 1888) condemned the Irish [[Plan of Campaign#Papal Encyclical 1888|Plan of Campaign]] and all clerical involvement in it as well as boycotting, followed in June by the papal encyclical "Saepe Nos"<ref>{{Citation |last=Pecci |first=Vincenzo Gioacchino Raffaele Luigi |author-link=Pope Leo XIII |publisher=New Advent |url=http://www.newadvent.org/library/docs_le13sn.htm |title=Sæpe nos |language=la}}.</ref> that was addressed to all the Irish bishops. Of outstanding significance, not least for the English-speaking world, was Leo's encyclical ''[[Apostolicae curae]]'' on the invalidity of the Anglican orders, published in 1896. In 1899, he declared the Venerable [[Bede]] a [[Doctor of the Church]].

====Spain====

In 1880, the [[Santa Maria de Montserrat Abbey]] in Catalonia celebrated 1000 years of existence. On 11 September 1881, to coincide with the Catalan national day, Leo XIII proclaimed the [[Virgin of Montserrat]] to be Patron of Catalonia. This had implications beyond the purely religious sphere, influencing the development of [[Catalan nationalism]].

====Bulgaria====

Leo XIII welcomed the elevation of Prince Ferdinand of Saxe-Coburg (the later [[Ferdinand I of Bulgaria]]) to [[Prince of Bulgaria]] in 1886. A fellow Catholic, whose wife was a member of the Italian [[House of Bourbon-Parma]], the two had a lot in common. However, relations between the two degenerated when Ferdinand expressed his intention to allow his eldest son Crown Prince Boris (later [[Tsar Boris III]]) to convert to Orthodoxy, the majority religion of Bulgaria. Leo strongly condemned the action, and when Ferdinand went through with the conversion anyway, Leo [[Excommunication|excommunicated]] him.

====United States====

[[File:Catholic University DC 2.JPG|thumb|right|In 1889, Pope Leo XIII authorized the founding of [[Catholic University of America]] in [[Washington, D.C.]], and granted it Papal degrees in theology.]]
The United States frequently attracted his attention and admiration. He confirmed the decrees of the [[Third Plenary Council of Baltimore]] (1884) and raised [[James Gibbons]], the archbishop of that city, to the cardinalate in 1886.

On 10 April 1887, a pontifical charter from Pope Leo XIII founded the [[Catholic University of America]], establishing the national university of the Catholic Church in the United States.

American newspapers criticized Pope Leo because they claimed that he was attempting to gain control of American public schools.<ref name=publicschools>{{Cite news|url=https://www.newspapers.com/clip/107673799/pope-leo-xiii-no-public-schools/|volume=VIII |edition=1,630 |date=1894-03-19|title=The Public Schools|page=5|work=Minneapolis Daily Times|location=Minneapolis, Minnesota |access-date=2022-08-15}}</ref> One cartoonist drew Leo as a fox unable to reach grapes that were labeled for American schools; the caption read "Sour grapes!"<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.criaimages.com/detail.aspx?img=0000037708c |title=CRIA: Commercial Research Image Archives |first=CRIA |last=LLC |website=www.criaimages.com |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191129073432/http://www.criaimages.com/detail.aspx?img=0000037708c! |archive-date=29 November 2019}}</ref>

In 1892, Pope Leo XIII opened the [[Vatican Apostolic Archive|Vatican archives]] to [[William Eleroy Curtis]], a special envoy planning the commemoration of [[Christopher Columbus]] at the 1893 [[World's Columbian Exposition]].<ref name=Leopold_1994>{{citation |title=A Guide to Early African Collections in the Smithsonian Institution |last=Leopold |first=Robert S. |journal=National Museum of Natural History |date=August 1994 |page=29}}</ref><ref name=McEachen_1972>{{citation | title=Letters and lectures of Captain Little |last=McEachen |first=A. D. |journal=Naval War College Review |date=February 1972 |volume=24 |issue=6 |pages=89–91 |jstor=44639691}}</ref>

====Brazil====
Pope Leo XIII is remembered for the ''First Plenary Council of Latin America'' held at Rome in 1899, and for his encyclical of 1888 to the bishops of [[Empire of Brazil|Brazil]], ''[[In plurimis]]'', on the [[slavery in Brazil|abolition of slavery]]. In 1897 he published the [[Ecclesiastical letter#Letters of the popes in modern times|Apostolic Letter]] ''Trans Oceanum'', which dealt with the privileges and ecclesiastical structure of the Catholic Church in Latin America.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.vatican.va/holy_father/leo_xiii/apost_letters/documents/hf_l-xiii_apl_18970418_trans-oceanum_lt.html |language=la |trans-title=Over the Ocean, Apostolic letter on Latin American privileges |title=Trans Oceanum, Litterae apostolicae, De privilegiis Americae Latinae |last=Pecci |first=Vincenzo Gioacchino Raffaele Luigi |author-link=Pope Leo XIII |publisher=Vatican |date=18 April 1897 |place=Rome, IT |access-date= 23 June 2013}}</ref>

====Chile====
He bestowed his pontifical benediction over [[Chile]]an troops on the eve of the [[Battle of Chorrillos]] during the [[War of the Pacific]] in January 1881. The Chilean soldiers looted the cities of [[Chorrillos District|Chorrillos]] and [[Barranco District|Barranco]], including the churches, and their chaplains headed the robbery at the [[National Library of Peru|Biblioteca Nacional del Perú]], where the soldiers ransacked various items along with much capital, and Chilean priests coveted rare and ancient editions of the Bible that were stored there.<ref>{{Citation | first = Tomas | last = Caivano | title = Historia de la guerra de América entre Chile, Perú y Bolivia | year = 1907 | language = es| trans-title = History of the American war between Chile, Peru and Bolivia}}.</ref>{{Better source needed|reason=The current source is insufficiently reliable, too old, polemical ([[WP:NOTRS]]).|date=June 2024}}

====India====
Pope Leo XIII urged "Filii tui India, administri tibi salutis" (Your own sons, O India, will be the heralds of your salvation)<ref>{{Cite journal|url=http://www.dbpia.co.kr/Journal/articleDetail?nodeId=NODE06363041|title = Priestly Formation in Indian Context :A New Pedagogy for Integral Formation of Candidates to Priesthood in India| journal=Catholic Theology and Thought | date=June 2015 | issue=75 | pages=11–45 | last1=Mathias | first1=Joseph Benedict }}</ref> and founded the national seminary, called the [[Papal Seminary]]. He entrusted this task to the then Apostolic Delegate to India [[Ladislaus Michael Zaleski]], who founded the Seminary in 1893.

