View source for Powerlifting

{{short description|Sport}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=September 2020}}
{{Infobox sport
| image                 = IPF World Champion Dean Bowring performing the three Powerlifting moves.jpg
| caption               = The deadlift being performed by 2009 IPF World Champion [[Dean Bowring]]
| union                 = [[International Powerlifting Federation]]
| first                 = 1950s, United States of America
| registered            =
| contact               = No
| team                  =
| mgender               = No
| category              = Strength sport
| ball                  =
| olympic               = No
| IWGA                  = [[1981 World Games|1981]]{{snds}}present (Equipped) <br> [[2025 World Games|2025]]{{snds}}present (Raw)
| paralympic            = [[1984 Summer Paralympics|1984]]{{snds}}present
|equipment              = [[Barbells]], [[weight plate|weight plates]], collars, chalk, heel-elevated shoes, barefoot shoes, belt, knee sleeves & wrist wraps
|country/region         = Worldwide
}}
'''Powerlifting''' is a competitive [[strength athletics|strength sport]] that consists of three attempts at maximal weight on three lifts: [[Squat (exercise)|squat]], [[bench press]], and [[deadlift]]. As in the sport of [[Olympic weightlifting]], it involves the athlete attempting a maximal weight single-lift effort of a [[barbell]] loaded with weight plates. Powerlifting evolved from a sport known as "odd lifts", which followed the same three-attempt format but used a wider variety of events, akin to [[Strength athletics|strongman competition]]. Eventually, odd lifts became standardized to the current three.

In competition, lifts may be performed equipped or unequipped (typically referred to as 'classic' or 'raw' lifting in the [[International Powerlifting Federation|IPF]] specifically). Equipment in this context refers to a supportive [[bench shirt]] or squat/deadlift suit or briefs. In some federations, knee wraps are permitted in the equipped but not unequipped division; in others, they may be used in both equipped and unequipped lifting. Weightlifting belts, knee sleeves, wrist wraps, and special footwear may also be used, but are not considered when distinguishing equipped from unequipped lifting.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.usapowerlifting.com/lifterscorner/raw_lifting.shtml |title=The Choice for Drug-free Strength Sport : USAPL Raw/Unequipped Standards |publisher=USA Powerlifting |access-date=2014-02-22 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131208181829/http://usapowerlifting.com/lifterscorner/raw_lifting.shtml |archive-date=8 December 2013 |url-status=dead}}</ref>

Competitions take place across the world. Powerlifting has been [[powerlifting at the Summer Paralympics|a Paralympic sport]] ([[bench press]] only) since 1984 and, under the [[International Powerlifting Federation|IPF]], is also a [[World Games]] sport. Local, national and international competitions have also been sanctioned by other federations operating independently of the IPF.

==History==
===Early history===
The roots of powerlifting are found in traditions of [[strength training]] stretching back as far as the ancient Mayan civilizations and ancient Persian times. The idea of powerlifting originated in ancient Greece, as men lifted stones to prove their strength and manhood.<ref name="Cooper publishing group">{{cite book |last1=Paciorek |first1=Michael J. |last2=Jones |first2=Jefferey A. |title=Disability sport and recreation resources |url=https://archive.org/details/disabilitysportr0000paci |url-access=registration |year=2001 |publisher=Cooper publishing group |isbn=9781884125751 }}</ref> The modern sport originated in the [[United Kingdom]] and the [[United States]] in the 1950s.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Clayworth |first=Peter |date=September 5, 2013 |title=Story: Bodybuilding, weightlifting and powerlifting |url=https://teara.govt.nz/en/bodybuilding-weightlifting-and-powerlifting/page-3 |website=Te Ara}}</ref> Previously, the weightlifting governing bodies in both countries had recognized various "odd lifts" for competition and record purposes.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2013-02-04 |title=The History of Powerlifting |url=https://squatpressliftrepeat.wordpress.com/what-is-powerlifting/historyofpowerlifting/ |access-date=2024-07-29 |website=squat {{!}} press {{!}} lift {{!}} repeat |language=en}}</ref> During the 1950s, [[Olympic weightlifting]] declined in the United States, while strength sports gained many new followers. People did not like the Olympic lifts [[Clean and press|Clean and Press]], [[Snatch (weightlifting)|Snatch]] and [[Clean and jerk|Clean and Jerk]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.powerlifting.sport/federation/history.html|title=The History of the International Powerlifting Federation|last=Unitt|first=Dennis|date=2019-04-04|website=Powerlifting.Sport}}</ref> In 1958, the National Weightlifting Committee of the [[Amateur Athletic Union]] (AAU) decided to begin recognizing records for odd lifts.<ref name=":4" /> The first national competition was held in September 1964 under the auspices of the [[York Barbell|York Barbell Company]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=The History of Powerlifting in the USA |url=https://grindergym.com/the-history-of-powerlifting-in-the-usa/ |access-date=2024-07-29 |website=grindergym.com}}</ref> York Barbell owner [[Bob Hoffman (promoter)|Bob Hoffman]] had been a longtime adversary of the sport, but his company was now making powerlifting equipment to make up for the sales it had lost on Olympic equipment.<ref name=":4" />

