View source for Pope Pius XI

{{Short description|Head of the Catholic Church from 1922 to 1939}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=December 2022}}
{{Infobox Christian leader
| type = Pope
| honorific-prefix = [[List of popes|Pope]]
| name = Pius XI
| title = [[Bishop of Rome]]
| image = Pius XI, by Nicola Perscheid (retouched).jpg
| caption = Portrait by [[Nicola Perscheid]], {{circa|1922}}
| church = [[Catholic Church]]
| term_start = 6 February 1922
| term_end = 10 February 1939
| predecessor = [[Benedict XV]]
| successor = [[Pius XII]]
| previous_post = {{Indented plainlist|
* Chief of the [[Ambrosian Library]] (1907{{nbnd}}1914)
* Vice-Prefect of the [[Vatican Library]] (1914{{nbnd}}1915)
* Prefect of the Vatican Library (1915{{nbnd}}1919)
* [[Titular Archbishop]] of [[Nafpaktos|Naupactus]] (1919{{nbnd}}1921)
* [[Apostolic Nuncio to Poland]] (1919{{nbnd}}1921)
* Titular Archbishop of [[Adana]] (April{{nbnd}}June 1921)
* [[Archbishop of Milan]] (1921{{nbnd}}1922)
* Cardinal Priest of [[San Martino ai Monti|Santi Silvestro e Martino ai Monti]] (1921{{nbnd}}1922)}}
| ordination = 20 December 1879
| ordained_by = [[Raffaele Monaco La Valletta]]
| consecration = 28 October 1919
| consecrated_by = [[Aleksander Kakowski]]
| cardinal = 13 June 1921
| created_cardinal_by = [[Benedict XV]]
| rank = [[Cardinal priest]]
| birth_name = Ambrogio Damiano Achille&nbsp;Ratti
| birth_date = {{birth date|1857|05|31|df=y}}
| birth_place = [[Desio]], [[Lombardy–Venetia]], [[Austrian Empire]]
| death_date = {{death date and age|1939|02|10|1857|05|31|df=y}}
| death_place = [[Apostolic Palace]], Vatican City
| education = [[Pontifical Gregorian University]] ([[ThD]], [[Doctor of Canon Law|JCD]], [[PhD]])
| motto = {{plainlist|
* {{langnf|la|Pax Christi in Regno Christi|The Peace of Christ in the Kingdom of Christ|break=yes}}<ref name="Metzler">{{Cite web |last=Metzler |first=Josef |date=1 April 1993 |title=The legacy of Pius XI |url=http://www.thefreelibrary.com/The+legacy+of+Pius+XI.-a014377467 |access-date=9 March 2013 |website=International Bulletin of Missionary Research}}</ref>
* {{langnf|la|Raptim transit|It goes by swiftly|break=yes}}{{efn|Job 6:15}}}}
| signature = PiusPPXIsignature.svg{{!}}class=skin-invert
| coat_of_arms = C o a Pius XI.svg
| module = {{Ordination|embed=yes|denomination=Catholic
| ordained priest by          = [[Raffaele Monaco La Valletta]]
| date of priestly ordination = 20 December 1879
| consecrated by              = [[Aleksander Kakowski]]
| co-consecrators             = {{ubl|[[Józef Sebastian Pelczar]]|[[Stanisław Kazimierz Zdzitowiecki]]}}
| date of consecration        = 28 October 1919
| elevated by                 = [[Pope Benedict XV]]
| date of elevation           = 13 June 1921
| bishop 1                    = [[Oreste Giorgi]]
| consecration date 1         = 27 April 1924
| bishop 2                    = [[Michele Lega]]
| consecration date 2         = 11 July 1926
| bishop 3                    = [[Alfredo Ildefonso Schuster]]
| consecration date 3         = 21 July 1929}}
| other = Pius
}}

'''Pope Pius XI''' ({{langx|it|Pio XI}}; born '''Ambrogio Damiano Achille Ratti''', {{IPA|it|amˈbrɔːdʒo daˈmjaːno aˈkille ˈratti|lang}}; 31 May 1857&nbsp;– 10&nbsp;February 1939) was head of the [[Catholic Church]] from 6 February 1922 until his death in February 1939. He was also the first sovereign of the [[Vatican City]] upon its creation on 11 February 1929. 

Pius XI issued numerous [[encyclical]]s, including ''[[Quadragesimo anno]]'' on the 40th anniversary of [[Pope Leo XIII]]'s groundbreaking social encyclical ''[[Rerum novarum]]'', highlighting the capitalistic greed of international finance, the dangers of [[Atheism|atheistic]] [[socialism]]/[[communism]], and [[social justice]] issues, and ''[[Quas primas]]'', establishing the [[feast of Christ the King]] in response to [[anti-clericalism]].  The encyclical ''Studiorum ducem'', promulgated 29 June 1923, was written on the occasion of the 6th centenary of the canonization of [[Thomas Aquinas]], whose thought is acclaimed as central to Catholic philosophy and theology. The encyclical also singles out the [[Pontifical University of Saint Thomas Aquinas]], ''Angelicum'' as the preeminent institution for the teaching of Aquinas: "ante omnia Pontificium Collegium Angelicum, ubi Thomam tamquam domi suae habitare dixeris" (before all others the Pontifical Angelicum College, where Thomas can be said to dwell).<ref>{{Cite web |title=Studiorum ducem |url=https://www.vatican.va/holy_father/pius_xi/encyclicals/documents/hf_p-xi_enc_19230629_studiorum-ducem_lt.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130302231755/https://www.vatican.va/holy_father/pius_xi/encyclicals/documents/hf_p-xi_enc_19230629_studiorum-ducem_lt.html |archive-date=2 March 2013 |access-date=23 June 2013 |publisher=Vatican.va }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=STUDIORUM DUCEM (On St. Thomas Aquinas)[English translation] |url=https://www.ewtn.com/library/ENCYC/P11STUDI.HTM |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304072238/http://www.ewtn.com/library/ENCYC/P11STUDI.HTM |archive-date=4 March 2016 |access-date=22 December 2015 |publisher=[[EWTN]] }}</ref> The encyclical ''[[Casti connubii]]'' promulgated on 31 December 1930 prohibited Catholics from using [[contraception]]. 

To establish or maintain the position of the Catholic Church, Pius XI concluded a record number of [[concordat]]s, including the ''[[Reichskonkordat]]'' with [[Nazi Germany]], and he condemned their betrayals four years later in the encyclical ''[[Mit brennender Sorge]]'' ("With Burning Concern"). During his pontificate, the longstanding hostility with the Italian government over the status of the papacy and the Church in Italy was successfully resolved in the [[Lateran Treaty]] of 1929. He was unable to stop the persecution of the Church and the killing of clergy in [[Mexico]], [[Spain]], and the [[Soviet Union]]. He canonized saints including [[Thomas More]], [[Peter Canisius]], [[Bernadette of Lourdes]], and [[John Bosco|Don Bosco]]. He beatified and canonized [[Thérèse de Lisieux]], for whom he held special reverence, and gave [[equivalent canonization]] to [[Albertus Magnus]], naming him a [[Doctor of the Church]] due to his writings' spiritual power. He took a strong interest in fostering the participation of laypeople throughout the Church, especially in the [[Catholic Action]] movement. The end of his pontificate was dominated by speaking out against [[Adolf Hitler]] and [[Benito Mussolini]], and defending the Catholic Church from intrusions into its life and education.

Pius XI died on 10 February 1939 in the [[Apostolic Palace]] and was buried in the Papal Grotto of [[Saint Peter's Basilica]]. In the course of excavating space for his tomb, [[Vatican Necropolis|two levels of burial grounds]] were uncovered that revealed bones now venerated as [[Saint Peter's tomb|the bones of St. Peter]].<ref>{{Cite web |last=Rev. William P. Saunders |date=13 February 2014 |title=Does the church possess the actual bones of St. Peter? |url=http://catholicstraightanswers.com/church-possess-actual-bones-st-peter/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151223055335/http://catholicstraightanswers.com/church-possess-actual-bones-st-peter/ |archive-date=23 December 2015 |access-date=22 December 2015 |website=Catholic Straight Answers }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=<!--Staff writer(s); no by-line.--> |date=24 November 2013 |title=Vatican displays Saint Peter's bones for the first time |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2013/nov/24/vatican-st-peters-bones-display-pope-francis |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160121054327/http://www.theguardian.com/world/2013/nov/24/vatican-st-peters-bones-display-pope-francis |archive-date=21 January 2016 |access-date=22 December 2015 |website=[[The Guardian]] }}</ref><ref name="Neusner2004">{{Cite book |last=Jacob Neusner |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JyZLAwAAQBAJ |title=Christianity, Judaism and Other Greco-Roman Cults, Part 2: Early Christianity |date=9 July 2004 |publisher=Wipf and Stock Publishers |isbn=978-1-59244-740-4 |page=149 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180209090528/https://books.google.com/books?id=JyZLAwAAQBAJ |archive-date=9 February 2018 |url-status=live }}</ref>

== Early life and career ==
[[File:The Papal Parentage.JPG|thumb|The parents of Pius XI|left]]
Ambrogio Damiano Achille Ratti was born in [[Desio]], in the [[province of Milan]], in 1857, the son of the owner of a [[silk]] factory.<ref>D'Orazi, 15–19.</ref> His parents were Francesco Antonio [[Ratti family|Ratti]] (1823–1881) and his wife Angela Teresa née Galli-Cova (1832–1918);<ref>{{Cite web |title=Ambrogio Damiano Achille Ratti, aka Pope Pius XI |url=https://www.familysearch.org/tree/person/9Q4D-6Y4 |access-date=2023-01-03 |website=www.familysearch.org}}</ref> his siblings were Carlo (1853–1906), Fermo (1854–1929),<ref>{{Cite news|title=POPE'S BROTHER DIES.; Count Fermo Ratti, Ill Two Days, Succumbs Suddenly.|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1930/01/01/archives/popes-brother-dies-count-fermo-ratti-ill-two-days-succumbs-suddenly.html|date=1 January 1930|access-date=31 March 2021|work=[[The New York Times]]|page=29}}</ref> Edoardo (1855–1896), Camilla (1860–1946),<ref>{{Cite web |title=Maria Camilla Ratti |url=https://www.familysearch.org/tree/person/9Q4D-XKT |access-date=2023-01-03 |website=www.familysearch.org}}</ref> and Cipriano. He was ordained a priest in 1879 and was selected for a life of academic studies within the Church. He obtained three doctorates (in [[Doctor of Philosophy|philosophy]], [[Doctor of Canon Law|canon law]], and [[Doctor of Sacred Theology|theology]]) at the [[Gregorian University]] in [[Rome]], and from 1882 to 1888 was a professor at a seminary in [[Padua]]. His scholarly speciality was as an expert [[paleographer]], a student of ancient and medieval Church manuscripts. In 1888, he was transferred from seminary teaching to the [[Biblioteca Ambrosiana|Ambrosian Library]] in [[Milan]], where he worked until 1911.<ref>D'Orazi, 14–24.</ref>

During this time, Ratti edited and published an edition of the [[Ambrosian rite|Ambrosian]] [[Missal]] (the rite of Mass used in a wide territory in northern Italy, coinciding above all with the [[Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Milan|diocese of Milan]]). He also engaged in research and writing on the life and works of the reforming Archbishop of Milan, [[Charles Borromeo]]. Ratti became head of the Ambrosian Library in 1907 and undertook a thorough programme of restoration and reclassification of its collections.

Despite his job as a librarian, Ratti was physically active. During his entire time in Milan, he was an avid [[mountaineer]], undertaking over twenty major tours between 1885 and 1913 and climbing, among others, [[Mont Blanc]] (the Italian normal route to Mont Blanc now bears his name), the [[Matterhorn]], the [[Presolana]] and the [[Dufourspitze]]. He climbed the latter in July 1889 on the route via the eastern flank, which had been first climbed in 1872, an extremely challenging route, previously considered unclimbable, and he was part of the first Italian rope team to conquer the 4634 meter high mountain peak. They were also the first to make the traverse from [[Macugnaga]] to [[Zermatt]] by the Zumsteinjoch. After climbing the Dufourspitze, he spent the night on the summit with his companions.<ref>Nicholas Shoumatoff, Nina Shoumatoff: ''The Alps: Europe's Mountain Heart'' (page 198). University of Michigan Press 2001, {{ISBN|0-472-11111-6}}</ref> Ratti also wrote a significant number of mountaineering writings.<ref>[https://www.domradio.de/artikel/ein-papst-auf-dem-matterhorn-reihe-kurioses-aus-paepstlichen-gefilden Ein Papst auf dem Matterhorn], domradio.de, 16.06.2019</ref> A scholar-athlete pope was not seen again until [[John Paul II]].