==== Philippines ====
Leo XIII was pope during the [[Spanish–American War]] in 1898, in which the United States, a then largely Protestant nation, took control of the [[Philippines]] from Spain. In a 1902 meeting with the American Governor-General [[William Howard Taft]], Leo XIII refused to allow the United States government to buy land from Catholic friars in the Philippines.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Taft's Curious Connection with the Church - 1901-2000 Church History |url=https://www.christianity.com/church/church-history/timeline/1901-2000/tafts-curious-connection-with-the-church-11630671.html |access-date=2024-06-24 |website=Christianity.com |language=en}}</ref>

====Evangelization====
Pope Leo XIII sanctioned the missions to [[Eastern Africa]] beginning in 1884.<ref name="auto"/> In 1887, he approved the foundation of [[Missionaries of St. Charles Borromeo]], which were organized by the [[Bishop of Piacenza]], [[Giovanni Battista Scalabrini]]. The missionaries were sent to North and South America to do pastoral care for Italian immigrants. In 1879 Catholic missionaries associated with the [[White Fathers|White Father Congregation (Society of the Missionaries of Africa)]] came to [[Uganda]] and others went to Tanganyika (present-day [[Tanzania]]) and [[Rwanda]].<ref>{{Cite book |title=The Italian American Experience. An Encyclopedia |year=2003 |page=21}}</ref>

== Theology ==

{{Main|Theology of Pope Leo XIII}}

[[File:Kardinal Giuseppe Pecci JS (cropped).jpg|thumb|145px|left|[[Giuseppe Pecci]] in 1887. At the urgent requests of the [[College of Cardinals]], Leo XIII in 1879 elevated his brother, Giuseppe Pecci, a [[Jesuit]] and prominent [[Thomist]] theologian, into their ranks.{{sfn|Kühne|1880|p=247}}]]

{{Further|List of encyclicals of Pope Leo XIII}}

Leo XIII also approved a number of [[Scapular]]s. In 1885, he approved the [[Scapular of the Holy Face]], (also known as ''The Veronica'') and elevated the ''Priests of the Holy Face'' to an archconfraternity.<ref>Henry Charles Lea (2002), ''A History of Auricular Confession and Indulgences in the Latin Church'', Adamant Media Corp. {{ISBN|1-4021-6108-5}} p. 506</ref> He also approved the Scapular of [[Our Lady of Good Counsel]] and the [[Scapular of St. Joseph]], both in 1893, and the [[Scapular of the Sacred Heart]] in 1900.<ref>Francis de Zulueta (2008), ''Early Steps In The Fold'', Miller Press, {{ISBN|978-1-4086-6003-4}} p. 317</ref>

=== Thomism ===
As pope, he used all his authority for a revival of the theology of [[Thomas Aquinas]]. On 4 August 1879, Leo XIII promulgated the encyclical ''[[Aeterni Patris]]'' ("Eternal Father") — which, more than any other single document, provided a charter for the revival of Thomism, the medieval theological system based on the thought of Aquinas – as the official philosophical and theological system of the Catholic Church. It was to be normative not only in the training of priests but also in the education of the laity at universities.

Pope Leo XIII later created the [[Pontifical Academy of St. Thomas Aquinas]] on 15 October 1879 and ordered the publication of the critical edition, the so-called [[Leonine Edition]], of the complete works of the ''doctor angelicus''. The superintendence of the Leonine edition was entrusted to [[Tommaso Maria Zigliara]], professor and rector of the ''Collegium Divi Thomae de Urbe'', the future [[Pontifical University of Saint Thomas Aquinas]], today called ''Angelicum''. Leo also founded the ''Angelicum''{{'}}s Faculty of Philosophy in 1882 and its Faculty of [[Canon law (Catholic Church)|Canon Law]] in 1896.{{Citation needed|date=June 2024}}

=== Consecration of the world to the Sacred Heart ===
[[File:Maria Droste zu Vischering.jpg|thumb|right|200px|The Blessed [[Mary of the Divine Heart|Sister Mary of the Divine Heart]] was a [[Religious sister (Catholic)|religious sister]] from the [[Congregation of Our Lady of Charity of the Good Shepherd]] who requested Pope Leo XIII to consecrate the entire world to the Sacred Heart of Jesus.<ref>{{Citation |last=Chasle |first=Louis |title=Sister Mary of the Divine Heart, Droste zu Vischering, religious of the Good Shepherd, 1863–1899 |publisher=Burns & Oates |place=London |year=1906}}.</ref>]]
Leo entered new theological territory in consecrating the world to the Sacred Heart of Jesus. After he had received many letters from Sister [[Mary of the Divine Heart]], the countess of [[Droste zu Vischering]] and [[wikt:Special:Search/mother superior|Mother Superior]] in the Convent of the [[Congregation of Our Lady of Charity of the Good Shepherd|Good Shepherd Sisters]] in [[Porto]], Portugal, asking him to consecrate the entire world to the Sacred Heart of Jesus, he commissioned a group of theologians to examine the petition on the basis of revelation and sacred tradition. The outcome of this investigation was positive and so in the encyclical letter ''[[Annum sacrum]]'' (on 25 May 1899), he decreed that the consecration of the entire human race to the Sacred Heart of Jesus should take place on 11 June 1899.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Annum Sacrum (May 25, 1899) {{!}} LEO XIII |url=https://www.vatican.va/content/leo-xiii/en/encyclicals/documents/hf_l-xiii_enc_25051899_annum-sacrum.html |access-date=2025-05-08 |website=www.vatican.va}}</ref>

The encyclical letter also encouraged the entire Catholic episcopate to promote the [[First Friday Devotions]], established June as the Month of the Sacred Heart, and included the [[Prayer of Consecration to the Sacred Heart]].<ref>{{Citation |first=Ann |last=Ball |year=2003 |title=Encyclopedia of Catholic Devotions and Practices |isbn=978-0-87973-910-2 |page=166|publisher=Our Sunday Visitor }}.</ref>

=== Prayer ===
Leo introduced the promotion of monthly prayer intentions in 1890, which he entrusted to the Apostleship of Prayer (now the [[Pope's Worldwide Prayer Network]]).<ref>Vatican News, [https://www.vaticannews.va/en/pope/news/2021-02/pope-francis-monthly-prayer-intentions-2022.html Pope’s prayer intentions for 2022], accessed 2 June 2023</ref>

=== Scriptures ===

In his 1893 encyclical ''[[Providentissimus Deus]]'', he described the importance of scriptures for theological study. It was an important encyclical for Catholic theology and its relation to the Bible, as [[Pope Pius XII]] pointed out 50 years later in his encyclical ''[[Divino afflante Spiritu]]''.<ref>{{Citation |title=Divino Afflante Spiritu |at=1–12}}.</ref>

=== Eastern Rite Catholics ===
He devoted his encyclical ''[[Orientalium dignitas]]'' of 1894 to preserving Eastern Rite liturgies.<ref>Remedios, M., 2021. Vatican II and Liturgical Reform in the Eastern Churches: The Paradox in the Syro-Malabar Catholic Church. ''Saeculum Undergraduate Academic Journal'', ''16''(1).</ref>

=== Theological research ===

[[File:John Henry Newman (by Emmeline Deane).jpg|thumb|145px|left|[[John Henry Newman]] was raised into the College of Cardinals by Pope Leo XIII.]]