During the late 1950s, Hoffman's influence on Olympic lifting and his predominately Olympics-focused magazine ''Strength and Health'' were beginning to come under increasing pressure from [[Joe Weider]]'s organization.<ref name=":4" /> In order to combat the growing influence of Weider, Hoffman started another magazine, ''Muscular Development'', which would be focused more on bodybuilding and the fast-growing interest in odd lift competitions.<ref>{{Cite web |title=A Brief History of the '50s & '60s {{!}} Two Decades That Launched Modern Bodybuilding |url=https://www.musculardevelopment.com/news/the-mcgough-report/14362-a-brief-history-of-the-50s-60s-two-decades-that-launched-modern-bodybuilding.html |access-date=2024-08-04 |website=Muscular Development}}</ref> The magazine's first editor was [[John Grimek]].<ref>{{Cite journal |date=April 1999 |title=Remembering Grimek |url=https://starkcenter.org/igh/igh-v5/igh-v5-n4-v6-n1/igh0504-0601i.pdf |journal=Starkcenter |pages=2}}</ref> During the late 1950s and early 1960s, various odd lift events gradually developed into the specific lifts of the [[bench press]], [[Squat (exercise)|squat]], and [[deadlift]], and were lifted in that order.<ref name=":3">{{Cite web |title=History - International Powerlifting Federation IPF |url=https://www.powerlifting.sport/federation/history |access-date=2024-08-04 |website=www.powerlifting.sport}}</ref> Hoffman became more and more influential in the development of this new lifting sport and organized the Weightlifting Tournament of America in 1964, effectively the first USA National championships. In 1965, the first named USA National Championships were held.<ref name=":3" /> During the same period, lifting in Britain also had factions. In the late 1950s, because members of the ruling body (BAWLA, the [[British Amateur Weight Lifters' Association]]) were only interested in the development of Olympic lifting, a breakaway organization called the Society of Amateur Weightlifters had been formed to cater for the interests of lifters who were not particularly interested in Olympic lifting.<ref name=":4">{{Cite web |last=Dunn |first=Will Freeman |date=2018-01-10 |title=The History of Powerlifting |url=https://www.taylorsstrength.co.uk/the-history-of-powerlifting/ |access-date=2024-08-04 |website=Taylor's Strength Training |language=en-GB}}</ref>

Although at that time there were 42 recognized lifts, the "Strength Set" ([[biceps curl]], bench press, and squat) soon became the standard competition lifts, and both organizations held Championships on these lifts (as well as on the Olympic lifts) until 1965. In 1966, the Society of Amateur Weightlifters rejoined BAWLA. The bicep curl was replaced with the deadlift to fall in line with the American lifts.<ref name=":4" /> The first British Championship was held in 1966.<ref>{{Cite web |title=History – BCPA Powerlifting |url=https://bc-powerlifting.com/history/ |access-date=2024-08-04 |language=en-CA}}</ref> During the late 1960s and at the beginning of the 1970s, various international contests were held. At the same time, in early November of each year and to commemorate Hoffman's birthday, a prestigious lifting contest was held. In 1971, it was decided to make this event the "World Weightlifting Championships".<ref name=":4" /> The event was held at 10 AM on 6 November 1971, in [[York, Pennsylvania]]. Most of the athletes were American lifters, since teams were not formed yet. There were also four British athletes, and one athlete from [[Jamaica]].<ref name=":5">{{Cite web |title=AAU World Powerlifting Championships |url=https://m.en.allpowerlifting.com/results/IPF/1971/aau-world-powerlifting-championships/ |access-date=2024-08-04 |website=AllPowerlifting}}</ref> All of the referees were American. Weights were in [[Pound (mass)|pounds]]. The lifting order was "rising bar", and the first lift was the bench press. There was no such thing as a bench shirt or squat suit, and various interpretations were held regarding the use and length of knee wraps and weightlifting belts. The IPF rules system did not exist yet, nor had world records been established.<ref name=":4" /><ref name=":5" />

In 1972, the second [[Amateur Athletic Union|AAU]] World Championships were held on 10 and 11 November. There were eight athletes from Great Britain, six from [[Canada]], six from [[Puerto Rico]], three from [[Zambia]], and one from the West Indies. With 67 lifters in total, 47 athletes were Americans. Lifts were measured in pounds, and the bench press was the first lift.<ref name=":4" /><ref name="WC1972 results">{{cite web|url=http://en.allpowerlifting.com/results/AAU/1972/aau-world-powerlifting-championships/?unit=lb|archive-url=https://archive.today/20130116150551/http://en.allpowerlifting.com/results/AAU/1972/aau-world-powerlifting-championships/?unit=lb|url-status=dead|archive-date=2013-01-16|title=AAU World Powerlifting Championships 1972 (results)|access-date=2012-10-01|website=En.allpowerlifting.com}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=1972 AAU Men's World Powerlifting Championships |url=https://www.openpowerlifting.org/m/mags/plusa/1998-04-15-A |access-date=2024-08-05 |website=Open Powerlifting}}</ref>

===IPF and after===
The [[International Powerlifting Federation]] was formed in November of 1972. The inaugural IPF World Championships was held in York on November of 1973. There were 47 entrants: one Swedish athlete, one Puerto Rican athlete, two Canadian athletes, one West Indian athlete, eight British athletes, and 34 American athletes.<ref>{{Cite web |title=History - International Powerlifting Federation IPF |url=https://www.powerlifting.sport/federation/history |access-date=2024-08-07 |website=www.powerlifting.sport}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=IPF World Men's Powerlifting Championship, 9-10.11.1973, Harrisburg / USA |url=https://www.powerlifting.sport/fileadmin/ipf/data/results/worlds/worldmen1973/World_Men_1973.htm |access-date=2024-07-29 |website=www.powerlifting.sport}}</ref> 1974 was the first time that teams were selected in advance, as well as the inclusion of the 52 kilogram weight class.<ref>{{Cite web |title=IPF Men's World Powerlifting Championships |url=https://m.en.allpowerlifting.com/results/IPF/1974/mens-world-powerlifting-championships/mens-world-powerlifting-championships/ |access-date=2024-07-29 |website=en.allpowerlifting.com}}</ref> In 1975, the World Championships was held outside America for the first time, at the town hall in [[Birmingham]], hosted by Vic Mercer.<ref>{{Cite web |title=History - International Powerlifting Federation IPF |url=https://www.powerlifting.sport/federation/history |access-date=2024-07-29 |website=www.powerlifting.sport}}</ref>