<gallery>
Papst_Pius_XI._als_Priester_JS_(cropped).jpg|The young Ratti as a newly ordained priest.
Achille Ratti Alps.jpg|Ratti (centre) circa 1900 in the Alps on a tour.
Dufourspitze from Nordend.jpg|[[Dufourspitze]] (mountain massif in the middle), Zumsteinspitze (in the background left)
</gallery>

In 1911, Ratti was appointed by [[Pope Pius X]] Vice-Prefect of the [[Vatican Library]], and in 1914 was promoted to Prefect.<ref>D'Orazi, 27.</ref>

=== Nuncio to Poland and expulsion ===
{{Main|Pope Pius XI and Poland}}
[[File:Achille-Ratti 1919.jpg|left|thumb|Achille Ratti in 1919]]
In 1918, [[Pope Benedict XV]] (1914–1922) appointed Ratti to what was in effect a diplomatic post, as [[apostolic visitor]] (an unofficial papal representative) in [[Kingdom of Poland (1917–1918)|Poland]]. In the aftermath of World War I, a Polish state was restored, though the process was in practice incomplete, since the territory was still under the effective control of [[German Empire|Germany]] and [[Austria-Hungary]]. In October 1918, Benedict was the first head of state to congratulate the Polish people on the occasion of the restoration of their independence.<ref name="Schmidlin III, 306">Schmidlin III, 306.</ref> In March 1919, he appointed ten new bishops and on 6 June 1919 reappointed Ratti, this time to the rank of [[papal nuncio]] and on 3 July appointed him a [[titular bishop|titular archbishop]].<ref name="Schmidlin III, 306" /> Ratti was consecrated as a [[bishop]] on 28 October 1919.
[[File:Pius XI leaning.jpg|150px|thumb|left |Achille Ratti, shortly after his consecration as bishop]]According to German theologian [[:de:Joseph Schmidlin|Joseph Schmidlin]]'s ''Papstgeschichte der Neuesten Zeit'', Benedict and Ratti repeatedly cautioned Polish authorities against persecuting Lithuanian and [[Ukrainian Greek Catholic Church|Ruthenian]] clergy.<ref name="Schmidlin III, 307">Schmidlin III, 307.</ref> During the Bolshevik advance against [[Warsaw]] during the [[Polish-Soviet War]], Benedict asked for worldwide public prayers for Poland, while Ratti was the only foreign diplomat who refused to flee Warsaw when the [[Red Army]] was approaching the city in August 1920.<ref>Fontenelle, 34–44.</ref> On 11 June 1921, Benedict asked Ratti to deliver his message to the Polish episcopate, warning against political misuses of spiritual power, urging peaceful coexistence with neighboring peoples, and saying that "love of country has its limits in justice and obligations".<ref>AAS 1921, 566.</ref>

Ratti intended to work for [[Second Polish Republic|Poland]] by building bridges to men of goodwill in the [[Soviet Union]], even to shedding his blood for Russia.<ref name="Stehle 25">Stehle, 25.</ref> But Benedict needed Ratti as a diplomat, not a martyr, and forbade his traveling to the USSR despite his being the official papal delegate for Russia.<ref name="Stehle 25" /> The nuncio's continued contacts with Russians did not generate much sympathy for him within Poland at the time. After Benedict sent Ratti to [[Silesia]] to forestall potential political agitation within the Polish Catholic clergy,<ref name="Schmidlin III, 307" /> Ratti was asked to leave Poland. On 20 November, when German Cardinal [[Adolf Bertram]] announced a papal ban on all political activities of clergymen, calls for Ratti's expulsion climaxed.<ref name="Schmidlin IV, 15" /> "While he tried honestly to show himself as a friend of Poland, Warsaw forced his departure, after his neutrality in [[1921 Upper Silesia plebiscite|Silesian voting]] was questioned"<ref>Stehle, 26.</ref> by Germans and Poles. Nationalistic Germans objected to the Polish nuncio supervising local elections, and patriotic Poles were upset because he curtailed political action among the clergy.<ref name="Schmidlin IV, 15">Schmidlin IV, 15.</ref>
[[File:Achille Kardinal Ratti (spätere Papst Pius XI.), 1921 JS.jpg|left|thumb|Cardinal Achille Ratti in 1921]]

=== Elevation to the papacy ===
{{Main|1922 papal conclave}}
[[File:Primera bendicion pio XI.jpg|thumb|Pius XI makes his first public appearance as pope in 1922. The coat of arms on the banner is that of [[Pope Pius IX]].]]
In the [[Papal consistory|consistory]] of 3 June 1921, Benedict XV created three new cardinals, including Ratti, who was appointed [[Archbishop of Milan]] simultaneously. Benedict told them, "Well, today I gave you the red hat, but soon it will be white for one of you."<ref name="Fontenelle 40">Fontenelle, 40.</ref> After the Vatican celebration, Ratti went to the Benedictine monastery at [[Monte Cassino]] for a retreat to prepare spiritually for his new role. He accompanied Milanese pilgrims to [[Our Lady of Lourdes|Lourdes]] in August 1921.<ref name="Fontenelle 40" /> Ratti received a tumultuous welcome on a visit to his home town of [[Desio]], and was enthroned in Milan on 8 September. On 22 January 1922, Benedict XV died unexpectedly of [[pneumonia]].<ref>Fontenelle, 44.</ref>

At the conclave to choose a new pope, the longest of the 20th century, the [[College of Cardinals]] was divided into two factions, one led by [[Rafael Merry del Val]] favoring the policies and style of Pius X and the other favoring those of Benedict XV led by [[Pietro Gasparri]].{{sfn|Kertzer|2014}}

Gasparri approached Ratti before voting began on the third day and told him he would urge his supporters to switch their votes to Ratti, who was shocked to hear this. When it became clear that neither Gasparri nor del Val could win, the cardinals approached Ratti, thinking him a compromise candidate not identified with either faction. Cardinal [[Gaetano de Lai]] approached Ratti and was believed to have said: "We will vote for Your Eminence if Your Eminence will promise that you will not choose Cardinal Gasparri as your secretary of state". Ratti is said to have responded: "I hope and pray that among so highly deserving cardinals the Holy Spirit selects someone else. If I am chosen, it is indeed Cardinal Gasparri whom I will take to be my secretary of state".{{sfn|Kertzer|2014}}

Ratti was elected on the conclave's 14th ballot on 6 February 1922 and took the name Pius XI, explaining that Pius IX was the pope of his youth and Pius X had appointed him head of the Vatican Library. It was rumored that immediately after the election, he decided to appoint Pietro Gasparri as his [[Cardinal Secretary of State]].{{sfn|Kertzer|2014}} When asked if he accepted his election, Ratti was said to have replied: "In spite of my unworthiness, of which I am deeply aware, I accept". He went on to say that his choice in papal name was because "Pius is a name of peace".<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.chiesadimilano.it/news/arte-cultura/achille-ratti-cento-anni-fa-la-sua-elezione-a-papa-492751.html|title=Achille Ratti: cento anni fa la sua elezione a Papa|date=3 February 2022|author=Luca Frigerio|publisher=[[Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Milan]]|accessdate=7 February 2022}}</ref>

After the dean Cardinal [[Vincenzo Vannutelli]] asked if he assented to the election, Ratti paused in silence for two minutes, according to Cardinal [[Désiré-Joseph Mercier]]. The Hungarian cardinal [[János Csernoch]] later commented: "We made Cardinal Ratti pass through the fourteen stations of the Via Crucis and then we left him alone on Calvary".<ref name="Fisherman">{{Cite book |last=John-Peter Pham |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ahTU3koVfLEC&q=PIUS+XI+CONCLAVE+1922&pg=PA360 |title=Heirs of the Fisherman: Behind the Scenes of Papal Death and Succession |date=2004 | publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-534635-0}}</ref>

As Pius XI's first act as pope, he revived the traditional public blessing from the balcony, ''[[Urbi et Orbi]]'' ("to the city and to the world"), abandoned by his predecessors since the [[Capture of Rome|loss of Rome]] to the Italian state in 1870. This suggested his openness to a rapprochement with the government of Italy.<ref>Fontenelle, 44–56.</ref> Less than a month later, considering that all four cardinals from the Americas had been unable to participate in his election, he issued ''[[Cum proxime]]'' to allow the College of Cardinals to delay the start of a conclave for as long as 18 days following the death of a pope.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Trythall |first=Marisa Patrulli |title=Pius XI and America: Proceedings of the Brown University Conference |date=2010 |publisher=Lit Verlag |isbn=978-3-643-90146-0 |editor-last=Gallagher |editor-first=Charles R. |page=28 |chapter=Pius XI and American Pragmatism |editor-last2=Kertzer |editor-first2=David I. |editor-last3=Melloni |editor-first3=Alberto |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=CNQOWkFVp1EC&pg=PA28 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180209090528/https://books.google.com/books?id=CNQOWkFVp1EC&pg=PA28& |archive-date=9 February 2018 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Pope Pius XI |date=1 March 1922 |title=Cum proxime |url=https://www.vatican.va/content/pius-xi/it/motu_proprio/documents/hf_p-xi_motu-proprio_19220301_cum-proxime.html |url-status=live |language=it |publisher=Libreria Editrice Vaticana |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171228155340/http://w2.vatican.va/content/pius-xi/it/motu_proprio/documents/hf_p-xi_motu-proprio_19220301_cum-proxime.html |archive-date=28 December 2017 |access-date=1 November 2017 }}</ref>

== Public teaching: "The Peace of Christ in the Reign of Christ" ==
[[File:Malina, J.B. - Orbis Catholicus, 1 (Papst Pius XI.) (cropped).jpg|thumb|Pius XI in 1930]]

Pius XI's first encyclical as pope was directly related to his aim of Christianizing all aspects of increasingly secular societies. ''[[Ubi arcano Dei consilio|Ubi arcano]]'', promulgated in December 1922, inaugurated the "Catholic Action" movement.

Similar goals were in evidence in two encyclicals of 1929 and 1930. ''Divini illius magistri'' ("That Divine Teacher's") (1929) made clear the need for Christian over secular education.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.vatican.va/content/pius-xi/en/encyclicals/documents/hf_p-xi_enc_31121929_divini-illius-magistri.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150522174309/http://w2.vatican.va/content/pius-xi/en/encyclicals/documents/hf_p-xi_enc_31121929_divini-illius-magistri.html|url-status=dead|title=Divini Illius Magistri (December 31, 1929) &#124; PIUS XI|archive-date=22 May 2015|website=w2.vatican.va}}</ref> ''[[Casti connubii]]'' ("Chaste Wedlock") (1930) praised Christian marriage and family life as the basis for any good society; it condemned artificial means of contraception, but acknowledged the unitive aspect of intercourse:

* ...[A]ny use whatsoever of matrimony exercised in such a way that the act is deliberately frustrated in its natural power to generate life is an offense against the law of God and of nature, and those who indulge in such are branded with the guilt of a grave sin.<ref>[https://www.vatican.va/content/pius-xi/en/encyclicals/documents/hf_p-xi_enc_31121930_casti-connubii.html ''Casti Connubii''] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151218164230/http://w2.vatican.va/content/pius-xi/en/encyclicals/documents/hf_p-xi_enc_31121930_casti-connubii.html |date=18 December 2015 }}, Section 56.</ref>
* ....Nor are those considered as acting against nature who in the married state use their right in the proper manner although on account of natural reasons either of time or of certain defects, new life cannot be brought forth. For in matrimony as well as in the use of the matrimonial rights there are also secondary ends, such as mutual aid, the cultivating of mutual love, and the quieting of concupiscence which husband and wife are not forbidden to consider so long as they are subordinated to the primary end and so long as the intrinsic nature of the act is preserved.<ref>[https://www.vatican.va/content/pius-xi/en/encyclicals/documents/hf_p-xi_enc_31121930_casti-connubii.html ''Casti Connubii''] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151218164230/http://w2.vatican.va/content/pius-xi/en/encyclicals/documents/hf_p-xi_enc_31121930_casti-connubii.html |date=18 December 2015 }}, Section 59.</ref>

=== Political teachings ===
In contrast to some of his 19th-century predecessors who favored monarchy and dismissed democracy, Pius XI took a pragmatic approach toward different forms of government. In his encyclical ''[[Dilectissima Nobis]]'' (1933), in which he addressed the situation of the Church in [[Second Spanish Republic|Republican Spain]], he proclaimed,

{{blockquote|Universally known is the fact that the Catholic Church is never bound to one form of government more than to another, provided the Divine rights of God and of Christian consciences are safe. She does not find any difficulty in adapting herself to various civil institutions, be they monarchic or republican, aristocratic or democratic.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Pius XI |date=3 June 1933 |title=Vatican website information re pontificate and policies of Pius XI |url=https://www.vatican.va/holy_father/pius_xi/encyclicals/documents/hf_p-xi_enc_03061933_dilectissima-nobis_en.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101005090028/https://www.vatican.va/holy_father/pius_xi/encyclicals/documents/hf_p-xi_enc_03061933_dilectissima-nobis_en.html |archive-date=5 October 2010 |access-date=12 September 2010 |publisher=Vatican.va |df=dmy-all}}</ref>}}

=== Social teachings ===
{{Social teachings of the popes}}
Pius XI argued for a reconstruction of economic and political life on the basis of religious values. ''[[Quadragesimo anno]]'' (1931) was written to mark 'forty years' since [[Pope Leo XIII]]'s (1878–1903) encyclical ''[[Rerum novarum]]'', and restated that encyclical's warnings against both socialism and unrestrained capitalism, as enemies to human freedom and dignity. Pius XI instead envisioned an economy based on cooperation and solidarity.