Leo XIII is credited with great efforts in the areas of scientific and historical analysis. He opened the [[Vatican Archive]]s and personally fostered a 20-volume comprehensive scientific study of the Papacy by [[Ludwig von Pastor]], an Austrian historian.<ref>{{Citation |first=Ludwig |last=von Pastor |title=Errinnerungen |year=1950 |language=de}}.</ref>

=== Mariology ===

{{Main|Mariology of Pope Leo XIII}}

His predecessor, [[Pope Pius IX]], became known as the Pope of the [[Immaculate Conception]] because of his dogmatization in 1854. Leo XIII, in light of his unprecedented promulgation of the [[rosary]] in 11 encyclicals, was called the [[Rosary Pope]] because he promulgated Marian devotion. In his encyclical on the 50th anniversary of the Dogma of the Immaculate Conception, he stresses Mary's role in the redemption of humanity and calls her [[Mediatrix]] and [[Co-Redemptrix]]. While allowing the title "Mediatrix", recent popes, following on the Second Vatican Council, have warned away from the term "co-redemptrix" as derogating from the one mediator, Jesus Christ.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Frederick William Faber|url=http://archive.org/details/bub_gb_BfwCAAAAQAAJ|title=The foot of the Cross; or, The sorrows of Mary|date=1858|publisher=Thomas Richardson and Son|pages=448|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Co-Redemptrix as Dogma? : University of Dayton, Ohio|url=https://udayton.edu/imri/mary/c/co-redemptrix-as-dogma.php|access-date=7 July 2020|website=udayton.edu}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Pope Francis on 'Co-Redemptrix'|url=https://cruxnow.com/vatican/2019/12/pope-calls-idea-of-declaring-mary-co-redemptrix-foolishness/|access-date=7 July 2020|website=cruxnow.com|date=12 December 2019}}</ref>

== Social teachings ==
{{Main|List of encyclicals of Pope Leo XIII}}
{{Christian democracy sidebar|people}}

=== ''Rerum novarum'' ===

[[File:Charles M. Johnson, Pope Leo XIII, 1899, NGA 86079.jpg|thumb|Charles M. Johnson, ''Pope Leo XIII'', 1899, [[National Gallery of Art]]]]
[[File:Fülöp László - XIII. Leó pápa - 3206 - Hungarian National Gallery.jpg|thumb|right|170px|Portrait by [[Philip de László]], 1900]]
His encyclicals changed the church's relations with temporal authorities; the 1891 encyclical ''[[Rerum novarum]]'', for the first time, addressed social inequality and social justice issues with papal authority by focusing on the rights and duties of capital and labour. He was greatly influenced by [[Wilhelm Emmanuel von Ketteler]], a German bishop who propagated siding with the suffering working classes in his book ''Die Arbeiterfrage und das Christentum''. Since Leo XIII, many papal teachings have expanded on the rights and obligations of workers. Leo argued that both capitalism and communism are flawed. ''Rerum novarum'' introduced the idea of [[subsidiarity (Catholicism)|subsidiarity]], the principle that political and social decisions should be taken at a local level, if possible, rather than by a central authority, into Catholic social thought.{{Citation needed|date=June 2024}}

== Consistories ==

{{main|Cardinals created by Leo XIII}}

Throughout his pontificate, Leo XIII elevated 147 cardinals in 27 consistories. While the limit of the College of Cardinals had been set at 70 since the papacy of [[Pope Sixtus V]], Leo XIII never exceeded nor reached the limit, only ever coming close at 67 in 1901.<ref>{{cite book | access-date = 12 February 2022 | url =https://books.google.com/books?id=P7paNoWrsVcC&pg=PA607 | page = 607 | title = The Life of His Holiness Pope Leo XIII | date= 1903 | first = Richard Henry | last = Clarke | location = Philadelphia | publisher = P.W. Ziegler & Co.}}</ref> Amongst the noteworthy cardinals whom he elevated, he named [[John Henry Newman]] as a cardinal while also elevating his own brother [[Giuseppe Pecci]], though not a [[Nepotism|nepotistic act]] (it was based purely on recommendation and merit), in the same consistory. In 1893, he elevated Giuseppe Melchiorre Sarto to the cardinalate, who would go on to be his immediate successor, [[Pope Pius X]] in 1903. The pope also nominated the brothers, [[Serafino Vannutelli|Serafino]] and [[Vincenzo Vannutelli]] and the cousins [[Luigi Jacobini|Luigi]] and [[Angelo Jacobini]] to the Sacred College. Other noteworthy inclusions were [[Andrea Carlo Ferrari]] (later beatified in 1987) and [[Girolamo Maria Gotti]].{{Citation needed|date=June 2024}}

Of the 147 cardinals he elevated, 85 were Italian since Leo XIII nominated cardinals from beyond Europe, including the first cardinals from Australia,<ref>{{cite news | work = The New York Times | access-date = 12 February 2021 | title = Australian Cardinal Dead | date = 17 August 1911 | url =https://timesmachine.nytimes.com/timesmachine/1911/08/17/105031400.html}}</ref> Canada,<ref>{{cite book | access-date = 12 February 2022 | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=7xuOhYm-skcC&pg=RA1-PA458 | page = 458 | title = The Canadian Annual Review of Public Affairs | date = 1924 | location = Toronto| last1=Hopkins | first1=John Castell }}</ref> Slovenia,<ref name=dbf>{{cite web | language = it | access-date = 12 February 2022 | url = http://www.dizionariobiograficodeifriulani.it/missia-jakob/ | website= Dizionario Biografico dei Friulani |title = Missia Jakob (1838–1902) }}</ref> and Armenia,<ref name=horizon>{{cite news | access-date = 12 February 2022 | url = https://horizonweekly.ca/en/60075-2/ | work = Horizon Weekly | date= 21 January 2015 | title = An Armenian As Pope? – A British Diplomatic Report on Cardinal Agagianian, 1958 | author = B. Miller }} First published: ''Window Quarterly'', Vol. V, No. 3 & 4, 1995, pp. 11–13.</ref> the latter of which would be the first Oriental selection since 1439.

In 1880, the pope named three cardinals "''[[in pectore]]''", announcing them in 1882 and 1884. In 1882, he named another cardinal ''in pectore'', announcing the name later that same year. On 30 December 1889, Leo XIII named only one cardinal whom he reserved ''in pectore'', only announcing the name roughly six months later. In early 1893, he named another two cardinals ''in pectore'', announcing their names in 1894 and 1895, while in April 1901 announcing the names of another two cardinals whom he had reserved ''in pectore'' in June 1899. In June 1896, Leo XIII named two other cardinals in pectore, announcing in March 1898 that both had died, hence, vacating the red hats he would have bestowed upon them.<ref name=CC/>