The establishment of the IPF in 1973 spurred the establishment of the EPF (European Powerlifting Federation) in May 1977.<ref>{{Cite web |title=EPF History - European Powerlifting Federation EPF |url=https://www.europowerlifting.org/about-epf/history-and-awards/epf-history |access-date=2024-08-06 |website=europowerlifting}}</ref> Since it was closely associated with bodybuilding and women had been competing as bodybuilders for years, powerlifting was opened to them. The first U.S. national championships for women were held in 1978. The IPF added women's competition in 1980.<ref>{{Cite news |date=1978-04-17 |title=First U.S. Power Lift For Women |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1978/04/17/archives/first-us-power-lift-for-women.html |access-date=2024-08-13 |work=The New York Times |language=en-US |issn=0362-4331}}</ref> In the US, the [[Amateur Sports Act of 1978]] required that each Olympic or potential Olympic sport must have its own national governing body by November 1980.<ref>{{cite web |author1=Peters, Gerhard |author2=Woolley, John T |title=Jimmy Carter: "Amateur Sports Act of 1978 Statement on Signing S. 2727 Into Law. ," November 8, 1978 |url=http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/?pid=30133 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170118084425/http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/?pid=30133 |archive-date=January 18, 2017 |access-date=February 7, 2016 |work=The American Presidency Project |publisher=University of California - Santa Barbara}}</ref> As a result, the AAU lost control of every amateur sport. The USPF was founded in 1980 as the new national governing body for American powerlifting.<ref>{{Cite web |last= |first= |title=USPF the Legend |url=https://uspfthelegend.com/ |access-date=2024-08-13 |website=USPF the Legend |language=en-US}}</ref> In 1981, the American Drug Free Powerlifting Association (ADFPA), led by Brother Bennett, became the first federation to break away from the USPF, citing the need to implement effective drug testing in the sport.<ref name="library.la84.org">{{cite web|url=http://library.la84.org/SportsLibrary/IGH/IGH0903/IGH0903c.pdf|title=Powerlifting's Watershed : frantz v. united states Powerlifting federation: The legal case that changed the nature of a sport|author1=Thomas M. Hunt|author2=Jan Todd|website=Library.la84.org|access-date=15 October 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140301111358/http://library.la84.org/SportsLibrary/IGH/IGH0903/IGH0903c.pdf|archive-date=1 March 2014|url-status=dead}}</ref> In 1982, drug testing was introduced to the IPF, although the USPF championships that year did not have drug testing.<ref>{{cite web|author=Terry Todd |url=http://sportsillustrated.cnn.com/vault/article/magazine/MAG1122739/5/index.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091109073550/http://sportsillustrated.cnn.com/vault/article/magazine/MAG1122739/5/index.htm |url-status=dead |archive-date=9 November 2009 |title=Unlike all too many powerlifters, nine-time world champ |publisher=Sports Illustrated Vault |date=1984-10-22 |access-date=2014-02-22}}</ref>

The IPF's push for drug testing was resisted by several American lifters. In 1982, Larry Pacifico and Ernie Frantz founded the American Powerlifting Federation (APF), which advertised its categorical opposition to all drug testing.<ref name="library.la84.org"/>

In 1984, powerlifting was included into the [[Paralympic Games]] for men with spinal cord injuries. At the 2000 Paralympic Games in [[Sydney]], women were invited to participate in powerlifting. Both men and women are allowed to compete in 10 weight classes respectively.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Powerlifting at the Paralympics |url=https://www.topendsports.com/events/paralympics/sports/powerlifting.htm |access-date=2024-08-24 |website=www.topendsports.com}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2023-07-24 |title=Para Sport 101: Everything You Need To Know About Paralympic Powerlifting |url=https://www.usparapowerlifting.org/news/2023/july/24/para-sport-101-everything-you-need-to-know-about-paralympic-powerlifting |access-date=2024-08-24 |website=USA Paralympics Powerlifting |language=en}}</ref>

In 1987, the American Powerlifting Association (APA) and World Powerlifting Alliance (WPA) were formed by Scott Taylor.<ref>{{Cite web |date=July 5, 1998 |title=American Strength Legends: The Organizers |url=http://samson-power.com/ASL/taylor.html |access-date=2024-08-11 |website=American Strength Legends}}</ref> The APA offer both drug tested and untested categories in most of their competitions.<ref>{{Cite journal |date=January 1, 2023 |title=United States Powerlifting Association Technical Rules 2023 |url=https://uspa.net/wp-content/uploads/2023/01/2023-USPA-RULE-BOOK-FINAL-1.pdf |journal=USPA |pages=10}}</ref> As of 2024, the WPA has over 60 affiliate nations.<ref>{{Cite web |title=HOME |url=https://www.apapowerlifting.com/ |access-date=2024-08-11 |website=APA Powerlifting |language=en}}</ref>