In ''Quadragesimo anno'', Pius XI wrote that social and economic issues are vital to the Church not from a technical point of view but morally and ethically. Ethical considerations include the nature of private property<ref name="Quadragesimo Anno 44-52">''Quadragesimo anno'', 44–52.</ref> in terms of its functions for society and the development of the individual.<ref name="Quadragesimo Anno 114-115">''Quadragesimo anno'', 114–115.</ref> He defined fair wages and called international capitalism materially and spiritually exploitative.

==== Gender roles ====
Pius XI wrote that mothers should work primarily [[housewife|within the home]], or in its immediate vicinity, and concentrate on household duties. He argued that every effort in society must be made for fathers to make high enough wages that it never becomes necessary for mothers to work. Forced dual-income situations in which mothers work he called an "intolerable abuse".<ref name="Quadragesimo Anno 71">''Quadragesimo Anno'', 71.</ref> Pius also criticized [[Christian egalitarianism|egalitarianist]] stances, describing modern attempts to "[[Women's rights|liberate women]]" as a "crime".<ref>''Casti Connubii'', 74."</ref> He wrote that attempts to liberate women from their husbands are a "false liberty and unnatural equality" and that the true emancipation of women "belongs to the noble office of a Christian woman and wife."<ref>''Casti Connubii'', 75.</ref>

==== Private property ====
The Church has a role in discussing the issues related to the social order. Social and economic issues are vital to it not from a technical point of view but morally and ethically. Ethical considerations include the nature of private property.<ref name="Quadragesimo Anno 44-52" /> Within the Catholic Church, several conflicting views had developed. Pius declared private property essential for individual development and freedom, and said that those who deny private property also deny personal freedom and development. He also said that private property has a social function and loses its morality if it is not subordinated to the common good, and governments have a right to redistribution policies. In extreme cases, he granted the state a right to expropriate private property.<ref name="Quadragesimo Anno 114-115" />

==== Capital and labor ====
<!-- Commented out: [[File:PioXI et Pacelliinaugurazioneradiovaticana2.jpg|180px|thumb|left|Pope Pius XI inaugurates Radio Vatican with Cardinal Pacelli (later [[Pope Pius XII]]) at left and between them Guglielmo Marconi.]] -->
A related issue, said Pius, is the relation between capital and labor and the determination of fair wages.<ref name="Quadragesimo Anno 63-75">''Quadragesimo anno'', 63–75.</ref> Pius develops the following ethical mandate: The Church considers it a perversion of industrial society to have developed sharp opposite camps based on income. He welcomes all attempts to alleviate these differences. Three elements determine a fair wage: the worker's family, the economic condition of the enterprise, and the economy as a whole. The family has an innate right to development, but this is possible only within the framework of a functioning economy and a sound enterprise. Thus, Pius concludes that cooperation and not conflict is a necessary condition, given the interdependence of the parties involved.<ref name="Quadragesimo Anno 63-75" />

==== Social order ====
Pius XI believed that industrialization results in less freedom at the individual and communal level because numerous free social entities get absorbed by larger ones. The society of individuals becomes the mass class-society. People are much more interdependent than in ancient times, and become egoistic or class-conscious in order to save some freedom for themselves. The pope demands more solidarity, especially between employers and employees, through new forms of cooperation and communication. Pius displays an unfavorable view of capitalism, especially anonymous international finance markets.<ref>''Quadragesimo anno'', 99 ff.</ref> He identifies certain dangers for small and medium-size enterprises that have insufficient access to capital markets and are squeezed or destroyed by larger ones. He warns that capitalist interests can become a danger for nations, which could be reduced to "chained slaves of individual interests".<ref>''Quadragesimo anno'', 109.</ref>

Pius XI was the first Pope to use the power of modern communications technology in evangelizing the wider world. He established [[Vatican Radio]] in 1931, and was the first Pope to broadcast on radio.

== Internal Church affairs and ecumenism ==
In his management of the Church's internal affairs, Pius XI mostly continued the policies of his predecessor. Like [[Benedict XV]], he emphasized spreading Catholicism in Africa and Asia and training native clergy in those territories. He ordered every religious order to devote some of its personnel and resources to missionary work.

Pius XI continued the approach of Benedict XV on the issue of how to deal with the threat of [[Modernism in the Catholic Church|modernism]] in Catholic theology. He was thoroughly orthodox theologically and had no sympathy with modernist ideas that relativized fundamental Catholic teachings. He condemned modernism in his writings and addresses. But his opposition to modernist theology was by no means a rejection of new scholarship within the Church, as long as it was developed within the framework of orthodoxy and compatible with the Church's teachings.{{Citation needed|date=November 2007}} Pius XI was interested in supporting serious scientific study within the Church, establishing the [[Pontifical Academy of the Sciences]] in 1936. In 1928 he formed the Gregorian Consortium of universities in Rome administered by the [[Society of Jesus]], fostering closer collaboration between their [[Gregorian University]], [[Pontifical Biblical Institute|Biblical Institute]], and [[Pontifical Oriental Institute|Oriental Institute]].<ref>{{Cite news |title=Storia del P.I.O. |language=it-IT |work=Orientale |url=https://unipio.org/it/storia/ |url-status=live |access-date=20 December 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171222050804/https://unipio.org/it/storia/ |archive-date=22 December 2017 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Pope Pius XI |date=30 September 1928 |title=Motu Proprio Quod Maxime |url=https://w2.vatican.va/content/pius-xi/la/motu_proprio/documents/hf_p-xi_motu-proprio_19280914_motuproprio-quod-maxime.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180209090529/https://w2.vatican.va/content/pius-xi/la/motu_proprio/documents/hf_p-xi_motu-proprio_19280914_motuproprio-quod-maxime.html |archive-date=9 February 2018 |access-date=20 December 2017 |website=w2.vatican.va }}</ref>

[[File:Pius XI after Coronation.jpg|thumb|Pope Pius XI (1922–1939). Warsaw forced his departure as Nuncio. Two years later, he was pope. He signed concordats with numerous countries, including Lithuania and Poland.]]

Pius XI strongly encouraged devotion to the [[Sacred Heart]] in his encyclical ''[[Miserentissimus Redemptor]]'' (1928).

Pius XI was the first pope to directly address the [[Ecumenism|Christian ecumenical movement]]. Like Benedict XV he was interested in achieving reunion with the [[Eastern Orthodox]] (failing that, he determined to give special attention to the [[Eastern Catholic]] churches).<ref>{{cite web |title=Pius XI |url=https://www.pas.va/en/magisterium/pius-xi.html |website=The Potifical Academy of Sciences |access-date=14 February 2024}}</ref> He also allowed the dialogue between Catholics and [[Anglo-Catholics|Anglicans]] that had been planned during Benedict XV's pontificate to take place at [[Mechelen]], but these enterprises were firmly aimed at actually reuniting with the Catholic Church other Christians who basically agreed with Catholic doctrine, bringing them back under papal authority. To the broad pan-Protestant ecumenical movement he took a less favorable attitude.{{Citation needed|date=November 2009}}

He rejected, in his 1928 encyclical ''[[Mortalium animos]]'', the idea that Christian unity could be attained by establishing a broad federation of many bodies holding conflicting doctrines; rather, the Catholic Church was the true Church of Christ. "The union of Christians can only be promoted by promoting the return to the one true Church of Christ of those who are separated from it, for in the past they have unhappily left it." The pronouncement also prohibited Catholics from joining groups that encouraged interfaith discussion without distinction.<ref>Pope Pius XI, [https://www.vatican.va/content/pius-xi/en/encyclicals/documents/hf_p-xi_enc_19280106_mortalium-animos.html ''Mortalium animos''], 6 January 1928.</ref>

The next year, the Vatican was successful in lobbying the [[Fascist Italy|Mussolini regime]] to require Catholic religious education in all schools, even those with a majority of Protestants or Jews. The Pope expressed his "great pleasure" with the move.{{sfn|Kertzer|2014|loc=3329}}

In 1934, the Fascist government at the Vatican's urging agreed to expand the prohibition of public gatherings of Protestants to include private worship in homes.{{sfn|Kertzer|2014|loc=3323}}

=== Activities ===
==== Beatifications and canonizations ====
{{Main|List of people beatified by Pope Pius XI|List of saints canonized by Pope Pius XI}}
Pius XI canonized 34 saints during his pontificate, including [[Bernadette Soubirous]] (1933), [[Thérèse of Lisieux]] (1925), [[John Vianney]] (1925), [[John Fisher]] and [[Thomas More]] (1935), and [[John Bosco]] (1934). He also beatified 464 of the faithful, including [[Pierre-René Rogue]] (1934) and [[Noël Pinot]] (1926).

Pius XI also declared certain saints to be [[Doctor of the Church|Doctors of the Church]]:
* [[Peter Canisius]] (21 May 1925)
* [[John of the Cross]] (24 August 1926; naming him "''Doctor mysticus''" or "Mystical Doctor")
* [[Robert Bellarmine]] (17 September 1931)
* [[Albert the Great]] (16 December 1931; naming him "''Doctor universalis''" or "Universal Doctor")

==== Consistories ====
{{Main|Cardinals created by Pius XI}}
Pius XI created 76 cardinals in 17 consistories, including [[August Hlond]] (1927), [[Alfredo Ildefonso Schuster]] (1929), [[Raffaele Rossi]] (1930), [[Elia Dalla Costa]] (1933), and [[Giuseppe Pizzardo]] (1937).  One of those was his successor, Eugenio Pacelli, who became [[Pope Pius XII]]. Pius XI in fact believed that Pacelli would be his successor and dropped many hints that this was his hope. On one such occasion at a consistory for new cardinals on 13 December 1937, while posing with the new cardinals, Pius XI pointed to Pacelli and told them: "He'll make a good pope!"<ref name="Fisherman" />

Pius XI also accepted the resignation of a cardinal from the cardinalate in 1927: the Jesuit [[Louis Billot]].

The pope deviated from the usual practice of naming cardinals in collective consistories, opting instead for smaller and more frequent consistories, with some of them being less than six months apart. Unlike his predecessors, he increased the number of non-Italian cardinals.

In 1923, Pius XI wanted to appoint Ricardo Sanz de Samper y Campuzano ([[majordomo]] in the [[Prefecture of the Papal Household|Papal Household]]) to the College of Cardinals but was forced to abandon the idea when King [[Alfonso XIII]] of Spain insisted that the pope appoint cardinals from [[South America]] despite the fact that Sanz hailed from [[Colombia]]. Since Pius XI did not want to appear to be influenced by political considerations, he chose in the December 1923 consistory to name no South American cardinals at all. According to an article by the historian Monsignor Vicente Cárcel y Ortí, a 1928 letter from Alfonso XIII asked the pope to restore [[Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Valencia in Spain|Valencia]] as a cardinalitial see and appoint its archbishop, Prudencio Melo y Alcalde, a cardinal. Pius XI responded that he could not do so because Spain already had the habitual number of cardinals (set at four) with two of them fixed ([[Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Toledo|Toledo]] and [[Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Seville|Seville]]) and the other two variable. Pius XI recommended that Alfonso XIII wait for a future occasion, but he never did make the archbishop a cardinal, and not until 2007 was the diocese given a cardinal archbishop. In December 1935, the pope intended to appoint the Jesuit priest [[Pietro Tacchi Venturi]] a cardinal, but abandoned the idea given that the [[United Kingdom|British]] government would have regarded the move as a friendly gesture toward [[Fascism]] since the priest and [[Benito Mussolini]] were considered to be close.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://cardinals.fiu.edu/consistories-xx.htm#PiusXI|title=Pius XI (1922–1939)|publisher=The Cardinals of the Holy Roman Church|author=Salvador Miranda|date=|accessdate=18 February 2022}}</ref>

== International relations ==

[[File:Philip Alexius de László (1869–1937) - Portrait of Pope Pius XI (1857–1939) - JL 501 - Bodleian Libraries.jpg|thumb|Portrait of Pope Pius XI, by [[Philip de László]], {{circa|1924-25}}]]

The pontificate of Pius XI coincided with the early aftermath of the First World War. Many of the old European monarchies had been swept away and a new and precarious order formed across the continent. In the East, the [[Soviet Union]] arose. In [[Kingdom of Italy|Italy]], the [[Fascism|Fascist]] dictator [[Benito Mussolini]] took power, while in Germany, the fragile [[Weimar Republic]] collapsed with the Nazi seizure of power.<ref name="ReferenceA">Encyclopædia Britannica Online: Pius XI; web Apr. 2013</ref> His reign was one of busy diplomatic activity for the Vatican. The Church made advances on several fronts in the 1920s, improving relations with [[French Third Republic|France]] and, most spectacularly, settling the [[Roman question]] with Italy and gaining recognition of an independent Vatican state.