With the elevation of Newman in 1879, it was widely praised throughout the English-speaking world, not simply on the account of Newman's virtues and reputation, but on the basis that Leo XIII had a broader episcopal vision in mind than Pius IX ever did. His similar appointments of two prominent participants of the First Vatican Council, [[Lajos Haynald]] and [[Friedrich Egon von Fürstenberg]] both in 1879 was also noteworthy due to their roles in the short-lived Council. It was even alleged that Félix Antoine Philibert Dupanloup, a vocal opponent of papal infallibility like Newman, would have been elevated to the cardinalate in 1879 had he not died in October 1878.<ref name=EB/> Additionally, in 1884, the Polish priest and former Curial official [[Stefan Pawlicki]] was offered but refused an offer of elevation. Leo XIII later intended to name the [[Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Santiago de Chile|Archbishop of Santiago]] Mariano Santiago Casanova Casanova as a cardinal in 1895; however, the pope abandoned the idea after the [[Catholic Church in Peru|Peruvian Church]] objected that the [[Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Lima|Archbishop of Lima]] was the [[Primate (bishop)|Primate of South America]] and hence the one that needed to be made a cardinal. In order to avoid a conflict between Chile and Peru, the pope abandoned the idea reluctantly.<ref name=CC>{{cite web|url=https://cardinals.fiu.edu/consistories-xix.htm#LeoXIII|title=Lep XIII (1878–1903)|publisher=The Cardinals of the Holy Roman Church|author=Salvador Miranda|date=|accessdate=12 February 2022}}</ref>

In 1897, the pope intended to name the [[Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Turin|Archbishop of Turin]] [[Davide Riccardi]] as a cardinal but the cardinal died before the promotion could take place. In 1891 and again in 1897, the pope offered the cardinalate to [[Johannes Montel Edler von Treuenfels]], the dean of the Sacred Rota, though he refused the honor (he refused again in 1908 when invited by Pope Pius X). In 1899, Leo XIII hoped to nominate the [[Order of Preachers|Dominican procurator general]] [[Hyacinthe-Marie Cormier]] (later beatified) to the cardinalate; however, he was unable to do so because the French government did not favor a cardinal from a religious order to seek its best interests as a Curial member.<ref name=CC/> In 1901, he planned to name [[Agapito Panici]] as a cardinal at the next consistory, but Panici died before the nomination could take place in 1903. Allegedly, before deciding to name him, Leo XIII asked his brother Diomede to renounce his claim to the red hat, but when Agapito died in 1902, the pope informed Diomede that he would ignore his previous missive asking him to renounce his claim to the red hat, a position that Diomede was never then given. According to witnesses, Leo XIII failed three times to invite [[Vincenzo Tarozzi]] (whose cause for beatification has since been launched) to receive the red hat. According to a conversation in 1904 between [[Pope Pius X]] and [[Antonio Mele-Virdis]], the former is alleged to have said, "he should have been in my place".<ref name=CC/>

== Canonizations and beatifications ==

{{main|List of saints canonized by Pope Leo XIII}}

Leo XIII [[Canonization|canonized]] the following saints during his pontificate:
* 8 December 1881: [[Clare of Montefalco]] (d. 1308), [[John Baptist de Rossi]] (1696–1764), [[Lawrence of Brindisi]] (d. 1619), and [[Benedict Joseph Labre]] (1748–1783)
* 15 January 1888: [[Seven Holy Founders of the Servite Order]], [[Peter Claver]] (1581–1654), [[John Berchmans]] (1599–1621), and [[Alphonsus Rodriguez]] (1531–1617)
* 27 May 1897: [[Anthony Zaccaria]] (1502–1539) and [[Peter Fourier]] (1565–1640)
* 24 May 1900: [[John Baptist de la Salle]] (1651–1719) and [[Rita of Cascia]] (1381–1457)

Leo XIII beatified several of his predecessors: [[Urban II]] (14 July 1881), [[Victor III]] (23 July 1887) and [[Innocent V]] (9 March 1898). He canonized [[Adrian III]] on 2 June 1891.

He also [[Beatification|beatified]] the following:
* [[Charles of Sezze|Giancarlo Melchiori]] on 22 January 1882
* [[Edmund Campion]] and [[Ralph Sherwin (priest)|Ralph Sherwin]] in 1886
* [[John Haile]] on 29 December 1886
* [[Jean-Baptiste de La Salle]] (whom he later canonized) on 19 February 1888
* [[Inés de Benigánim]] on 26 February 1888
* Antonio Maria Zaccaria (whom he later canonized) on 3 January 1890
* [[Giovanni Giovenale Ancina]] on 9 February 1890
* [[Pompilio Maria Pirrotti]] on 26 January 1890
* [[Gerard Majella]] on 29 January 1893
* [[Leopoldo da Gaiche|Leopoldo Croci]] on 12 May 1893
* [[Antonio Baldinucci]] on 16 April 1893
* [[Rodolfo Acquaviva|Rodolfo Acquaviva and 4 Companions]] on 30 April 1893
* [[Diego José de Cádiz|Diego José López-Caamaño]] on 22 April 1894
* [[Bernardino Realino]] on 12 January 1896
* [[Francis Regis Clet]] on 27 May 1900
* [[Ignatius Delgado y Cebrian]] as one of 64 [[Vietnamese Martyrs|Martyrs of Vietnam]] on 27 May 1900
* [[Louis Gabriel Taurin Dufresse]] on 27 May 1900
* [[John Lantrua of Triora]] on 27 May 1900
* [[Maria Maddalena Martinengo]] on 3 June 1900
* [[Denis of the Nativity|Dénis Berthelot of the Nativity]] and [[Redemptus of the Cross|Redento Rodríguez of the Cross]] on 10 June 1900<ref>{{Cite web  | title = Bienheureux Pierre Berthelot | work = Nominis | publisher = l'Eglise Catholique en France | url = http://nominis.cef.fr/contenus/saint/9411/Bienheureux-Pierre-Berthelot.html | access-date = 8 March 2012|language=fr}}</ref>
* [[Jeanne de Lestonnac]] on 23 September 1900
* [[Antonio Grassi]] on 30 September 1900

He approved the cult of [[Cosmas of Aphrodisia]]. He beatified several of the English martyrs in 1895.<ref>{{cite web|newspaper=Catholic Online |url=http://www.catholic.org/saints/saint.php?saint_id=2748 |title=St. Cosmas&nbsp;– Saints & Angels |access-date=15 February 2010}}</ref>

=== Doctors of the Church ===
Leo XIII named four individuals as [[Doctors of the Church]]:
* [[Cyril of Alexandria]] (28 July 1882) – he named him as "''Doctor Incarnationis''" ("Doctor of the Incarnation")
* [[Cyril of Jerusalem]] (28 July 1882)
* [[John of Damascus]] (29 August 1890)
* [[Bede|Bede the Venerable]] (13 November 1899) – he named him as "''Anglorum doctor''" ("Doctor of the English")

== Audiences ==

[[File:Pacelliordenado.jpg|thumb|165px|left|In 1901, Pope Leo XIII welcomed Eugenio Pacelli, later [[Pope Pius XII]], on his first day of 57 years of service in the Vatican (1901–1958).]]

One of the first audiences that Leo XIII granted was to the professors and students of the [[Collegio Capranica]], where in the first row knelt in front of him the young seminarian Giacomo Della Chiesa, the future [[Pope Benedict XV]], who would be pope from 1914 to 1922.