The USPF failed to conform to IPF demands and was expelled from the international body in 1997, with the ADFPA, now named [[USA Powerlifting]] (USAPL), taking its place (now replaced by Powerlifting America).<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.usapowerlifting.com/admin/president/overdeer03.shtml |title=The Choice for Drug-free Strength Sport |publisher=USA Powerlifting |access-date=2014-02-22 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130120022918/http://usapowerlifting.com/admin/president/overdeer03.shtml |archive-date=20 January 2013 |url-status=dead}}</ref> Despite the trend towards federations, each with their own rules and standards of performance, some powerlifters have attempted to bring unity to the sport. For example, 100% RAW promoted unequipped competition and merged with another federation, Anti-Drug Athletes United (ADAU), in 2013.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.powerliftingwatch.com/node/23829 |title=ADAU Merges With 100% Raw |publisher=Powerlifting Watch |access-date=2014-02-22}}</ref> The Revolution Powerlifting Syndicate (RPS), founded by [[Gene Rychlak]] in 2011, was considered a move towards unity, as the RPS breaks the tradition of charging lifters membership fees to a specific federation in addition to entry fees for each competition.<ref>Archived at [https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211211/1CH8x0N2QAM Ghostarchive]{{cbignore}} and the [https://web.archive.org/web/20140702064417/http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1CH8x0N2QAM Wayback Machine]{{cbignore}}: {{cite web|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1CH8x0N2QAM |title=Message from Gene Rychlak 08.20.11 |publisher=[[YouTube]] |date=2011-08-20 |access-date=2014-02-22}}{{cbignore}}</ref> Some meet promoters have sought to bring together top lifters from different federations, outside existing federations' hierarchy of local, regional, national and international meets; a prominent example of this is the Raw Unity Meet (RUM), held annually since 2007.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.rawunitymeet.com/Raw-Unity-FAQ.html |title=Raw Unity Powerlifting Championships - RAW Unity FAQ |website=Rawunitymeet.com |access-date=2014-02-22}}</ref>

===Developments in equipment and rules===
As new equipment was developed, it came to distinguish powerlifting federations from one another. Weightlifting belts and knee wraps (originally simple Ace bandages) predated powerlifting, but in 1983 John Inzer invented the first piece of equipment distinct to powerlifters—the [[bench shirt]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.musclemagfitness.com/fitness-and-exercises/weight-lifting/everything-you-wanted-to-know-about-bench-shirts.html |title=Everything You Wanted to Know About Bench Shirts |website=Musclemagfitness.com |access-date=2014-02-22 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130513084428/http://www.musclemagfitness.com/fitness-and-exercises/weight-lifting/everything-you-wanted-to-know-about-bench-shirts.html |archive-date=13 May 2013 |url-status=dead }}</ref> Bench shirts and squat/deadlift suits (operating on the same principle) became ubiquitous in powerlifting, but only some federations adopted the latest and most supportive canvas, denim, and multiply polyester designs, while others such as the IPF maintained more restrictive rules on which supportive equipment could be used.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.usapowerlifting.com/newsletter/02/novice/novice.html |title=USA Powerlifting Online Newsletter |website=Usapowerlifting.com |access-date=2014-02-22 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130317181754/http://www.usapowerlifting.com/newsletter/02/novice/novice.html |archive-date=17 March 2013 |url-status=dead }}</ref> The Monolift, a rack in which the bar catchers swing out and eliminate the walkout portion of the squat, was invented by Ray Madden and first used in competition in 1992.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.powerliftingwatch.com/node/5024 |title=Origins of the Monolift |publisher=Powerlifting Watch |access-date=2014-02-22}}</ref> This innovation was adopted by some federations and forbidden in others. Other inventions included specialized squat bars and deadlift bars, moving away from the IPF standard of using the same bar for all three lifts.<ref>{{Cite journal |date=January 23, 2024 |title=IPF Technical Rules Book 2024 |url=https://www.powerlifting.sport/fileadmin/ipf/data/rules/technical-rules/english/IPF_Technical_Rules_Book_2024_24_Jan.pdf |journal=International Powerlifting Federation |pages=7}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |date=January 7, 2023 |title=WRPF Technical Rules Book |url=https://australia.worldrawpowerlifting.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/01/WRPF-Rule-Book-PL-1-1.pdf |journal=World Raw Powerlifting Federation |pages=11}}</ref>

The rules of powerlifting have also evolved and differentiated. For example, in ADFPA/USAPL competition, the "press" command on the bench press was used, not used,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.deepsquatter.com/strength/archives/MINE/newbie.htm |title=New To Powerlifting - Let's Get Started |website=Deepsquatter.com |access-date=2014-02-22}}</ref> and then used again, following a 2006 IPF motion to reinstate this rule.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.usapowerlifting.com/newsletter/33/technical/technical.html |title=USA Powerlifting Online Newsletter |website=Usapowerlifting.com |access-date=2014-02-22 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130319143031/http://www.usapowerlifting.com/newsletter/33/technical/technical.html |archive-date=19 March 2013 |url-status=dead }}</ref> IPF rules also mandate a "start" command at the beginning of the bench press. Many other federations, for example, the Natural Athlete Strength Association (NASA), have never used the "start" command.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.powerliftingwatch.com/node/1773 |title=Some NASA Members Give Their Take on Lifting in the USAPL |publisher=Powerlifting Watch |access-date=2014-02-22}}</ref> As a further example of diversifying rules of performance, in 2011 the Southern Powerlifting Federation (SPF) eliminated the "squat" command at the beginning of the squat.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.southernpowerlifting.com/form.php?id=7 |title=Southern Powerlifting Federation |website=Southernpowerlifting.com |access-date=2014-02-22 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140225075134/http://www.southernpowerlifting.com/form.php?id=7 |archive-date=25 February 2014 |url-status=dead}}</ref> Most federations also now allow the [[sumo deadlift]], which the athletes foot position is outside their grip position. Many communities and federations do not class the sumo variation as a technical deadlift.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.mensfitness.com/training/build-muscle/exercise-face-off-traditional-deadlift-vs-sumo-deadlift |title=Exercise Face-Off: Traditional Deadlift vs. Sumo Deadlift &#124; Men's Fitness |access-date=13 December 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171021141349/http://www.mensfitness.com/training/build-muscle/exercise-face-off-traditional-deadlift-vs-sumo-deadlift |archive-date=21 October 2017 |url-status=dead}}</ref> Another rule change into effect from the IPF, is the bench press elbow depth rule, established in 2022 and into effect at the start of 2023. This rule, similar to squat depth, requires the bottom surface of the elbows to be in line with or below the top surface of the shoulder joint.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2022-09-10 |title=International Powerlifting Federation Unveils Bench Press Rule Change for 2023 |url=https://barbend.com/ipf-bench-press-rule-change-2023/ |access-date=2024-08-11 |website=Barbend |language=en-US}}</ref>