Pius XI's major diplomatic approach was to make [[concordat]]s. He concluded eighteen such treaties during the course of his pontificate. However, wrote [[Peter Hebblethwaite]], these concordats did not prove "durable or creditable" and "wholly failed in their aim of safeguarding the institutional rights of the Church" for "Europe was entering a period in which such agreements were regarded as mere scraps of paper".<ref name="Peter Hebblethwaite p.118">Peter Hebblethwaite; Paul VI, the First Modern Pope; HarperCollins Religious; 1993; p.118</ref>

From 1933 to 1936 Pius wrote several protests against the Nazi regime, while his attitude to Mussolini's Italy changed dramatically in 1938, after Nazi racial policies were adopted in Italy.<ref name="ReferenceA" /> Pius XI watched the rising tide of totalitarianism with alarm and delivered three papal encyclicals challenging the new creeds: against [[Italian Fascism]] ''[[Non abbiamo bisogno]]'' (1931; "We Do Not Need [to Acquaint You]"); against Nazism ''[[Mit brennender Sorge]]'' (1937; "With Deep Concern"), and against atheist Communism ''[[Divini redemptoris]]'' (1937; "Divine Redeemer"). He also challenged the extremist nationalism of the [[Action Française]] movement and [[antisemitism in the United States]].<ref name="ReferenceA" />

=== Relations with France ===
France's republican government had long been anti-clerical, and much of the French Catholic Church anti-republican. The [[1905 French law on the Separation of the Churches and the State]] had expelled many religious orders from France, declared all Church buildings to be government property, and had led to the closure of most Church schools. Since that time Pope Benedict XV had sought a rapprochement, but it was not achieved until the reign of Pope Pius XI. In ''Maximam gravissimamque'' (1924), many areas of dispute were tacitly settled and a bearable coexistence made possible.<ref>Kenneth Scott Latourette, ''Christianity in a Revolutionary Age: A History of Christianity in the 19th and 20th Century: Vol 4 The 20th Century In Europe'' (1961) pp 129–53</ref>

In 1926, worried by the agnosticism of its leader [[Charles Maurras]], Pius XI condemned the monarchist movement [[Action Française]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Boix |first=Carles |last2=Lacroix |first2=Jean |date=2025 |title=The Church as Arbiter: A Divided Right in Interwar France |url=https://www.journals.uchicago.edu/doi/10.1086/736028 |journal=The Journal of Politics |doi=10.1086/736028 |issn=0022-3816|url-access=subscription }}</ref> The Pope also judged that it was folly for the French Church to continue to tie its fortunes to the unlikely dream of a monarchist restoration, and distrusted the movement's tendency to defend the Catholic religion in merely utilitarian and nationalistic terms.<ref>Latourette, ''Christianity in a Revolutionary Age'' pp 37–38</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Eugen Weber |url=https://archive.org/details/actionfrancaiser0000webe |title=Action Française: Royalism and Reaction in Twentieth-Century France |publisher=Stanford U.P. |year=1962 |isbn=978-0-8047-0134-1 |page=[https://archive.org/details/actionfrancaiser0000webe/page/249 249] |url-access=registration }}</ref> Prior to this, Action Française had operated with the support of a great number of French lay Catholics, such as [[Jacques Maritain]], as well as members of the clergy. Pius XI's decision was strongly criticized by Cardinal [[Louis Billot]] who believed that the political activities of [[Monarchism|monarchist]] Catholics should not be censured by Rome.<ref>TIME Magazine. [https://web.archive.org/web/20101125034607/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,731030,00.html Billot v. Pope] 3 October 1927</ref> He later resigned from his position as Cardinal, the only man to do so in the twentieth century, which is believed by some to have been the ultimate result of Pius XI's condemnation,<ref name="purple" /> though these claims have been disputed.{{efn|  Action Française claimed Billot's resignation was in direct response to the Pope's censure of their organization,<ref name=purple>{{cite news|title=French Cardinal Resigns Purple to Enter Monastery|url=https://timesmachine.nytimes.com/timesmachine/1927/10/16/101509065.pdf |accessdate=26 March 2017|work=[[The New York Times]]|date=16 October 1927}}</ref> however this narrative contrasts with official statements released by the Holy See, affirming that Billot's relationship with the Pope remained amicable and his reason for resigning was due to his advanced age, which was 81.<ref>{{cite news|title=Say Cardinal Resigned over French Paper Ban|url=https://timesmachine.nytimes.com/timesmachine/1927/09/21/119073467.pdf |accessdate=26 March 2017|work=[[The New York Times]]|date=21 September 1927}}</ref> According to Church officials, Billot had only an academic interest in Action Française.<ref name=purple/>}} Pius XI's successor, Pope Pius XII, repealed the papal ban on the group in 1939, once again allowing Catholics to associate themselves with the movement.<ref>Friedländer, Saul. ''Nazi Germany and the Jews: The Years of Persecution'', 1997, New York: HarperCollins, p. 223</ref> However, despite Pius XII's actions to rehabilitate the group, ''Action Française'' ultimately never recovered to their former status.

=== Relations with Italy and the Lateran Treaties ===
{{Main|Lateran Treaty}}
Pius XI aimed to end the long breach between the papacy and the Italian government and to gain recognition once more of the sovereign independence of the Holy See. Most of the [[Papal States]] had been seized by the forces of King [[Victor Emmanuel II]] of Italy (1861–1878) in 1860 at the [[Italian unification|foundation of the modern unified Italian state]], and the rest, [[Capture of Rome|including Rome]], in 1870. The Papacy and the Italian Government had been at odds ever since: the Popes had refused to recognise the Italian state's seizure of the Papal States, instead withdrawing to become [[prisoner in the Vatican|prisoners in the Vatican]], and the Italian government's policies had always been [[anti-clerical]]. Now Pius XI thought a compromise would be the best solution.

To bolster his own new regime, [[Benito Mussolini]] was also eager for an agreement. After years of negotiation, in 1929, the Pope supervised the signing of the [[Lateran Treaties]] with the Italian government. According to the terms of the treaty that was one of the agreed documents, [[Vatican City]] was given sovereignty as an independent nation in return for the Vatican relinquishing its claim to the former territories of the Papal States. Pius XI thus became a head of state (albeit the smallest state in the world), the first Pope who could be termed a head of state since the Papal States fell after the unification of Italy in the 19th century. The concordat that was another of the agreed documents of 1929 recognised Catholicism as the sole religion of the state (as it already was under Italian law, while other religions were tolerated), paid salaries to priests and bishops, gave civil recognition to church marriages (previously couples had to have a civil ceremony), and brought religious instruction into the public schools. In turn, the bishops swore allegiance to the Italian state, which had veto power over their selection.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Cyprian Blamires |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nvD2rZSVau4C&pg=PA120 |title=World Fascism: A Historical Encyclopedia |publisher=ABC-CLIO |year=2006 |isbn=978-1-57607-940-9 |page=120 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160528185950/https://books.google.com/books?id=nvD2rZSVau4C&pg=PA120 |archive-date=28 May 2016 |url-status=live }}</ref> The Church was not officially obligated to support the Fascist regime; the strong differences remained, but the seething hostility ended. Friction continued over the [[Catholic Action]] youth network, which Mussolini wanted to merge into his [[Gioventù Italiana del Littorio|Fascist youth group]].<ref>Kenneth Scott Latourette, ''Christianity in a Revolutionary Age A History of Christianity in the 19th and 20th Century: Vol 4 The 20th Century In Europe'' (1961) pp 32–35, 153, 156, 371</ref>

The third document in the agreement paid the Vatican 1.75 billion [[Italian lira|lira]] (about $100 million) for the seizures of church property since 1860. Pius XI invested the money in the stock markets and real estate. To manage these investments, the Pope appointed the lay-person [[Bernardino Nogara]], who, through shrewd investing in stocks, gold, and futures markets, significantly increased the Catholic Church's financial holdings. The income largely paid for the upkeep of the expensive-to-maintain stock of historic buildings in the Vatican which until 1870 had been maintained through funds raised from the Papal States.

[[File:Vatican City annex.jpg|thumb|Boundary map of [[Vatican City]], taken from the annex of the [[Lateran Treaty]]]]
The Vatican's relationship with Mussolini's government deteriorated drastically after 1930 as Mussolini's totalitarian ambitions began to impinge more and more on the autonomy of the Church. For example, the Fascists tried to absorb the Church's youth groups. In response, Pius issued the encyclical ''[[Non abbiamo bisogno]]'' ("We Have No Need)" in 1931. It denounced the regime's persecution of the church in Italy and condemned "pagan worship of the State."<ref>{{Cite book |last=Eamon Duffy |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MTWM6PjNvBMC&pg=PA340 |title=Saints and Sinners: A History of the Popes; Second Edition |publisher=Yale University Press |year=2002 |isbn=978-0-300-09165-6 |page=340 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160119154824/https://books.google.com/books?id=MTWM6PjNvBMC&pg=PA340 |archive-date=19 January 2016 |url-status=live }}</ref> It also condemned Fascism's "revolution which snatches the young from the Church and from Jesus Christ, and which inculcates in its own young people hatred, violence and irreverence".<ref>Encyclopædia Britannica Online: ''Fascism – identification with Christianity''; web Apr. 2013</ref>

From the earliest days of the Nazi takeover in Germany, the Vatican was taking diplomatic action to attempt to defend the Jews of Germany.{{citation needed|date=April 2017}} In the spring of 1933, Pope Pius XI urged Mussolini to ask Hitler to restrain the anti-Semitic actions taking place in Germany.<ref>Paul O'Shea; A Cross Too Heavy; Rosenberg Publishing; p. 230 {{ISBN|978-1-877058-71-4}}</ref> Mussolini urged Pius to excommunicate Hitler,{{when|date=November 2013}} as he thought it would render him less powerful in Catholic Austria and reduce the danger to Italy and wider Europe. The Vatican refused to comply and thereafter Mussolini began to work with Hitler, adopting his anti-Semitic and race theories.<ref>Frank J. Coppa, ''The papacy, the Jews, and the Holocaust'', Catholic University of America Press, 2006, p. 166-167, {{ISBN|0-8132-1449-1}}.</ref> In 1936, with the Church in Germany facing clear persecution, Italy and Germany agreed to the [[Axis Powers|Berlin-Rome Axis]].<ref>Peter Hebblethwaite; Paul VI, the First Modern Pope; HarperCollins Religious; 1993; p.129</ref>

=== Relations with Germany and Austria ===
{{Main|Pope Pius XI and Germany|Nazi persecution of the Catholic Church}}
[[File:Bundesarchiv Bild 183-R24391, Konkordatsunterzeichnung in Rom.jpg|thumb|Signing of the ''[[Reichskonkordat]]'' on 20 July 1933. From left to right: German prelate [[Ludwig Kaas]], German Vice-Chancellor [[Franz von Papen]], representing Germany, Monsignor [[Giuseppe Pizzardo]], [[Pope Pius XII|Cardinal Pacelli]], Monsignor [[Alfredo Ottaviani]], German ambassador [[Rudolf Buttmann]].]]