On a pilgrimage with her father and sister in 1887, [[Thérèse of Lisieux]] attended a general audience with Pope Leo XIII and asked him to allow her to enter the [[Carmelite order]]. Even though she was strictly forbidden to speak to him because she was told that it would prolong the audience too much, she addressed him with the Pope telling her: "If it is God's will that you should enter the Convent, then it shall be".[a story of a soul]

In July 1884 Pope Leo received the French author [[Jules Verne]] and his family in a private audience; he was aware of Verne's scientific style of writing.<ref>Costello, Peter ''Jules Verne, Inventor of Science Fiction'' London 1978  pp159-60  ISBN 034021483X</ref>

== St. Michael Prayer and alleged vision ==

There are several versions of a story of how Leo came to compose the [[Prayer to Saint Michael]]. Various dates are given. A common account says that on the morning of 13 October 1884, Leo XIII celebrated Mass but as he finished, he turned to step down the stairs and allegedly collapsed, falling into what was originally thought to be a coma, but was rather a mystical ecstasy. As the priests and cardinals rushed to his side, Leo XIII rose and visibly shaken, brushed off his aides and rushed back towards his apartment where he immediately wrote the Prayer to Saint [[Michael (archangel)|Michael the Archangel]]. Leo XIII reportedly saw a vision of demons being released from Hell, and as the vision ended, he saw Saint Michael charge in and drive them all back into Hell. Leo XIII mandated that the prayer be said after every [[Low Mass]] from that point forth.<ref name="Vision/St. Michael">{{cite web |last1=Tremblay |first1=Joe |title=The New (& the Old) Evangelization: The 100 year test |url=https://www.catholicnewsagency.com/column/52453/the-100-year-test |website=Catholic News Agency |access-date=19 July 2025 |date=1 February 2013}}</ref><ref name="Low Mass/St. Benedict">{{cite web |title=The Saint Michael Prayer |url=https://www.saintbenedict.com/catholic-resources/the-saint-michael-prayer/ |website=St. Benedict Center |access-date=19 July 2025}}</ref>

In 1934, a German writer, Fr. Bers, tried to trace the origin of the story and declared that, though the story was widespread, nowhere could he find a trace of proof. Sources close to the institution of the prayer in 1886, including an account of a conversation with Leo XIII about his decision, say nothing of the alleged vision. Bers concluded that the story was a later invention that spread like a virus.<ref>"Like a perpetual sickness" – "Die Gebete nach der hl. Messe", ''Theol-Prakt. Quartalschrift'' 87 (1934), 162–163</ref>

==Health==

[[File:Papa Leone XIII (1898).jpg|thumb|170px|Pope Leo XIII in 1898]]

At the time of his election in 1878, the pope had started to experience a slight [[tremor]] in his hand due to a poorly undertaken [[bloodletting]] procedure for a previous malady.<ref name=TL/>

In March 1899, it had been believed that the pope was gravely ill and that he was nearing death. Originally, it was presumed that the pope was suffering from a violent case of [[pneumonia]] and that the alarm was raised regarding his health. However, it was soon discovered that the reason for the pope's illness was the sudden [[inflammation]] of a [[cyst]] which had been troubling him for almost thirty years and which had never been previously removed. The only reason it had never been of any particular concern was due to incisions designed for pain relief. While Leo XIII strongly rejected the notion of surgery at first, he was persuaded by Cardinal [[Mariano Rampolla del Tindaro]] that it was necessary to ensure his good health. Before the pope was taken for surgery, he asked that his chaplain celebrate Mass in his private chapel while the operation was taking place. Reportedly, the cyst removed "was the size of an ordinary-sized orange".<ref name=TL>{{cite web|url=https://newspapers.bc.edu/?a=d&d=pilot18990325-01.2.3&e=-------en-20--1--txt-txIN-------|title=The Illness of His Holiness|publisher=The Pilot|date=25 March 1899|author=|accessdate=21 February 2022}}</ref><ref name=IDP>{{cite journal|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0140673601506704|title=The Illness and Death of the Pope|journal=The Lancet|date=25 July 1903|author=|volume=162 |issue=4169 |pages=253–255 |doi=10.1016/S0140-6736(01)50670-4 |accessdate=21 February 2022|url-access=subscription}}</ref>

Towards the end of his life, Leo XIII resorted to using a gold-headed cane when going on walks, as he often found it difficult to do so. While Leo XIII was certainly able to walk without it, he only walked without a cane if he truly felt comfortable doing so. When there were ever rumors about his health, Leo XIII was known to mischievously walk about briskly to dispel the rumors.<ref name=LAT>{{cite web|url=https://archive.org/stream/lifeofleo1300milluoft/lifeofleo1300milluoft_djvu.txt|title=The life of Pope Leo XIII: containing a full and authentic account of the illustrious pontiff's life and work|publisher=|author=James Martin Miller|date=1908|accessdate=21 February 2022}}</ref>

==Death==

{{multiple image
| align             = right
| direction         = horizontal
| total_width       = 400
| image1            = Leone XIII balsamato.jpg
| caption1          = Pope Leo XIII lying in state in July 1903
| image2            = TOMB LEO xiii.jpg
| caption2          = The monument and tomb to Leo XIII in the Archbasilica of Saint John Lateran
}}

On 30 June 1903, Leo XIII reported slight feelings of [[Indigestion|dyspepsia]] and said that he would take a dose of [[castor oil]] to help himself recuperate, shrugging off concerns about his health. While it seemed to work, and the pope resumed his duties with a renewed vigor, it was not to last.<ref name=IDP/>

Leo XIII originally contracted a cold while taking an outing in the [[Vatican Gardens]] on 3 July 1903; however, his condition rapidly deteriorated to the point that he had contracted pneumonia. That night, he immediately went to bed and lost consciousness.<ref name=IDP/><ref name=LN>{{cite web|url=https://www.coloradohistoricnewspapers.org/?a=d&d=LFN19030711-01.2.26&e=-------en-20--1--img-txIN%7ctxCO%7ctxTA--------0------|title=Pope Leo XIII suffering from severe attack of pneumonia|date=11 July 1903|publisher=The Lafayette News|accessdate=7 February 2022}}</ref> Originally, the pope refused his doctor's desire to secure a second opinion from a colleague, insisting on a doctor who had previously tended to him in 1899 when he suffered a previous serious illness.<ref name=TP>{{cite web|url=https://newspapers.bc.edu/?a=d&d=pilot19030711-01.2.6&e=-------en-20--1--txt-txIN-------|title=Pope Leo XIII facing death|publisher=The Pilot|date=11 July 1903|accessdate=10 February 2022}}</ref> When the doctor was immediately summoned to the pope's bedside, he determined that the castor oil had disturbed his stomach and exacerbated his condition.<ref name=IDP/> The pope's nephews were immediately notified of their uncle's illness, as were Cardinals [[Mariano Rampolla del Tindaro]] and [[Luigi Oreglia di Santo Stefano]] in their capacities as the [[Cardinal Secretary of State|Secretary of State]] and [[Camerlengo of the Holy Roman Church|Camerlengo]] respectively. On 4 July, the pope made his last confession to Cardinal [[Serafino Vannutelli]] and later was barely able to recite the profession of faith.<ref name=TP/> That same day, he experienced a loss of appetite and suffered from shortness of breath.<ref name=TL/> On 5 July, the doctor reported that the [[Hepatization of lungs|hepatisation]] affected the upper and middle lobes of the right lung, while Leo XIII suffered from considerable cardiac weakness and difficulties in breathing, while reporting the absence of any fever or coughing fits.<ref name=IDP/> That same day, after having received the sacraments, the pope said, "I am now near my end. I do not know if all I have done has been good, but I certainly obeyed my conscience and our faith".<ref name=LAT/>