==Supportive equipment==
In powerlifting, supportive equipment refers to supportive [[bench shirt|shirts]], briefs, suits, and sometimes knee wraps made of materials that store [[Elastic energy|elastic potential energy]] and thereby assist the three lifts contested in powerlifting.<ref name=Maile>{{cite web|last=Maile|first=LJ|title=Use of fitness drug in Powerlifting|url=https://www.buyaas.com/product/76-43-7/|work=Powerlines}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Siewe |first1=J. |last2=Rudat |first2=J. |last3=Röllinghoff |first3=M. |last4=Schlegel |first4=U. J. |last5=Eysel |first5=P. |last6=Michael |first6=J. W.-P. |date=2011 |title=Injuries and Overuse Syndromes in Powerlifting |url=https://www.thieme-connect.de/products/ejournals/abstract/10.1055/s-0031-1277207 |journal=International Journal of Sports Medicine |language=en |volume=32 |issue=9 |pages=703–711 |doi=10.1055/s-0031-1277207 |issn=0172-4622|url-access=subscription }}</ref> Some federations allow single-ply knee sleeves, and wraps for wrists in raw competition.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Krawczyk |first=Bryce |date=2017-07-11 |title=So You Wanna Be a Powerlifter? Know Your Equipment |url=https://barbend.com/powerlifting-equipment-federations/ |access-date=2024-08-14 |website=BarBend |language=en-US}}</ref> Straps are also used in deadlift training in case of a weak grip, but are not allowed by any federations in official competitions.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Putsov |first=Sergii |date=2024-01-12 |title=Can You Use Straps In Powerlifting? Rules Explained |url=https://blog.warmbody-coldmind.com/guides/can-you-use-straps-in-powerlifting/ |access-date=2024-08-14 |website=Warm Body Cold Mind |language=en-US}}</ref> A weight lifting belt is the only supportive equipment that is allowed by all federations in raw competition.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Is Using A Lifting Belt Cheating? No, Here's Why |url=https://www.gymreapers.com/blogs/news/lifting-belt-cheating |access-date=2024-08-14 |website=GYMREAPERS |language=en}}</ref> The use of supportive equipment distinguishes 'equipped' and 'unequipped' (also known as 'raw') divisions in the sport, and 'equipped' and 'unequipped' records in the competition lifts. The wide differences between equipped and unequipped records in the squat and bench press suggest that supportive equipment confers a substantial advantage to lifters in these disciplines.<ref name=Levin/> This is less evident in the case of the [[Deadlift#World Records|deadlift]], where the lack of an eccentric component to the lift minimizes how much elastic energy can be stored in a supportive suit.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2023-11-24 |title=Raw Powerlifting vs Equipped Powerlifting |url=https://vitruve.fit/blog/raw-powerlifting-vs-equipped-powerlifting/ |access-date=2024-08-14 |website=Vitruve |language=en-US}}</ref> Supportive equipment should not be confused with the equipment on which the lifts are performed, such as a [[bench press]] bench, or conventional or monolift stand for squat or the [[barbell]] and discs.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The Place of Monolift Attachments in Modern Strength Training |url=https://www.alphafit.com.au/blog/monolift-attachments-in-modern-strength-training/ |access-date=2024-08-14 |website=AlphaFit |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-01-11 |title=Power Cage Vs Monolift Vs Combo Rack Differences, Powered By Ghost Strong Equipment {{!}} BarBend |url=https://barbend.com/power-rack-vs-monolift-vs-combo/ |access-date=2024-08-14 |language=en-US}}</ref> Chalk is commonly used by lifters to dry the hands to reduce blisters, slipping and improve grip strength, as the contents of the chalk is made out of [[magnesium carbonate]]. Chalk can also be added to the shoulders for squatting,<ref>{{Cite web |last=Zai |first=Claire |date=2024-03-08 |title=How-To Squat Correctly: Technique, Benefits & Muscles Worked |url=https://www.barbellmedicine.com/blog/how-to-squat/ |access-date=2024-08-14 |website=Barbell Medicine |language=en-US}}</ref> on the back for bench pressing to reduce sliding, and on the hands to grip the barbell on the bench press and deadlift.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Power Lifting: Technique and training for athletic muscular development|last=Groves|first=Barney|publisher=Human Kinetics|year=2000|isbn=0-88011-978-0|location=Champaign, IL|url-access=registration|url=https://archive.org/details/powerlifting0000grov}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Get better grip during bench press |url=https://ntgear.eu/blogs/articles/get-better-grip-during-bench-press |access-date=2024-08-14 |website=Nordic Training Gear |language=en}}</ref>