The Nazis, like the Pope, were unalterably opposed to Communism. In the years leading up to the 1933 election, the German bishops opposed the [[Nazi Party]] by proscribing German Catholics from joining and participating in it. This changed by the end of March after Cardinal [[Michael Von Faulhaber]] of Munich met with the Pope. One author claims that Pius expressed support for the regime soon after Hitler's rise to power, with the author asserting that he said, "I have changed my mind about Hitler, it is for the first time that such a government voice has been raised to denounce Bolshevism in such categorical terms, joining with the voice of the pope."{{sfn|Kertzer|2014|loc=3359}}

A threatening, though initially sporadic persecution of the Catholic Church in Germany followed the 1933 Nazi takeover in Germany.<ref>Ian Kershaw; ''Hitler a Biography''; 2008 Edn; W.W. Norton & Company; London; p.332</ref> In the dying days of the [[Weimar Republic]], the newly appointed Chancellor [[Adolf Hitler]] moved quickly to eliminate [[political Catholicism]]. Vice Chancellor [[Franz von Papen]] was dispatched to Rome to negotiate a [[Reich concordat]] with the Holy See.<ref>Ian Kershaw; ''Hitler a Biography''; 2008 Edn; W.W. Norton & Company; London; p.290</ref> [[Ian Kershaw]] wrote that the Vatican was anxious to reach an agreement with the new government, despite "continuing molestation of Catholic clergy, and other outrages committed by Nazi radicals against the Church and its organisations".<ref>Ian Kershaw; Hitler a Biography; 2008 Edn; WW Norton & Company; London; p.295</ref> Negotiations were conducted by Cardinal Eugenio Pacelli, who later became [[Pope Pius XII]] (1939–1958). The ''Reichskonkordat'' was signed by Pacelli and by the German government in June 1933, and included guarantees of liberty for the Church, independence for Catholic organisations and youth groups, and religious teaching in schools.<ref>Latourette, ''Christianity in a Revolutionary Age: A History of Christianity in the 19th and 20th Century: Vol 4 The 20th Century in Europe'' (1961) pp 176–88</ref> The treaty was an extension of existing concordats already signed with [[Prussian Concordat|Prussia]] and [[Bavarian Concordat (1924)|Bavaria]], but, wrote Hebblethwaite, it seemed "more like a surrender than anything else: it involved the suicide of the [Catholic] [[Catholic Centre Party|Centre Party]]... ".<ref name="Peter Hebblethwaite p.118" />

"The agreement", wrote [[William Shirer]], "was hardly put to paper before it was being broken by the Nazi Government". On 25 July, the Nazis promulgated their [[Law for the Prevention of Hereditarily Diseased Offspring|sterilization law]], an offensive policy in the eyes of the Catholic Church. Five days later, moves began to dissolve the Catholic Youth League. Clergy, nuns and lay leaders began to be targeted, leading to thousands of arrests over the ensuing years, often on trumped up charges of currency smuggling or "immorality".<ref name="William L. Shirer p234-5">William L. Shirer; The Rise and Fall of the Third Reich; Secker & Warburg; London; 1960; p234-5</ref>

In February 1936, Hitler sent Pius a telegram congratulating the Pope on the anniversary of his [[Papal coronation|coronation]], but Pius responded with criticisms of what was happening in Germany so forcefully that the German foreign secretary [[Konstantin von Neurath]] wanted to suppress the response, but Pius insisted it be forwarded to Hitler.<ref>"''The papacy, the Jews, and the Holocaust''", Frank J. Coppa, p. 160, Catholic University Press of America, 2006, {{ISBN|0-8132-1449-1}}</ref>

==== Austria ====

The pope supported the [[Christian Social Party (Austria)|Christian Social Party]] in [[First Austrian Republic|Austria]], a country with an overwhelmingly Catholic population but a powerful secular element.<ref name="William L. Shirer p 349-350">William L. Shirer; The Rise and Fall of the Third Reich; Secker & Warburg; London; 1960; pp. 349–350.</ref> He especially supported the regime of [[Engelbert Dollfuss]] (1932–1934), who wanted to remold society based on papal encyclicals. Dollfuss suppressed the anti-clerical factions and the socialists, but was assassinated by Austrian Nazis in 1934. His successor [[Kurt von Schuschnigg]] (1934–1938) was also pro-Catholic and received Vatican support.<ref>Latourette, Christianity in a Revolutionary Age A History of Christianity in the 19th and 20th Century: Vol 4 The 20th Century In Europe (1961) pp 188–91</ref> The [[Anschluss]] saw the annexation of Austria by Nazi Germany in early 1938.<ref>William L. Shirer; The Rise and Fall of the Third Reich; Secker & Warburg; London; 1960; pp. 325–329</ref> 

At the direction of Cardinal [[Theodor Innitzer]], the churches of Vienna pealed their bells and flew swastikas for Hitler's arrival in the city on 14 March.<ref>Ian Kershaw; Hitler a Biography; 2008 Edn; W.W. Norton & Co; London; p. 413</ref> However, wrote [[Mark Mazower]], such gestures of accommodation were "not enough to assuage the Austrian Nazi radicals, foremost among them the young [[Odilo Globocnik|Gauleiter Globocnik]]".<ref name="Hitler pp.51-52">[[Mark Mazower]]; ''Hitler's Empire – Nazi Rule in Occupied Europe''; Penguin; 2008; {{ISBN|978-0-7139-9681-4}}; pp.51–52</ref> Globocnik launched a campaign against the Church, confiscating property, closing Catholic organisations, and sending many priests to [[Dachau concentration camp|Dachau]].<ref name="Hitler pp.51-52" /> Anger at the treatment of the Church in Austria grew quickly and October 1938, wrote Mazower, saw the "very first act of overt mass resistance to the new regime", when a rally of thousands left Mass in Vienna chanting "Christ is our Fuehrer", before being dispersed by police.<ref>[[Mark Mazower]]; ''Hitler's Empire – Nazi Rule in Occupied Europe''; Penguin; 2008; {{ISBN|978-0-7139-9681-4}}; p.52</ref> A Nazi mob ransacked Cardinal Innitzer's residence, after he denounced Nazi persecution of the Church.<ref name="William L. Shirer p 349-350" /> The American [[United States Conference of Catholic Bishops|National Catholic Welfare Conference]] wrote that Pope Pius, "again protested against the violence of the Nazis, in language recalling [[Nero]] and [[Judas Iscariot|Judas the Betrayer]], comparing Hitler with [[Julian the Apostate]]."<ref name="Catholic Church pp.29-30">''The Nazi War Against the Catholic Church''; [[United States Conference of Catholic Bishops|National Catholic Welfare Conference]]; Washington D.C.; 1942; pp.29–30</ref>

==== ''Mit brennender Sorge'' ====

The Nazis claimed jurisdiction over all collective and social activity and interfered with Catholic schooling, youth groups, workers' clubs and cultural societies.<ref>Theodore S. Hamerow; On the Road to the Wolf's Lair – German Resistance to Hitler; Belknap Press of Harvard University Press; 1997; {{ISBN|0-674-63680-5}}; p. 136</ref> By early 1937, the church hierarchy in Germany, which had initially attempted to co-operate with the new government, had become highly disillusioned. In March, Pope Pius XI issued the encyclical ''[[Mit brennender Sorge]]'' accusing the Nazi Government of violations of the 1933 Concordat, and of sowing the "tares of suspicion, discord, hatred, calumny, of secret and open fundamental hostility to Christ and His Church". The Pope noted on the horizon the "threatening storm clouds" of religious wars of extermination over Germany.<ref name="William L. Shirer p234-5" />

Copies had to be smuggled into Germany so they could be read from church pulpits.<ref>Manners 2002, p. 374.</ref> The encyclical, the only one ever written in German, was addressed to German bishops and was read in all parishes of Germany. The text is credited to Munich Cardinal [[Michael von Faulhaber]] and to [[Cardinal Secretary of State]] [[Eugenio Pacelli]], who later became Pope Pius XII.<ref>August Franzen, Remigius Bäumer Papstgeschichte Herder Freiburg, 1988, p. 394.</ref>

There was no advance announcement of the encyclical, and its distribution was kept secret in an attempt to ensure the unhindered public reading of its contents in all the Catholic churches of Germany. The encyclical condemned particularly the paganism of [[Nazism]], the myth of race and blood, and fallacies in the Nazi conception of God:

{{blockquote|Whoever exalts race, or the people, or the State, or a particular form of State, or the depositories of power, or any other fundamental value of the human community – however necessary and honorable be their function in worldly things – whoever raises these notions above their standard value and divinizes them to an idolatrous level, distorts and perverts an order of the world planned and created by God; he is far from the true faith in God and from the concept of life which that faith upholds.<ref>''Mit brennender Sorge'', 8.</ref>}}

The Nazis responded with an intensification of their [[Kirchenkampf|campaign against the churches]], beginning around April.<ref name="Ian Kershaw p.381-382">[[Ian Kershaw]]; ''Hitler a Biography''; 2008 Edn; WW Norton & Company; London; p.381-382</ref> There were mass arrests of clergy and church presses were expropriated.<ref>[[Joachim Fest]]; ''Plotting Hitler's Death: The German Resistance to Hitler 1933–1945''; Weidenfeld & Nicolson; London; p.374</ref>

[[File:Musei Vaticani Papa Pio XI Adolfo Wildt.jpg|thumb| Pope Pius XI in a portrait by [[Adolfo Wildt]] exposed in the Vatican Museums in Rome]]

==== Response of the press and governments ====
While numerous German Catholics, including those who participated in the secret printing and distribution of the encyclical, went to jail and concentration camps, the Western democracies remained silent, which Pius XI labeled bitterly a "conspiracy of silence".<ref name="Franzen, 395">Franzen, 395.</ref> As the extreme nature of Nazi racial [[anti-Semitism]] became obvious, and as Mussolini in the late 1930s began imitating Hitler's anti-Jewish race laws in Italy, Pius XI continued to make his position clear. After Fascist Italy's [[Manifesto of Race]] was published, the pope said in a public address in the Vatican to Belgian pilgrims in 1938: "Mark well that in the Catholic [[Mass (liturgy)|Mass]], [[Abraham]] is our Patriarch and forefather. Anti-Semitism is incompatible with the lofty thought which that fact expresses. It is a movement with which we Christians can have nothing to do. No, no, I say to you it is impossible for a Christian to take part in anti-Semitism. It is inadmissible. Through Christ and in Christ we are the spiritual progeny of Abraham. Spiritually, we [Christians] are all Semites".<ref>Marchione 1997, p. 53.</ref> These comments were reported by neither [[Osservatore Romano]] nor [[Vatican Radio]].<ref>John Connelly, [http://commonwealmagazine.org/nazi-racism-church Nazi Racism & the Church: How Converts Showed the Way to Resist] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130321053148/http://commonwealmagazine.org/nazi-racism-church |date=21 March 2013 }}, Commonweal, 24 February 2012</ref> They were reported in Belgium on 14 September 1938 issue of [[La Libre Belgique]]<ref>Giovanni Miccoli, " Les Dilemmes et les silences de Pie XII: Vatican, Seconde Guerre mondiale et Shoah », Éditions Complexe, 2005, {{ISBN|978-2-87027-937-3}}, p. 401</ref> and on 17 September 1938 issue of French Catholic daily [[La Croix (newspaper)|La Croix]].<ref>[http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k443437h.langEN La Croix, 17 September 1938, page 1] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170202124149/http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k443437h.langEN |date=2 February 2017 }}, Gallica, accessed 12 November 2012</ref> They were then published worldwide but had little resonance at the time in the secular media.<ref name="Franzen, 395" /> The "conspiracy of silence" included not only the silence of secular powers against the horrors of Nazism but also their silence on the persecution of the Church in Mexico, the Soviet Union and Spain. Despite these public comments, Pius was reported to have suggested privately that the Church's problems in those three countries were "reinforced by the anti-Christian spirit of Judaism".<ref>{{Cite book |last=Geert |first=Mak |title=In Europe:Travels through the 20th century |year=2004 |page=295}}</ref>

==== ''Kristallnacht'' ====

In 1933, when the new Nazi government began to instigate its program of anti-Semitism, Pius XI ordered the papal nuncio in Berlin, [[Cesare Orsenigo]], to "look into whether and how it may be possible to become involved" in aiding Jews. Orsenigo proved ineffective in this, concerned more with anti-church Nazi policies, and how these might affect German Catholics.<ref>Paul O'Shea; A Cross Too Heavy; Rosenberg Publishing; p. 232 {{ISBN|978-1-877058-71-4}}</ref>

On 11 November 1938, following the Nazi ''[[Kristallnacht]]'' pogrom, Pius XI joined Western leaders in condemning the pogrom. In response, the Nazis organised mass demonstrations against Catholics and Jews in Munich, and the Bavarian [[Gauleiter]] [[Adolf Wagner]] declared before 5,000 protesters: "Every utterance the Pope makes in Rome is an incitement of the Jews throughout the world to agitate against Germany".<ref>Martin Gilbert; ''Kristallnacht – Prelude to Disaster''; HarperPress; 2006; p.143</ref> On 21 November, in an address to the world's Catholics, the Pope rejected the Nazi claim of racial superiority, and insisted instead that there is only a single human race. [[Robert Ley]], the Nazi Minister of Labour declared the following day in Vienna: "No compassion will be tolerated for the Jews. We deny the Pope's statement that there is but one human race. The Jews are parasites." Catholic leaders, including Cardinal [[Alfredo Ildefonso Schuster]] of Milan, Cardinal [[Jozef-Ernest van Roey]] in Belgium and Cardinal [[Jean Verdier]] in Paris, backed the Pope's strong condemnation of ''Kristallnacht''.<ref>Martin Gilbert; ''Kristallnacht – Prelude to Disaster''; HarperPress; 2006; p.172</ref>