On 6 July 1903, he was administered an injection to ease the pain that he was experiencing, while it was reported that the pneumonia he had contracted was starting to spread to the left lung. The pope, who had an imperceptible pulse, had a restless night and was given oxygen by his doctors. When given the oxygen, Leo XIII replied, "That is much better. Before I felt as though I had lost my liberty".<ref name=LAT/> That morning, he intimated to those with him that he would prefer it if Cardinal [[Girolamo Maria Gotti]] succeeded him in the next conclave.<ref name=SPG>{{cite web|url=https://chroniclingamerica.loc.gov/lccn/sn90059523/1903-07-06/ed-1/seq-1/|title=Leo forecasts death, expresses desire that Gotti succeed him|publisher=The Saint Paul Globe|date=6 July 1903|accessdate=7 February 2022}}</ref> When doctors ordered him to rest, so as not to further aggravate his declining health, Leo XIII said: "If it were only of any use, but I do not believe it would be. The brief remainder of my life must be given to God's Church, not to my own poor comfort". The pope lost consciousness but was awake to receive the sacraments at 9:00{{nbsp}}pm before experiencing yet another restless night, marveling, "God's will be done. Who would have believed it when only ten days ago I was presiding over a public consistory?"<ref name=SPG/> Leo XIII only slept three hours but severe pain saw him immediately awaken, complaining of pain on both sides of the thorax that forced doctors to move his frail form for better comfort. His situation had previously been critical that afternoon when he was given the Last Rites, while his doctors apprised him of his sudden deterioration. On 7 July, the feeble pope asked that the shutters of his window be opened, saying "I wish to see once more, perhaps for the last time, the rays of the sun".<ref name=TP/> In the nights following, the pope suffered from several coughing fits, perspiring heavily due to his rising fever. The pope felt slightly better enough on 10 July to receive a group of Hungarian pilgrims; however, the pope was exhausted and collapsed after the meeting.<ref name=LN/>

Leo XIII deteriorated further until he died at 3:55{{nbsp}}pm on 20 July 1903, whispering a final blessing before he died. However, Vatican officials gave the time of his death as 4:04{{nbsp}}pm when officials officially confirmed that the pope had died. Officially, Leo XIII had died of pneumonia, followed by [[hemorrhagic]] [[pleurisy]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://thecatholicnewsarchive.org/?a=d&d=TCT19030723-01.2.8&e=-------en-20--1--txt-txIN--------|title=Lumen de coelo nunc est lumen in coelo|publisher=The Catholic Telegraph|date=23 July 1903|accessdate=7 February 2022}}</ref>

Leo XIII was the first pope to be born in the 19th century and was also the first to die in the 20th century, living to the age of 93.<ref>John-Peter Pham, ''Heirs of the Fisherman: Behind the Scenes of Papal Death and Succession'', (Oxford University Press, 2004), 98.</ref> He is the oldest verified pope to have served in the office.<ref>{{cite web |title=Oldest pope |url=https://www.guinnessworldrecords.com/world-records/65279-oldest-pope |website=guinnessworldrecords.com |publisher=Guinness World Records Limited |access-date=18 February 2024}}</ref>{{efn|[[Pope Benedict XVI]] served as "[[Pope emeritus]]" from his [[Resignation of Pope Benedict XVI|resignation as pope]] at the age of 86 to his death at 95.<ref>{{cite news |title=Benedict XVI, First Modern Pope to Resign, Dies at 95|work=The New York Times |date=31 December 2022 |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2022/12/31/world/europe/benedict-xvi-dead.html |access-date=28 December 2023|language=en |last1=Fisher |first1=Ian |last2=Donadio |first2=Rachel }}</ref>}} There are three other popes that are claimed to have lived longer than Pope Leo XIII: [[Pope Agatho|Pope St Agatho]] (574–681), who died at the age of 107;<ref>{{cite web |title=A look at the oldest popes of history, including Francis |url=https://aleteia.org/2021/12/16/a-look-at-the-oldest-popes-of-history-including-francis/ |access-date=18 February 2024 |website=aleteia.org |date=16 December 2021 |publisher=Aleteia SAS}}</ref> [[Pope Gregory IX]] (1145–1241), who died at the age of 96;<ref>{{CathEncy|wstitle= Pope Gregory IX |volume= 6 |last= Ott |first= Michael |author-link= |short= 1}}</ref> and [[Pope Adrian I]] (700–795), who died at the age of 95.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-01-27 |title=Pope Adrian I - PopeHistory.com |url=https://popehistory.com/popes/pope-adrian-i/ |access-date=2024-03-26 |website=popehistory.com |language=en-US}}</ref> However, although there is some contemporary documentation attesting to their ages, there is not sufficient evidence for them to be verified with complete certainty; this is due to the poor record keeping typical of the era in which they lived.

At the time of his death, Leo XIII was the third-longest-reigning pope (25 years), exceeded only by his immediate predecessor, [[Pius IX]] (31 years), and [[Saint Peter]] (38 years).

He was entombed in [[Saint Peter's Basilica]] only briefly after his funeral; he was later moved to the [[Archbasilica of Saint John Lateran|Basilica of Saint John Lateran]], his cathedral church as the Bishop of Rome, and a church in which he took a particular interest. He was moved there in late 1924. Leo was the last pope not to be buried in St. Peter's Basilica until [[Pope Francis]] was [[Death and funeral of Pope Francis#Funeral|interred]] at [[Santa Maria Maggiore]] in 2025.<ref>{{cite web |title=Popes Buried in St. Peter's |url=http://stpetersbasilica.info/Interior/Sacristy-Treasury/PBlist/PopesBuried.htm |website=stpetersbasilica.info |access-date=5 November 2022}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2023-12-13 |title=The pope says he wants to be buried in the Rome basilica, not in the Vatican |url=https://apnews.com/article/vatican-pope-basilica-burial-argentina-ba9dc3ccbf4210df16e64d4032451671 |access-date=2023-12-13 |website=AP News |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=https://apnews.com/article/vatican-pope-francis-dead-01ca7d73c3c48d25fd1504ba076e2e2a | title=Pope Francis, first Latin American pontiff who ministered with a charming, humble style, dies at 88 | website=[[Associated Press News]] | date=21 April 2025 }}</ref>