=== Principles of operation ===
Supportive equipment is used to increase the weight lifted in powerlifting exercises.<ref name=Levin>{{cite web|last=Levin|first=Josh|title=One Giant Lift for Mankind|url=http://www.slate.com/articles/sports/left_field/2004/08/one_giant_lift_for_mankind.html|work=Slate|date=9 August 2004}}</ref><ref name=Perrine>{{cite web|last=Perrine|first=Stephen|title=Misfits of Muscle|url=http://www.menshealth.com/fitness/powerlifting-1|work=Men's Health|date=29 October 2004}}</ref><ref name=Garland>{{cite web|last=Garland|first=Tony|title=The Evolution of the Squat Suit Over the Past Twenty Years|url=http://articles.elitefts.com/training-articles/the-evolution-of-the-squat-suit-over-the-past-twenty-years/|work=EliteFTS|access-date=28 November 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131203012213/http://articles.elitefts.com/training-articles/the-evolution-of-the-squat-suit-over-the-past-twenty-years/|archive-date=3 December 2013|url-status=dead}}</ref> A snug garment is worn over a joint or joints (such as the [[shoulder]]s or [[hip]]s). This garment deforms during the downward portion of a [[bench press]] or [[Squat (exercise)|squat]], or the descent to the bar in the [[deadlift]], storing [[Elastic energy|elastic potential energy]].<ref name=Blatnik>{{cite journal|last=Blatnik|first=JA|author2=Skinner JW |author3=McBride JM |title=Effect of supportive equipment on force, velocity, and power in the squat|journal= Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research|date=December 2012|volume=26|issue=12|doi=10.1519/JSC.0b013e3182736641|pages=3204–8|pmid=22996018|s2cid=34123507|doi-access=free}}</ref> On the upward portion of each lift, the elastic potential energy is transferred to the barbell as [[kinetic energy]], aiding in the completion of the lift.<ref name=Maile/><ref name=McCullough>{{cite web|last=McCullough|first=Tom|title=The Power Squat|url=http://www.deepsquatter.com/strength/archives/tomsquat.html|work=Strength Online}}</ref> Some claim that supportive equipment prevents injuries by compressing and stabilizing the joints over which it worn.<ref name=McCullough/> For example, the bench shirt is claimed to support and protect the shoulders.<ref name=Levin/> Critics point out that the greater weights used with supportive equipment and the equipment's tendency to change the pattern of the movement may compromise safety, as in the case of the bar moving towards the head during the upward portion of the shirted bench press.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Williams|first=Ryan|title=Effects of the Bench Shirt on Selected Bench Press Mechanics|url=https://ojs.ub.uni-konstanz.de/cpa/article/view/1358|journal=22 International Symposium on Biomechanics in Sports (2004)|year=2004}}</ref>

=== Squat suit material and construction ===
Different materials are used in the construction of supportive equipment. Squat suits may be made of varying types of [[polyester]], or of [[canvas]]. The latter fabric is less elastic, and therefore considered to provide greater 'stopping power' at the bottom of the movement but less assistance with the ascent.<ref name=Garland/> Bench shirts may be made of polyester or [[denim]],<ref name=Perrine/> where the denim again provides a less-elastic alternative to the polyester. Knee wraps are made of varying combinations of cotton and [[Elastomer|elastic]].<ref name=McKown>{{cite book|last=McKown|first=Mark|title=Complete Body Development with Dumbbells|year=2007|publisher=Meyer & Meyer Sport|page=37}}</ref> Supportive equipment can be constructed in different ways to suit the lifters' preferences. A squat suit may be constructed for a wide or a narrow stance;<ref>{{Cite web |last=Powerlifting |first=Anderson |date=2022-08-23 |title=A Beginner's Guide To Powerlifting Squat Suits |url=https://www.andersonpowerlifting.com/a-guide-to-squat-suits-for-powerlifting/ |access-date=2024-08-24 |website=Anderson Powerlifting |language=en-US}}</ref> and a [[bench shirt]] may be constructed with 'straight' sleeves (perpendicular to the trunk of the lifter) or sleeves that are angled towards the abdomen.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Thevenot |first=Cole |date=2019-08-20 |title=So You Want to Try A Bench Shirt… |url=https://blacksmithfitness.wordpress.com/2019/08/20/so-you-want-to-try-a-bench-shirt/ |access-date=2024-08-24 |website=Blacksmith Fitness |language=en}}</ref> The back of the bench shirt may be closed or open, and the back panel may or may not be of the same material as the front of the shirt.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Simmons |first=Louie |title=THE BENCH PRESS SHIRT |url=https://www.westside-barbell.com/blogs/the-blog/the-bench-press-shirt |access-date=2024-08-24 |website=Westside Barbell |language=en-US}}</ref> Similarly, 'hybrid' squat suits can include panels made from canvas and polyester, in an effort to combine the strengths of each material. When two or more panels overlay one another in a piece of supportive equipment, that equipment is described as 'multi-ply', in contrast to 'single-ply' equipment made of one layer of material throughout.<ref name=Garland/>