=== Relations with East Asia ===
Under Pius XI, papal relations with East Asia were marked by the rise of the [[Empire of Japan]] to prominence, as well as the unification of [[Republic of China (1912-1949)|China]] under [[Chiang Kai-shek]]. In 1922 he established the position of Apostolic Delegate to China, and the first person in that capacity was [[Celso Benigno Luigi Costantini]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Celso Costantini's Contribution to the Localization and Inculturation of the Church in China |url=http://www.hsstudyc.org.hk/en/tripod_en/en_tripod_148_03.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120323144112/http://www.hsstudyc.org.hk/en/tripod_en/en_tripod_148_03.html |archive-date=23 March 2012 |access-date=23 June 2013 |publisher=Holy Spirit Study Centre}}</ref> On 1 August 1928, the Pope addressed a message of support for the political unification of China. Following the [[Japanese invasion of Manchuria]] in 1931 and the creation of [[Manchukuo]], the Holy See recognized the new state. On 10 September 1938, the Pope held a reception at [[Castel Gandolfo]] for an official delegation from Manchukuo, headed by Manchukuoan Minister of Foreign Affairs Ts'ai Yün-sheng.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Chen Fang-Chung, "Lou Tseng-Tsiang, A Lover of His Church and of His Country" |url=http://www.hsstudyc.org.hk/en/tripod_en/en_tripod_153_06.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120323144055/http://www.hsstudyc.org.hk/en/tripod_en/en_tripod_153_06.html |archive-date=23 March 2012 |access-date=23 June 2013 |publisher=Holy Spirit Study Centre}}</ref>

=== Involvement with American efforts ===
[[File:TIMEMagazine16Jun1924.jpg|thumb|''[[Time (magazine)|Time]]'' cover, 16 June 1924]]
Mother [[Katharine Drexel]], who founded the American order of [[Sisters of the Blessed Sacrament]] for Indians and Colored People, corresponded with Pius XI, as she had with his papal predecessors. (In 1887, Pope Leo XIII had encouraged Katharine Drexel—then a young Philadelphia socialite— to do missionary work with America's disadvantaged people of color). In the early 1930s, Mother Drexel wrote Pius XI asking him to bless a publicity campaign to acquaint white Catholics with the needs of the disadvantaged races among them. An emissary had shown him photos of [[Xavier University of Louisiana|Xavier University]], a [[Historically black colleges and universities|college for blacks]] in New Orleans which Mother Drexel had founded to provide higher education to Catholic African-Americans. Pius XI replied promptly, sending his blessing and encouragement. Upon his return, the emissary told Mother Katharine that the Pope said he had read the novel ''[[Uncle Tom's Cabin]]'' as a boy, and it had ignited his lifelong concern for the American Negro.<ref>The Golden Door: The Life of Katharine Drexel, by [[Katherine Burton]] (P. J. Kenedy & Sons, New York, 1957, p. 261)</ref>
[[File:Pius xi 1.jpg|thumb|Pope Pius XI at his workdesk]]

=== Brazil ===
In 1930, Pius XI declared the [[Immaculate Conception]] under the title of [[Our Lady of Aparecida]] as the Queen and [[Patroness]] of [[Brazil]].<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Rosales |first1=Luis |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7fX-AAAAQBAJ&pg=PA96 |title=Francis: A Pope for our Time: The Definitive Biography |last2=Olivera |first2=Daniel |publisher=Humanix Books |year=2013 |isbn=978-1-63006-002-2 |page=96 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160513085130/https://books.google.com/books?id=7fX-AAAAQBAJ&pg=PA96& |archive-date=13 May 2016 |url-status=live }}</ref>

=== Persecution of Christians ===
{{Main|Persecution of Christians|Anti-Catholicism|Anti-Christian sentiment}}
Pius XI was faced with unprecedented persecution of the [[Catholic Church in Mexico]] and [[Catholic Church in Spain|Spain]] and with the persecution of all Christians, especially the [[Eastern Catholic Churches]], in the [[Soviet Union]]. He called this the "terrible triangle".<ref>Fontenelle, 164.</ref>

==== Soviet Union ====
{{Main|Holy See–Soviet Union relations}}

Worried by the persecution of Christians in the [[Soviet Union]], Pius XI mandated Berlin nuncio [[Eugenio Pacelli]] to work secretly on diplomatic arrangements between the Vatican and the Soviet Union. Pacelli negotiated food shipments for Russia and met with Soviet representatives, including Foreign Minister [[Georgi Chicherin]], who rejected any kind of religious education and the ordination of priests and bishops but offered agreements without the points vital to the Vatican.<ref>Hansjakob Stehle, Die Ostpolitik des Vatikans, Piper, München, 1975, pp. 139–141.</ref> Despite Vatican pessimism and a lack of visible progress, Pacelli continued the secret negotiations, until Pius XI ordered them discontinued in 1927 because they generated no results and would be dangerous to the Church if made public.

The "harsh persecution short of total annihilation of the clergy, monks, and nuns and other people associated with the Church",{{sfn|Riasanovsky|1963|p=617}} continued well into the 1930s. In addition to executing and exiling many clerics, monks and laymen, the confiscation of Church implements "for victims of famine" and the closing of churches were common.{{sfn|Riasanovsky|1963|p=634}} Yet according to an official report based on the census of 1936, some 55% of Soviet citizens identified themselves openly as religious.{{sfn|Riasanovsky|1963|p=634}}

==== Mexico ====
{{See also|Cristero War}}
During the pontificate of Pius XI, the Catholic Church was subjected to extreme persecutions in [[Mexico]], which resulted in the death of over 5,000 priests, bishops and followers.<ref name="Franzen 398">Franzen, 398.</ref> In the state of [[Tabasco]] the Church was in effect outlawed altogether. In his encyclical ''Iniquis afflictisque''<ref>{{Cite web |last=Pope Pius XI |date=18 November 1926 |title=Iniquis afflictisque |url=https://www.vatican.va/holy_father/pius_xi/encyclicals/documents/hf_p-xi_enc_18111926_iniquis-afflictisque_en.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091108133917/https://www.vatican.va/holy_father/pius_xi/encyclicals/documents/hf_p-xi_enc_18111926_iniquis-afflictisque_en.html |archive-date=8 November 2009 |access-date=21 October 2009 }}</ref> from 18 November 1926, Pope Pius protested against the slaughter and persecution. The United States intervened in 1929 and moderated an agreement.<ref name="Franzen 398" /> The persecutions resumed in 1931. Pius XI condemned the Mexican government again in his 1932 encyclical ''[[Acerba animi]]''. Problems continued with reduced hostilities until 1940, when in the new pontificate of [[Pope Pius XII]] President [[Manuel Ávila Camacho]] returned the Mexican churches to the Catholic Church.<ref name="Franzen 398" />

There were 4,500 Mexican priests serving Mexican believers before the rebellion. In 1934 over 90% of them suffered persecution as only 334 priests were licensed by the government to serve fifteen million people. Excluding foreign religious, over 4,100 Mexican priests were eliminated by emigration, expulsion and assassination.<ref>Scheina, Robert L. [https://books.google.com/books?id=8aWQ_7oKJfkC&dq=cristero+war+priests+killed&pg=PA33 ''Latin America's Wars: The Age of the Caudillo, 1791–1899''] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160519041505/https://books.google.com/books?id=8aWQ_7oKJfkC&pg=PA33&lpg=PA33&dq=cristero+war+priests+killed&source=web&ots=YNDpLM2ukb&sig=YWccvtnJKnSpaI15bTHCOX3zoyc |date=19 May 2016 }} p. 33 (2003 Brassey's) {{ISBN|1-57488-452-2}}.</ref><ref>Van Hove, Brian [http://www.ewtn.com/library/HOMELIBR/FR94204.TXT ''Blood-Drenched Altars''] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080315054458/http://www.ewtn.com/library/HOMELIBR/FR94204.TXT |date=15 March 2008 }} Faith & Reason 1994.</ref> By 1935, 17 Mexican states were left with no priests at all.<ref>[[Ramón Eduardo Ruiz|Ruiz, Ramón Eduardo]] [https://archive.org/details/triumphstragedyh00ruiz/page/392 <!-- quote=Tomás Garrido Canabal. --> ''Triumphs and Tragedy: A History of the Mexican People''] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160117164553/https://books.google.com/books?id=AfdjWl1xKpwC&pg=PA392&dq=Tom%C3%A1s+Garrido+Canabal&as_brr=3&sig=HkfPtdqMt3qrdcMuprgfjnfnq60 |date=17 January 2016 }} p. 393 (1993 W. W. Norton & Company) {{ISBN|0-393-31066-3}}.</ref>

==== Spain ====
{{Main|Pope Pius XI and Spain}}
The [[Second Spanish Republic|Republican government]] which came to power in Spain in 1931 was strongly anti-clerical, secularising education, prohibiting religious education in the schools, and expelling the [[Jesuits]] from the country. On [[Pentecost]] 1932, Pope Pius XI protested against these measures and demanded [[restitution]].

== Syro-Malankara Catholic Church ==
Pius XI accepted the Reunion Movement of [[Mar Ivanios]] along with four other members of the [[Malankara Orthodox Syrian Church|Malankara Orthodox Church]] in 1930. As a result of the Reunion Movement, the [[Syro-Malankara Catholic Church]] is in full communion with the [[Bishop of Rome]] and the Catholic Church.

== Condemnation of racism ==
The Fascist government in Italy abstained from copying Germany's racial and [[anti-Semitic]] laws and regulations until 1938, when Italy introduced [[Italian racial laws|anti-Semitic legislation]]. In a public speech, the Pope sought to dissuade Italy from adopting demeaning racist legislation, stating that the term "race" is divisive, more appropriate to differentiate animals.<ref>Confalioneri, 351.</ref> He said the Catholic view sees instead "the unity of human society" whose differences are like the different tones in music. Italy, a civilized country, should not be led by the barbarian German legislation.<ref name="Confalioneri 352">Confalioneri, 352.</ref> He also criticized the Italian government for attacking [[Catholic Action]] and even the [[papacy]] itself.

In April 1938, at the request of Pius XI, the [[Congregation for Catholic Education|Sacred Congregation of seminaries and universities]] developed a [[Syllabus against racism|syllabus condemning racist theories]]. Its publication was postponed.<ref>Hubert Wolf, Kenneth Kronenberg, ''Pope and Devil: The Vatican's Archives and the Third Reich'' (2010), p. 283</ref>

In one historian's view:
{{blockquote|By the time of his death ... Pius XI had managed to orchestrate a swelling chorus of Church protests against the racial legislation and the ties that bound Italy to Germany. He had single-mindedly continued to denounce the evils of the Nazi regime at every possible opportunity and feared above all else the re-opening of the rift between Church and State in his beloved Italy. He had, however, few tangible successes. There had been little improvement in the position of the Church in Germany and there was growing hostility to the Church in Italy on the part of the fascist regime. Almost the only positive result of the last years of his pontificate was a closer relationship with the liberal democracies and yet, even this was seen by many as representing a highly partisan stance on the part of the Pope.<ref>Peter C. Kent, "A Tale of Two Popes: Pius XI, Pius XII and the Rome-Berlin Axis", ''Journal of Contemporary History'' (1988) 23#4 pp 589–608 [https://www.jstor.org/stable/260836 in JSTOR] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170107163924/http://www.jstor.org/stable/260836 |date=7 January 2017 }}</ref>}}
[[File:PacelliBavaria1922a.JPG|thumb|Eugenio Pacelli—1922—Nuncio to Germany]]

=== ''Humani generis unitas'' ===
Pius XI planned an encyclical ''[[Humani generis unitas]]'' (The Unity of the Human Race) to denounce racism in the United States, Europe and elsewhere, as well as antisemitism, colonialism and violent German nationalism. He died without issuing it.<ref>The draft text was published in 1995 by Georges Passelecq and Berard Suchecky as ''L'Encyclique Cachée De Pie XI''. La Découverte, Paris 1995.</ref> Pius XI's successor, Pius XII, who was not aware of the draft encyclical,<ref>Letter of Father Maher to Father La Farge, 16 March 1939.</ref> chose not to publish it. However, Pius XII's first encyclical ''[[Summi Pontificatus]]'' ("On the Supreme Pontificate", 12 October 1939), published after the beginning of World War II, bore the subtitle ''On the Unity of Human Society'' and used many of the arguments of the document drafted for Pius XI, while avoiding its negative characterizations of the Jewish people.