==Tributes==
[[Pope Paul VI]] described Leo XIII as "great and wise", his "first teacher", from whom he had inherited "a pastoral outlook and a pastoral approach".<ref>{{Cite web |last=Paul VI |title=Ecclesiam Suam |url=https://www.vatican.va/content/paul-vi/en/encyclicals/documents/hf_p-vi_enc_06081964_ecclesiam.html |access-date=2024-09-04 |website=www.vatican.va |at=Paragraph 67 |publication-date=1964-08-06}}</ref>

Upon his election in [[2025 papal conclave|2025]], Cardinal Robert Francis Prevost assumed the name [[Leo XIV]] in honor of Leo XIII. Leo XIV stated that one of the main reasons he chose his papal name was because of the social justice encyclical [[Rerum novarum]] that was written by Pope Leo XIII.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2025-05-08 |title=Leone, nome forte contro i potenti. Un omaggio alla dottrina sociale |url=https://www.lastampa.it/cronaca/speciali/conclave/2025/05/09/news/leone_nome_forte_contro_i_potenti-15138555/ |access-date=2025-05-10 |website=La Stampa |language=it}}</ref>

[[Saint Leo University]] in Saint Leo, Florida, is partially named for Pope Leo XIII, as well as for [[Pope Leo I]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=MSN |url=https://www.msn.com/en-us/news/world/listen-prof-at-namesake-university-on-pope-leo-xiv/ar-AA1EqKpK |access-date=2025-05-13 |website=www.msn.com}}</ref>

==In sound recording and film==

[[File:Papst Leo XIII 1898.jpg|thumb|right|Photogram of ''[[Sua Santità papa Leone XIII]]'', the first time a Pope appeared on film|228x228px]]

Leo XIII was the first pope whose voice was recorded. The recording can be found on a compact disc of [[Alessandro Moreschi]]'s singing; a recording of his praying of the [[Ave Maria (musical settings)|Ave Maria]] is available on the web.<ref>{{Citation |title=Pope Leo XIII, 1810–1910 |date=30 November 1902 |url=https://archive.org/details/PopeLeoXIII1810-1903 |publisher=Archive}}.</ref> He was also the first pope to be filmed by a motion picture camera. He was [[Sua Santità papa Leone XIII|filmed in 1898]] by inventor [[W. K. Dickson]],<ref>{{Cite news |last=Scaramuzzi |first=Iacopo |date=2023-11-12 |title=Vaticano, il primo film con un Papa fu proiettato in luoghi lascivi con immagini licenziose: trovata la prova della 'dannazione' del regista |url=https://www.repubblica.it/cronaca/2023/11/12/news/vaticano_primo_film_papa_dannazione_regista-420169742 |access-date=2025-05-08 |work=La Reppublica |language=it |type=Requires subscription}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last=Wilcox |first=Marrion |date=1898-11-26 |title=Daily life of Pope Leo XIII |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_harpers-weekly_harpers-weekly_1898-11-26_42_2188/page/1150/mode/1up |access-date=2025-05-09 |work=Harper's Weekly |publisher=Harper's Magazine Company |page= |pages=1150–1151 |publication-place=New York |volume=42 |issue=2188 |issn=0360-2397}}</ref> and blessed the camera while being filmed.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2023-11-10 |title=Vaticano: Leone XIII e il cinema, presentata la ricerca di Gianluca della Maggiore. Interventi di Paolo Ruffini, mons. Dario E. Viganò e Paolo Mieli - AgenSIR |url=https://www.agensir.it/quotidiano/2023/11/10/vaticano-leone-xiii-e-il-cinema-presentata-la-ricerca-di-gianluca-della-maggiore-interventi-di-paolo-ruffini-mons-dario-e-vigano-e-paolo-mieli/ |access-date=2025-05-08 |website=AgenSIR - Servizio Informazione Religiosa |language=it}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Della Maggiore |first=Gianluca |title=Le vedute delle origini su Leone XIII: Vaticano, Biograph e Lumière tra mito e storia |date=2023 |publisher=UTET Università |isbn=978-88-6008-945-8 |series=Analisi del film e ricerca storica |location=Torino}}</ref> The video contains three segments: the pope on a throne, the pope arriving in a horse-drawn carriage, and the pope taking a seat on a bench.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2023-11-13 |title=American role in first-ever papal film scrubbed by Vatican due to 'lascivious' use |url=https://cruxnow.com/vatican/2023/11/american-role-in-first-ever-papal-film-scrubbed-by-vatican-due-to-lascivious-use/ |access-date=2024-05-18 |website=Crux |language=en}}</ref> Born in 1810, he might also be the earliest-born known person to appear in a film.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-10-22 |title=Restored 1896 Footage May Reveal New Details Of Pope Leo XIII, Earliest-Born Person On Film |url=https://religionunplugged.com/news/2021/10/21/restoration-brings-to-life-pope-leo-xiii-in-1896-earliest-born-person-on-film |access-date=2024-05-18 |website=Religion Unplugged |language=en-US}}</ref>

In the 2024 film ''[[Cabrini (film)|Cabrini]]'', Pope Leo XIII is depicted by [[Giancarlo Giannini]] in several scenes offering his support to [[Frances Xavier Cabrini|Mother Cabrini]] for her mission in the United States in 1889 and thereafter.

==See also==
* [[Cardinals created by Leo XIII]]
* [[Distributism]]
* [[List of popes]]
* [[List of popes by length of reign]]
* [[Papal Navy]]
* [[Prayer to Saint Michael]]
* [[Restoration of the Scottish hierarchy]]

==Notes==
{{Notelist}}

==References==
{{reflist}}

==Bibliography==

===In English===

* Chadwick, Owen. ''A History of the Popes 1830–1914'' (2003). [https://www.questia.com/read/12355195/a-history-of-the-popes-1830-1914 online] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180524082258/https://www.questia.com/read/12355195/a-history-of-the-popes-1830-1914 |date=24 May 2018 }} pp 273–331.
* Chadwick, Owen. ''The Popes and European Revolution'' (1981) 655pp [https://www.amazon.com/European-Revolution-Oxford-History-Christian/dp/0198269196 excerpt]; also [https://www.questia.com/library/109969957/the-popes-and-european-revolution online] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201126223024/https://www.questia.com/library/109969957/the-popes-and-european-revolution |date=26 November 2020 }}
* {{Citation | first = Eamon | last = Duffy | title = Saints and Sinners, A History of the Popes | publisher = Yale University Press | year = 1997}}.
* {{Citation | last =Thérèse of Lisieux | title = Story of a Soul&nbsp;– The Autobiography of St. Thérèse of Lisieux | edition=   3rd | year = 1996 | place = Washington, DC | publisher = ICS | others = Clarke, John Clarke trans}}.
* {{Citation | last = Quardt | first = Robert | others = Wolson, Ilya trans | title = The Master Diplomat; From the Life of Leo XIII | place = New York | publisher = Alba House}}.
* {{Citation | last = O'Reilly | first = Bernard | title = Life of Leo XIII&nbsp;– From An Authentic Memoir&nbsp;– Furnished By His Order | year = 1887 | place = New York | publisher = Charles L Webster & Co}}.