===Raw powerlifting===
Raw powerlifting, also called classic or unequipped powerlifting has been codified in response to the proliferation and advancement of bench shirts and squat/deadlift suits. The 100% RAW federation was founded in 1999;<ref>{{cite web |title=100% Raw Powerlifting Federation |url=http://www.powerliftingwatch.com/federations/raw |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231003135925/https://www.powerliftingwatch.com/federations/raw |archive-date=October 3, 2023 |access-date=2014-02-22 |publisher=Powerlifting Watch}}</ref> within a decade, many established federations came to recognize "raw" divisions, in addition to their traditional (open) divisions permitting single-ply or multi-ply equipment. United Powerlifting Association (UPA) established a standard for raw powerlifting in 2008,<ref>{{cite web |title=UPA Finalizes Definition of Raw |url=http://www.powerliftingwatch.com/node/8821 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210920041421/https://www.powerliftingwatch.com/node/8821 |archive-date=September 20, 2021 |access-date=2014-02-22 |publisher=Powerlifting Watch}}</ref> and USAPL held the first Raw Nationals in the same year.<ref>{{cite web |title=2008 Raw Nationals - USA Powerlifting |url=http://www.usaplnationals.com/2008rawNationals/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140308113234/https://www.usaplnationals.com/2008rawNationals/ |archive-date=March 8, 2014 |access-date=2014-02-22 |website=Usaplnationals.com}}</ref> Eventually, IPF recognized raw lifting with the sanction of a "Classic Unequipped World Cup" in 2012 and published its own set of standards for raw lifting.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.powerlifting-ipf.com/fileadmin/data/Championships/IPF_CLASSIC-Rules.pdf |title=IPF Classic "unequipped" World Cup 2012 |access-date=6 June 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130903235519/http://powerlifting-ipf.com/fileadmin/data/Championships/IPF_CLASSIC-Rules.pdf |archive-date=3 September 2013 |url-status=dead}}</ref> By this time, the popularity of raw lifting had surged to the point where raw lifters came to predominate over equipped lifters in local meets.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://startingstrength.com/articles/powerlifting_resurrection_gallagher.pdf|author=Marty Gallagher|title=Is Powerlifting Undergoing a Resurrection? |website=Startingstrength.com|access-date=15 October 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130401084236/http://startingstrength.com/articles/powerlifting_resurrection_gallagher.pdf|archive-date=1 April 2013|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.usapowerlifting.com/ngb/2012/2012_NGB_Minutes.pdf |title=Archived copy |access-date=19 June 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121022075838/http://www.usapowerlifting.com/ngb/2012/2012_NGB_Minutes.pdf |archive-date=22 October 2012 |url-status=dead}}</ref>

The use of knee sleeves in unequipped powerlifting has brought about much debate as to whether certain neoprene knee sleeves can assist a lifter during the squat.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Machek |first1=Steven B. |last2=Cardaci |first2=Thomas D. |last3=Wilburn |first3=Dylan T. |last4=Cholewinski |first4=Mitchell C. |last5=Latt |first5=Scarlett Lin |last6=Harris |first6=Dillon R. |last7=Willoughby |first7=Darryn S. |date=2021-02-01 |title=Neoprene Knee Sleeves of Varying Tightness Augment Barbell Squat One Repetition Maximum Performance Without Improving Other Indices of Muscular Strength, Power, or Endurance |journal=Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research |volume=35 |issue=Suppl 1 |pages=S6–S15 |doi=10.1519/JSC.0000000000003869 |issn=1533-4287 |pmid=33201154}}</ref> Some lifters purposely wear knee sleeves that are excessively tight and have been known to use plastic bags and have others to assist them get their knee sleeves on.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Pilon |first=Roc |title=How To Put On Knee Sleeves Properly (According To Expert) |url=https://www.gymreapers.com/blogs/news/how-to-put-on-knee-sleeves |access-date=2024-08-24 |website=GYMREAPERS |language=en}}</ref> This led to the IPF mandating that lifters put on their knee sleeves unassisted.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.andersonpowerlifting.com/knee-wraps-vs-sleeves-key-pros-cons/|title=Powerlifting Knee Sleeves|work=PowerliftingToWin|date=5 September 2022 }}</ref>

== Equipped powerlifting ==
Equipped lifters compete separately from raw lifters. Equipped athletes will wear a squat suit, knee wraps, a bench shirt, and a deadlift suit.<ref name=":6">{{Cite web |title=What is the point of equipped powerlifting? - SoCal Powerlifting |url=https://www.socalpowerlifting.net/post/what-is-the-point-of-equipped-powerlifting |access-date=2024-08-22 |website=SoCal Powerlifting}}</ref>