To denounce racism and anti-Semitism, Pius XI sought out the American journalist priest [[John LaFarge Jr.|John LaFarge]] {{Post-nominals|list=[[Society of Jesus|SJ]]}} and summoned him to Castel Gandolfo on 25 June 1938. The pope told the Jesuit that he planned to write an encyclical denouncing racism, and asked LaFarge to help write it while swearing him to strict silence. LaFarge took up this task in secret in [[Paris]], but the Jesuit Superior-General [[Wlodimir Ledóchowski]] {{Post-nominals|list=[[Society of Jesus|SJ]]}} promised the pope and LaFarge that he would facilitate the encyclical's production. This proved to be a hindrance since Ledóchowski was privately an anti-Semite and conspired to block LaFarge's efforts whenever and wherever possible. In late September 1938, the Jesuit had finished his work and returned to Rome, where Ledóchowski welcomed him and promised to deliver the work to the pope immediately. LaFarge was directed to return to the United States, while Ledóchowski concealed the draft from the pope, who remained wholly unaware of what had transpired.<ref name="Last">{{Cite news |last=Peter Eisner |date=15 April 2013 |title=Pope Pius XI's Last Crusade |work=[[Huffington Post]] |url=https://www.huffingtonpost.com/peter-eisner/popes-last-crusade_b_3071556.html |access-date=22 May 2018}}</ref>

But in the fall of 1938, LaFarge had realized the Pope still had not received the draft and sent a letter to Pius XI<ref>{{Cite book |last=Eisner |first=Peter |title=The Pope's Last Crusade: How an American Jesuit Helped Pope Pius XI's Campaign to Stop Hitler |date=2013 |publisher=HarperCollins |pages=145}}</ref> where he implied that Ledóchowski had the document in his possession. Pius XI demanded that the draft be delivered to him, but did not receive it until 21 January 1939<ref>Eisner, p. 170</ref> with a note from Ledóchowski, who warned that the draft's language was excessive and advised caution. Pius XI planned to issue the encyclical following his meeting with bishops on 11 February, but died before both the meeting and encyclical's promulgation could take place.<ref name="Last" />

== Personality ==
Pius XI was seen as a blunt-spoken and no-nonsense man, qualities he shared with [[Pope Pius X]]. He was passionate about science and was fascinated with the power of radio, which would soon result in the founding and inauguration of [[Vatican Radio]]. He was intrigued by new forms of technology that he employed during his pontificate. He was also known for a rare smile.{{fact|date=September 2024}}

Pius XI was known<ref name="Kertzer">{{Cite news |title='Pope And Mussolini' Tells The 'Secret History' Of Fascism and the Church : NPR |url=https://www.npr.org/2014/01/27/265794658/pope-and-mussolini-tells-the-secret-history-of-fascism-and-the-church |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140204033927/http://www.npr.org/2014/01/27/265794658/pope-and-mussolini-tells-the-secret-history-of-fascism-and-the-church |archive-date=4 February 2014 |access-date=4 February 2014 |newspaper=NPR.org }}</ref> to have a temper at times<ref name="Kertzer" /> and was someone who had a keen sense of knowledge and dignity of the office he held.<ref name="Kertzer" /> In keeping with a papal tradition discarded by his immediate predecessors he insisted that he eat alone with no one around him<ref name="Kertzer" /> and would not allow his assistants or any other priests or clergy to dine with him.<ref name="Kertzer" /> He would frequently meet with political figures{{citation needed|date=September 2017}} but would always greet them seated.{{citation needed|date=September 2017}} He insisted that when his brother and sister wanted to see him, they had to refer to him as "Your Holiness"<ref name="Kertzer" /> and book an appointment.<ref name="Kertzer" />

Pius XI was also a very demanding individual, certainly one of the stricter pontiffs at that time.{{fact|date=September 2024}} He held very high standards and did not tolerate any sort of behaviour that was not up to that standard.<ref name="Kertzer" /> In regard to Angelo Roncalli, the future [[Pope John XXIII]], a diplomatic blunder in [[Kingdom of Bulgaria|Bulgaria]], where Roncalli was stationed, led Pius XI to make Roncalli kneel for 45 minutes as a punishment.<ref>Yves Chiron, Pius XI, Perrin, 2004, 418 pp.</ref><ref name="Kertzer" /> However, when in due course Pius learned that Roncalli had made the error in circumstances for which he could not fairly be considered culpable, he apologized to him. Aware of the implied impropriety of a Supreme Pontiff's going back on a reprimand in a matter concerning Catholic faith and morals,<ref>{{Citation |first=Peter |last=Hebblethwaite |title=John XXIII, Pope of the Council |edition=rev |publisher=Harper Collins |place=Glasgow |year=1994 |page=}}</ref> but also deeply conscious that on a human level he had failed to keep his temper in check, he made his apology "as Achille Ratti" and in doing so stretched out his hand in friendship to Monsignor Roncalli.<ref>Elliott, L, 1974, I will be called John – A Biography of Pope John XXIII, London, Collins.</ref>

== Death and burial ==
[[File:Pie XI 6 février 1939.JPG|left|thumb|Pius XI on 6 February 1939, 4 days before his death]]
[[File:Pie XI Funérailles.JPG|thumb|left|The funeral of Pius XI.]]
Pius XI had been ill for some time when, on 25 November 1938, he suffered two heart attacks within several hours. He had serious breathing problems and could not leave his apartment.<ref name="Confalonieri 356">Confalonieri, 356.</ref> He gave his last major pontifical address to the [[Pontifical Academy of Sciences]], which he had founded, speaking without a prepared text on the relation between science and the Catholic religion.<ref>Confalonieri, 358.</ref> Medical specialists reported that heart insufficiency combined with bronchial attacks had hopelessly complicated his already poor prospects.

Pius XI died at 5:31&nbsp;a.m. (Rome time) of a third heart attack on 10 February 1939, at the age of 81. His last words to those near him at the time of his death were spoken with clarity and firmness: "My soul parts from you all in peace."<ref>Confalonieri, 373.</ref> Some believe he was murdered, based on the fact that his primary physician, Francesco Petacci, was the father of [[Claretta Petacci]], Mussolini's mistress.<ref>[https://archive.today/20120710031328/http://jcs.oxfordjournals.org/content/early/2011/12/23/jcs.csr120.short Frank J. Coppa, ''Pope Pius XII: From the Diplomacy of Impartiality to the Silence of the Holocaust''], ''Journal of Church and State'', 23 December 2011.</ref><ref>Saul Friedländer, ''Nazi Germany and the Jews: I. The Years of Persecution, 1933–1939'', New York: Harper-Collins, 1997, p. 277.</ref><ref>[[Harry J. Cargas]], ''Holocaust scholars write to the Vatican'', 1998, {{ISBN|0-313-30487-4}}.</ref><ref>John Cornwell, [[Hitler's Pope: The Secret History of Pius XII]]. Viking, 1999. {{ISBN|978-0-670-88693-7}}, p.204</ref><ref>[[Newsweek]], Volume 79, 1972, p. 238.</ref> Cardinal [[Eugène Tisserant]] wrote in his diary that the pope had been murdered, a claim that [[Carlo Confalonieri]] later strongly denied.<ref name="Last" />
{{multiple image
|align= right
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|image1 = Coffin of Pius XI.png
|caption1 = Pius XI's tomb as seen on 4 March 1939.
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|caption2 = The tomb of Pius XI in the grottoes of Saint Peter's Basilica. }}
The Pope's last audible words were reported to have been "peace, peace". Those at his bedside at 4:00 am realized that his end was near, at which stage the sacrist was summoned to administer the final sacrament 11 minutes before the pope's death. The pontiff's confessor Cardinal [[Lorenzo Lauri]] arrived a few seconds too late. After his final words, the pope's lips moved slowly. Rocchi said it was possible to discern that the pope was making an effort to recite a Latin prayer.<ref name="TV">{{Cite web|url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article68539640|title=DEATH OF POPE PIUS XI. AFTER REIGN OF 17 YEARS Last Words Typified His Life|newspaper=Advocate |date=11 February 1939|pages=1|via=Trove}}</ref> About half a minute before his death, Pius XI raised his right hand weakly and tried making the [[sign of the Cross]] to impart his last blessing to those gathered at his bedside. One of the last things he was reported to have said was "We still had so many things to do". He died among a low murmur of psalms recited by those present. Upon his death, his face was covered by a white veil. Pacelli, in accordance with his duties as [[Camerlengo of the Holy Roman Church|Camerlengo]], lifted the veil and gently struck the pope's forehead three times with a small, ceremonial silver hammer, reciting his Christian name (Achille) and pausing for an answer to confirm that the pope had died, before turning to those present and in Latin saying: "Truly the pope is dead."<ref name="TV" />

Upon Pius XI's death, the Anglican [[Archbishop of Canterbury]] [[Cosmo Lang]] paid tribute to his efforts for world peace, calling him a man of "sincere piety" who bore his duties with exceptional "dignity and courage". Others who sent messages of condolences were Benito Mussolini and Adolf Hitler, the former visiting the Vatican to pay his respects. Flags were flown half-staff in Rome, Paris, and Berlin.<ref name="TV" />

Pius XI's body was placed in a wooden coffin, placed in a bronze casket, which was then placed in a lead casket.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Reardon |first=Wendy J. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EYbeCQAAQBAJ&q=%22bronze+casket%22+%22Pius+XI%22&pg=PA240 |title=The Deaths of the Popes: Comprehensive Accounts, Including Funerals, Burial Places and Epitaphs |publisher=McFarland |year=2010 |page=240|isbn=978-0-7864-6116-5 }}</ref> The casket was designed by [[Antonio Berti (sculptor)|Antonio Berti]].<ref name="Spike">{{Cite web |last=Spike |first=John T. |date=19 February 2007 |title=The Marinelli Foundry Of Florence – An Overview |url=http://lapieta.com/the-marinelli-foundry.aspx/vescovo-buonarroti-art.aspx}}</ref> Pius XI was buried in the [[List of extant papal tombs|crypt of St. Peter's Basilica]] on 14 February 1939, in the [[Chapel of Saint Sebastian]], close to [[Saint Peter's tomb]].<ref name="Pilot">{{Cite news |date=14 February 1939 |title=PIUS ENTOMBED BENEATH ALTAR OF ST. PETER'S |work=San Pedro News Pilot |volume=11 |issue=293 |url=https://cdnc.ucr.edu/?a=d&d=SPNP19390214.2.18&e=-------en--20--1--txt-txIN--------1}}</ref> The day of the funeral was a day of mourning in Italy and Ireland.{{sfn|Kertzer|2014|p=188}}<ref>{{cite book | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3jOLGy127mMC&q=ireland+declares+day+of+mourning+1939&pg=PA141 | title=Ireland and the Vatican: The Politics and Diplomacy of Church-state Relations, 1922-1960 | isbn=978-0-902561-96-0 | last1=Keogh | first1=Dermot | date=1995 | publisher=Cork University Press }}</ref> His tomb was modified in 1944 to be more ornate.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Given the high quality of the monumental reliefs that adorn the ramp of the restored entry of the Vatican Museum, executed by the Fonderia Marinelli, the Vatican also commissioned the construction of a new bronze tomb of Pope Pius XI |url=http://www.fonderiamarinelli.it/en/monuments/1931-1940/sepolcro-di-papa-pio-xi/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150722234345/http://www.fonderiamarinelli.it/en/monuments/1931-1940/sepolcro-di-papa-pio-xi/ |archive-date=22 July 2015 |access-date=22 July 2015 }}</ref>

== Legacy==
[[File:Desio basilica san siro e materno Monumento a papa Pio XI DSC 0223.jpg|thumb|upright|Statue in Desio]]
Pius XI is remembered as the pope who reigned between the two great wars of the 20th century. Although he served as the librarian who reorganized the Vatican archives, he was hardly a withdrawn and bookish figure. He also refounded the [[Pontifical Academy of Sciences]] in 1936, with the aim of turning it into the "scientific senate" of the Church. Hostile to any form of ethnic or religious discrimination, he appointed over 80 academicians from various countries, backgrounds, and areas of research.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Pius XI |url=http://www.casinapioiv.va/content/accademia/en/magisterium/piusxi.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130713114946/http://www.casinapioiv.va/content/accademia/en/magisterium/piusxi.html |archive-date=13 July 2013 |access-date=23 June 2013 |publisher=Casinapioiv.va }}</ref> In his honor, [[John XXIII]] established the Pius XI Medal, which the Council of the Pontifical Academy of Sciences awards to a young scientist under 45 who has distinguished himself or herself at the international level.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Blessed John XXIII (1958-1963)|url=http://www.casinapioiv.va/content/accademia/en/magisterium/johnxxiii.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130713010521/http://www.casinapioiv.va/content/accademia/en/magisterium/johnxxiii.html |archive-date=13 July 2013 |access-date=23 June 2013 |publisher=The Pontifical Academy of Sciences}}</ref>

The [[Syro-Malankara Catholic Church]] founded a school in his name in [[Kattanam]], [[Alappuzha district|Alappuzha]], [[Kerala]], [[India]] (Pope Pius XI Higher Secondary School, Kattanam).<ref>{{cite web |url=https://sametham.kite.kerala.gov.in/36002 |website=SAMETHAM – Kerala School Bank|title=Sametham – Kerala School Data Bank}}</ref>

[[Pius XI High School]] in [[Milwaukee]], [[Wisconsin]], founded in 1929, is named in honor of the pontiff.