===In German===

* {{Citation | first = Jörg | last = Ernesti | title = Leo XIII – Papst und Staatsmann | language = de |series= Herder |publisher= Freiburg | year = 2019}}.
* {{Citation | first = Remigius | last = Bäumer | others = et al | title = Marienlexikon | language = de |trans-title=Dictionary of Mary |series= Eos |publisher= St Ottilien | year = 1992}}.
* {{Citation | first1 = August | last1 = Franzen | first2 = Remigius | last2 = Bäumer | title = Papstgeschichte | publisher = Herder | place = Freiburg | year = 1988 | language = de}}.
* {{Citation | first = Benno | last = Kühne | title = Papst Leo XIII | publisher = C&N Benzinger, Einsideln | place = New York & St. Louis | year = 1880 | language = de |trans-title=Pope Leo XIII}}.
* {{Citation | last = Quardt | first = Robert | title = Der Meisterdiplomat | year = 1964 | place = Kevelaer, [[Germany|DE]] | publisher = Butzon & Bercker | language = de |trans-title=The Master Diplomat}}
* {{Citation | first = Josef | last = Schmidlin | title = Papstgeschichte der neueren Zeit | place = München | year = 1934 | language = de}}.

===In Italian===

* {{cite journal|last1=Regoli|first1=Roberto|title=L'elite cardinalizia dopo la fine dello stato pontificio|journal=Archivum Historiae Pontificiae|date=2009|volume=47|pages=63–87|jstor=23565185 }}

==Further reading==

* Richard H. Clarke (1903), ''The Life of His Holiness Leo XIII'', Philadelphia: P. W. Ziegler & Co.
* {{Cite EB1911|wstitle= Leo (popes)/Leo XIII | volume= 16 |last1= Hutton |first1= Arthur Wollaston |author1-link= Arthur Wollaston Hutton |last2= Bryant |first2= Margaret |author2-link= | pages = 437&ndash;439 |short=1}}

==External links==

{{CE1913 poster |Pope Leo XIII}}
{{Commons category|Leo XIII}}
{{wikisource|works=or}}
{{wikiquote}}
* {{Cite web | first = Vincenzo Gioacchino Raffaele Luigi | last = Pecci | author-link = Pope Leo XIII | url = http://www.papalencyclicals.net/category/leo13 | type = Etexts | title = Encyclicals and other documents}}
* {{Cite web | url =https://www.vatican.va/content/leo-xiii/it.html| title = Pope Leo XIII | type = texts & biography | place = [[Vatican City]] | publisher = The Vatican}}
* {{Cite web | url = http://www.catholic-forum.com/saints/pope0256.htm | title = Pope Leo XIII, overview of pontificate | publisher = Catholic Community Forum | url-status = dead | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20040603002855/http://www.catholic-forum.com/saints/pope0256.htm | archive-date = 3 June 2004 | df = dmy-all }}
* {{Cite web |url=https://player.bfi.org.uk/free/film/watch-pope-leo-xiii-in-carriage-1898-online|title=Pope Leo XIII in Carriage|year=1898|via=[[BFI]]|quote=The Pope arrives in a carriage and bestows a blessing|format=silent film, available in UK only}}
* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vzLduvnW-FA Film of Pope Leo XIII in 1896 on YouTube with recording of Leo XIII chanting the ''Ave Maria'' in Latin in 1903]
* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3IVQ-1t92hA Colorized film of Pope Leo XIII in 1896 on YouTube]
* {{Cite web | url = http://www.intratext.com/Catalogo/Autori/AUT228.HTM | title = Pope Leo XIII | type = text with concordances and frequency list | publisher = Intra text}}
* {{Internet Archive author |search=( "Leo XIII" )}}
** {{Cite book |editor-last=Keller |editor-first=Rev. Joseph E. |year=1883 | title = Life and Acts of Pope Leo XII | url = https://archive.org/details/lifeactsofpopele00revj |location=New York, Cincinnati, and St. Louis | publisher =Benziger Brothers |edition=New and Enlarged |via=Internet Archive}}
* {{Librivox author |id=10508}}
* {{PM20|FID=pe/011267}}

{{s-start}}
{{s-dip}}
{{s-bef|before=[[Raffaele Fornari]]}}
{{s-ttl|title=[[Apostolic Nuncio to Belgium]]|years=1843–1846}}
{{s-aft|after=[[Innocenzo Ferrieri]]}}
{{s-rel|ca}}
{{s-bef|before=[[Giovanni Giacomo Sinibaldi]]}}
{{s-tul|title=Archbishop of Tamiathis|years=1843–1846}}
{{s-aft|after=[[Diego Planeta]] }}
{{s-break}}
{{s-bef|before=[[Carlo Filesio Cittadini]]}}
{{s-ttl|title=[[Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Perugia-Città della Pieve|Archbishop-Bishop of Perugia]]<sup>1</sup>|years=1846–1878}}
{{s-aft|after=[[Federico Pietro Foschi]]}}
{{s-break}}
{{s-bef|before=[[Filippo de Angelis]]}}
{{s-ttl|title=[[Camerlengo of the Holy Roman Church]]|years=22 September 1877 – 20 February 1878}}
{{s-aft|after=[[Camillo di Pietro]]}}
{{s-break}}
{{s-bef|before=[[Pius IX]]}}
{{s-ttl|title=[[List of popes|Pope]]|years=20 February 1878 – 20 July 1903}}
{{s-aft|after=[[Pius X]]}}
{{s-ref |Retained personal title}}

{{Popes}}

{{History of the Catholic Church}}
{{Modernism in the Catholic Church}}

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Leo 13, Pope}}
[[Category:Pope Leo XIII| ]]
[[Category:1810 births]]
[[Category:1903 deaths]]
[[Category:19th-century Italian male writers]]
[[Category:19th-century Italian Roman Catholic titular archbishops]]
[[Category:19th-century popes]]
[[Category:20th-century popes]]
[[Category:20th-century Italian male writers]]
[[Category:Angelic visionaries]]
[[Category:Apostolic nuncios to Belgium]]
[[Category:Burials at the Archbasilica of Saint John Lateran]]
[[Category:Camerlengos of the Holy Roman Church]]
[[Category:Cardinals created by Pope Pius IX]]
[[Category:Catholic social teaching]]
[[Category:Critics of atheism]]
[[Category:Critics of Marxism]]
[[Category:Deaths from pneumonia in Lazio]]
[[Category:Distributism]]
[[Category:House of Pecci]]
[[Category:Italian anti-communists]]
[[Category:Italian male non-fiction writers]]
[[Category:Italian popes]]
[[Category:Italian religious writers]]
[[Category:Italian Roman Catholic writers]]
[[Category:Occupational safety and health]]
[[Category:Participants in the First Vatican Council]]
[[Category:People from the Metropolitan City of Rome Capital]]
[[Category:Popes]]
[[Category:Thomists]]
[[Category:Workers' rights activists]]
[[Category:Writers from Rome]]