Pius was a well-known mountain climber.<ref>[https://query.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=9D02EED61130EE3ABC4F53DFB4668389639EDE ''The New York Times''. Tuesday, 7 February 1922, Page 1 (continued on page 3)] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120306150521/http://query.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=9D02EED61130EE3ABC4F53DFB4668389639EDE |date=6 March 2012 }}, 3059 words.</ref> If a cardinal turned up his nose at the Pope's lofty goals, Pius&nbsp;XI would say: "We have no fear of heights."<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20160529133506/http://www.sonntagsblatt.de/news/aktuell/2013_39_22_01.htm Il papa alpinista], 22 Sept 2013, sonntagsblatt.de</ref> Alpine clubs and mountaineering associations all over the world have honored the mountaineering pope with numerous awards − and also nominations. The ''Weisskugelhütte'' (a mountain hut for overnight stays for mountaineers) in the South Tyrolean part of the Ötztal Alps is called ''“Rifugio Pio XI alla palla biancha”'' in Italian. A [[Chile]]an glacier, the [[Brüggen Glacier]], the largest glacier in Patagonia, is also known as ''Pío XI Glacier''.<ref>{{Cite book |last=McIlvain |first=Josh |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Km8bLsEvP8kC&pg=PA45 |title=Fodor's Patagonia |publisher=Fodor's Travel |year=2009 |isbn=978-1-4000-0684-7 |pages=45–6 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160424070424/https://books.google.com/books?id=Km8bLsEvP8kC&pg=PA45& |archive-date=24 April 2016 |url-status=live }}</ref> In 1942, Bishop T. B. Pearson founded the Achille Ratti Climbing Club, based in the United Kingdom and named for Pius XI.<ref>{{Cite web |title=About the ARCC |url=https://achille-ratti-climbing-club.co.uk/?page_id=681 |archive-url= |archive-date= |access-date=7 March 2023 |publisher=Achille Ratti Climbing Club}}</ref> In 1923, Pius&nbsp;XI designated Saint [[Bernard of Menthon]], founder of the [[Great St Bernard Hospice]], one of the first institutions for rescue in mountaineering distress, as patron saint of mountaineers and Alpine dwellers. He entrusted the Augustinian Canons of the hospice, all of whom possessed high mountaineering skills, with an extremely difficult task—the Catholic mission on the "Roof of the World," [[Tibet]].<ref>[https://www.domradio.de/artikel/ein-papst-auf-dem-matterhorn-reihe-kurioses-aus-paepstlichen-gefilden Ein Papst auf dem Matterhorn], domradio.de, June 16, 2019</ref>

== Episcopal genealogy ==
*Cardinal [[Scipione Rebiba]]
*Cardinal [[Giulio Antonio Santorio]]
*Cardinal [[Girolamo Bernerio]]
*Bishop [[Claudio Rangoni (bishop of Reggio Emilia)|Claudio Rangoni]]
*Archbishop [[Wawrzyniec Gembicki]]
*Archbishop [[Jan Wężyk]]
*Bishop [[Piotr Gembicki]]
*Bishop [[Jan Gembicki]]
*Bishop [[Bonawentura Madaliński]]
*Bishop [[Jan Małachowski]]
*Archbishop [[Stanisław Szembek]]
*Bishop [[Felicjan Konstanty Szaniawski]]
*Bishop [[Andrzej Stanisław Załuski]]
*Archbishop [[Adam Ignacy Komorowski]]
*Archbishop [[Władysław Aleksander Łubieński]]
*Bishop [[Andrzej Mikolaj Stanisław Kostka Mlodziejowski]]
*Archbishop [[Kasper Kazimierz Cieciszowski]]
*Bishop [[Franciszek Borgiasz Mackiewicz]]
*Bishop [[Michał Piwnicki]]
*Archbishop [[Ignacy Ludwik Pawłowski]]
*Archbishop [[Kazimierz Roch Dmochowski]]
*Archbishop [[Wacław Żyliński]]
*Bishop [[Aleksander Kazimierz Beresniewicz]]
*Bishop [[Szymon Marcin Kozlowski]]
*Bishop [[Mieczysław Leonard Pallulon]]
*Archbishop [[Bolesław Hieronim Klopotowski]]
*Archbishop [[Jerzy Józef Elizeusz Szembek]]
*Bishop [[Stanisław Kazimierz Zdzitowiecki]]
*Cardinal [[Aleksander Kakowski]]
*Pope '''Pius XI'''

== See also ==
* [[Cardinals created by Pius XI]]
* [[List of encyclicals of Pope Pius XI]]
* [[Pope Pius XI and Judaism]]

== Citations ==
{{reflist|2}}

== Notes ==
{{notelist}}

== Sources and further reading ==
* Browne-Olf, Lillian. ''Their Name Is Pius'' (1941) pp 305–59 [https://archive.org/details/TheirNameIsPius online]
* Confalonieri, Carlo (1975). ''Pius XI – A Close Up''. (1975). Altadena, California: The Benzinger Sisters Press.
* Eisner, Peter, (2013), ''The Pope's Last Crusade: How an American Jesuit Helped Pope Pius XI's Campaign to Stop Hitler'', New York, New York: HarperCollins |{{ISBN|978-0-06-204914-8}}
* Fattorini, Emma (2011), ''Hitler, Mussolini and the Vatican: Pope Pius XI and the Speech that was Never Made'', Cambridge, UK; Malden, MA: Polity Press
* {{Cite book |last=Kertzer |first=David I. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Xc3QAgAAQBAJ |title=The Pope and Mussolini: The Secret History of Pius XI and the Rise of Fascism in Europe |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2014 |isbn=978-0-19-871616-7 |author-link=David Kertzer}}
* {{Citation |last=Manners |first=John |title=The Oxford History of Christianity |year=2002 |place=Oxford |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-280336-8}}
* {{Citation |last=Marchione |first=Margherita |title=Yours Is a Precious Witness: Memoirs of Jews and Catholics in Wartime Italy |url=https://archive.org/details/yoursispreciousw0000marc |year=1997 |place=Mahwah, NJ |publisher=Paulist Press |isbn=978-0-8091-0485-7 |url-access=registration}}
* Morgan, Thomas B. (1937) ''A Reporter at the Papal Court – A Narrative of the Reign of Pope Pius XI''.  New York: Longmans, Green and Co.
* Wolf, Hubert (2010), ''Pope and Devil: The Vatican Archives and the Third Reich''. Trans. Kenneth Kronenberg, Cambridge, MA and London, England: The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press. [https://www.amazon.ca/Pope-Devil-Vaticans-Archives-Third/dp/0674064267]

=== Other languages ===
* Ceci, Lucia (2013), ''L'interesse superiore. Il Vaticano e l'Italia di Mussolini'', Laterza, Roma-Bari
* Chiron, Yves  (2004), ''Pie XI (1857–1939)'', Perrin, Paris, {{ISBN|2-262-01846-4}}.
* D'Orazi, Lucio (1989), ''Il Coraggio Della Verita Vita do Pio XI'', Edizioni logos, Roma
* Ceci, Lucia (2010), Il papa non-deve parlare. Chiesa, fascismo e guerra di Etiopia", Laterza, Roma-Bari
* Fontenelle, Mrg R (1939), ''Seine Heiligkeit Pius XI.'' Alsactia, France
* {{Citation |last=Riasanovsky |first=Nicholas V. |title=A History of Russia |year=1963 |place=New York |publisher=Oxford University Press}}
* Schmidlin, Josef (1922–1939), ''Papstgeschichte,'' Vol I-IV, Köstel-Pusztet München
* Peter Rohrbacher (2012), "[https://www.academia.edu/8940475/V%C3%B6lkerkunde_und_Afrikanistik_f%C3%BCr_den_Papst._Missionsexperten_und_der_Vatikan_1922_1939_in_R%C3%B6mische_Historische_Mitteilungen_54_2012_583_610 Völkerkunde und Afrikanistik für den Papst]". Missionsexperten und der Vatikan 1922–1939 in: Römische Historische Mitteilungen 54: 583–610

== External links ==
{{Wikiquote}}
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20150530005816/http://www.catholicrevelations.com/category/saints/the-life-of-pope-pius-xi-concordat-encyclicals-quadragesimo-anno-casti-connubii-of-the-catholic-church.html The Life of Pope Pius XI, also about his encyclical ''Quadragesimo anno'']
* [https://www.vatican.va/holy_father/pius_xi/index.htm Vatican Website for Pope Pius XI]
* [http://www.casinapioiv.va/content/accademia/en/about/medal.html Pius XI Medal of the Pontifical Academy of Sciences]
* [http://www.casinapioiv.va/content/accademia/en/magisterium/piusxi.html Pius XI biography and his addresses to the Pontifical Academy of Sciences]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20050420235926/http://www.catholic-forum.com/saints/pope0259.htm Catholic Forum Biography]
* [http://mv.vatican.va/3_EN/pages/x-Schede/METs/METs_Main_02.html Vatican Museum Biography]
* {{YouTube|zoJcvhxonEI|Pius XI and the mystery of the disappeared encyclical}}
* [http://www.zenit.org/article-16469?l=english Pope Benedict XVI opens the Archives for the pontificate (1922–1939) of Pope Pius XI – VATICAN CITY, 2 July 2006] "...researchers will be able to consult ''all'' the documents of the period kept in the different series of archives of the Holy See, primarily in the [[Vatican Secret Archives]] and the Archive of the Second Section of the [[Secretariat of State (Vatican)|Secretariat of State]]...."
* [http://www.achille-ratti-climbing-club.co.uk/index.php Achille Ratti climbing club]
* [http://www.britishpathe.com/workspaces/BritishPathe/I1i1oPJA Pathe News archive footage of Pius XI]
* {{PM20|FID=pe/013669}}

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{{s-dip}}
{{s-bef|before=Giovanni Francesco Compagnoni Marefoschi}}
{{s-ttl|title=[[Apostolic Nuncio to Poland]]|years=3 July 1919 – 13 June 1921}}
{{s-aft|after=[[Lorenzo Lauri]]}}
{{s-rel|ca}}
{{s-bef|before=Biagio Pisani}}
{{s-tul|title=[[Nafpaktos|Titular Archbishop of Naupactus]]|years=3 July 1919 – 19 April 1921}}
{{s-aft|after=[[Federico Tedeschini]]}}
{{s-bef|before=Corradino Maria Cavriani}}
{{s-tul|title=[[Adana|Titular Archbishop of Adana]]|years=19 April 1921 – 13 June 1921}}
{{s-aft|after=[[Ermenegildo Pellegrinetti]]}}
{{s-bef|before=[[Andrea Carlo Ferrari|Andrea Ferrari]]}}
{{s-ttl|title=[[Archbishop of Milan]]|years=13 June 1921 – 6 February 1922}}
{{s-aft|after=[[Eugenio Tosi]]}}
{{s-bef|before=[[Giulio Tonti]]}}
{{s-ttl|title=[[San Martino ai Monti|Cardinal-Priest of Santi Silvestro e Martino ai Monti]]|years=16 June 1921 – 6 February 1922}}
{{s-aft|after=[[Eugenio Tosi]]}}
{{s-bef|before=[[Benedict XV]]}}
{{s-ttl|title=[[Pope]]|years=6 February 1922 – 10 February 1939}}
{{s-aft|after=[[Pius XII]]}}
{{s-ach}}
{{s-bef|before=[[Carter Glass]]}}
{{s-ttl|title=[[List of People on the Cover of Time Magazine: 1920s|Cover of Time Magazine]]
| years = 16 June 1924}}
{{s-aft|after=[[Hiram W. Evans]]}}
{{s-end}}

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{{DEFAULTSORT:Pius 11}}
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