=== Equipped squats ===
For the squats, a squat suit is used for the event. Squat suits are typically made of an elastic-like material, and a single-ply polyester layer.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-09-16 |title=What are Squat Suits and Bench Shirts? |url=https://www.ypsi.de/blogs/english-articles/what-are-squat-suits-and-bench-shirts |access-date=2024-08-22 |website=YPSI |language=de}}</ref> This allows a competitor to spring out of the bottom of a squat (called "popping out of the hole" in powerlifting circles) by maintaining rigidity, keeping the athlete upright and encouraging their hips to remain parallel with the floor.<ref>{{Cite web |date=December 6, 2023 |title=The Power of Performance: Why Do You Wear a Squat Suit? Unveiling the Secrets to Enhanced Powerlifting |url=https://www.viruseurope.com/blogs/news/the-power-of-performance-why-do-you-wear-a-squat-suit-unveiling-the-secrets-to-enhanced-powerlifting |access-date=August 22, 2024 |website=Virus Europe}}</ref> This allows lifters to lift more weight than would normally be possible without the suit.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Silverberg |first=Avi |date=2020-11-18 |title=Squat Suit: What Is It? How It Works? How to Use? Sizing? |url=https://powerliftingtechnique.com/squat-suit/ |access-date=2024-08-22 |website=PowerliftingTechnique.com |language=en-US}}</ref> There are also multi-ply suits giving the lifter more rigidity, like that of a traditional canvas suit, with the same pop as a single-ply suit or briefs but are exponentially harder to use, and are usually reserved for the top lifters.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.elitefts.com/education/training/powerlifting/the-evolution-of-the-squat-suit-over-the-past-twenty-years/|title=The Evolution of the Squat Suit Over the Past Twenty Years|website=Elitefts.com|date=17 March 2013 |access-date=2016-04-26}}</ref> During the squat, lifters also tend to wear knee wraps.<ref name=":6" /> Even though knee wraps will be a sub-classification of raw lifting, it will still be worn by equipped lifters.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Multi-Ply Powerlifting |url=https://grindergym.com/multi-ply-powerlifting/ |access-date=2024-08-22 |website=grindergym.com}}</ref> A raw lifter who would squat in knee wraps will have the weight lifted noted as "with wraps" to distinguish from raw lifters using knee sleeves.<ref>{{Cite web |date=January 1, 2021 |title=USA Powerlifting Raw With Wraps Division |url=https://www.usapowerlifting.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/12/Raw-With-Wraps-Division-v.2021.pdf |website=[[USA Powerlifting]]}}</ref> Knee wraps are made out of similar elastic material as wrist wraps.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Knee Sleeves vs Knee Wraps: Differences and Which Do You Need? |url=https://www.gymreapers.com/blogs/news/knee-sleeves-vs-knee-wraps |access-date=2024-08-22 |website=GYMREAPERS |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Sudnykovych |first=Jaysen |date=July 14, 2023 |title=Wrist Wraps vs. Lifting Straps {{!}} What's the Difference? |url=https://www.tuffwraps.com/blogs/news/wrist-wraps-vs-lifting-straps |access-date=2024-08-22 |website=TuffWraps.com |language=en}}</ref> They are wrapped around the lifters knees tightly. The knee wraps are wrapped in a spiral or diagonal method.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Ehtesham |first=Mussayab |date=May 27, 2024 |title=A Detailed Guide on How to Use Knee Wraps for Powerlifting |url=https://www.dmoose.com/blogs/training/how-to-use-knee-wraps-for-powerlifting |access-date=2024-08-22 |website=DMoose |language=en}}</ref> The knee wraps build elastic energy during the eccentric part of the squat and once the lifter has hit proper depth the lifter will start the concentric part of the movement releasing this elastic energy and using it to help them move the weight upwards. It gives the lifter more spring, or pop out of the hole of the squat resulting in a heavier and faster squat.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Lake |first1=Jason P. |last2=Carden |first2=Patrick J. C. |last3=Shorter |first3=Kath A. |date=2012-10-26 |title=Wearing knee wraps affects mechanical output and performance characteristics of back squat exercise |journal=Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research |volume=26 |issue=10 |pages=2844–2849 |doi=10.1519/JSC.0b013e3182429840 |issn=1533-4287 |pmid=22995993}}</ref>

=== Equipped bench press ===
For the bench press, there are single-ply and multi-ply [[bench shirt]]s that work similarly to a squat suit.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-09-16 |title=What are Squat Suits and Bench Shirts? |url=https://www.ypsi.de/blogs/english-articles/what-are-squat-suits-and-bench-shirts |access-date=2024-08-22 |website=YPSI |language=}}</ref><ref name=":7">{{Cite web |title=Multi-Ply Powerlifting |url=https://grindergym.com/multi-ply-powerlifting/ |access-date=2024-08-22 |website=Grinder Gym}}</ref> It acts as artificial pectoral muscles and shoulder muscles for the lifter. It resists the movement of the bench press by compressing and building elastic energy. When the bar is still and the official gives the command to press the compression and elastic energy of the suit aids in the speed of the lift, and support of the weight that the athlete would not be able to provide without the bench shirt.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Silver |first1=Tobin |last2=Fortenbaugh |first2=Dave |last3=Williams |first3=Ryan |date=2009-07-23 |title=Effects of the bench shirt on sagittal bar path |journal=Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research |volume=23 |issue=4 |pages=1125–1128 |doi=10.1519/JSC.0b013e3181918949 |issn=1533-4287 |pmid=19528864}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Canada |first=W. P. C. |date=2020-06-15 |title=BENCH SHIRT BASICS |url=https://www.wpccanadapowerlifting.com/post/bench-shirt-basics |access-date=2024-08-22 |website=WPC Canada |language=en}}</ref>

=== Equipped deadlift ===
For the deadlift, deadlift suits are used for the event. There are single-ply and multi-ply deadlift suits. The elastic energy is built when the lifter goes down to set up and place their grip on the bar before the deadlift attempt. The deadlift suit aids core and spine stability and can increase the speed off the floor at the beginning of the lift. However, deadlift suits are least likely to carry over additional weight in comparison to equipped squatting and equipped bench pressing.<ref name=":6" /><ref name=":7" /><ref>{{Cite web |date=2023-11-17 |title=Raw vs Equipped Powerlifting |url=https://ironbullstrength.com/blogs/powerlifting/raw-vs-equipped-powerlifting |access-date=2024-08-22 |website=Iron Bull Strength - USA |language=en}}</ref>

== Classes and categories ==
'''Weight classes:'''

Most powerlifting federations use the following weight classes:<ref>{{Cite web |title=USA Powerlifting Technical Rules 2013 |url=http://www.usapowerlifting.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/02/USAPL-Rulebook-2013_1.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140726233631/http://www.usapowerlifting.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/02/USAPL-Rulebook-2013_1.pdf |archive-date=26 July 2014 |access-date=16 July 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://uspla.org/home/wp-content/uploads/2014/07/USPA-Rulebook-v070614.pdf|title=Welcome uspla.org - BlueHost.com|website=Uspla.org|access-date=15 October 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140726004753/http://uspla.org/home/wp-content/uploads/2014/07/USPA-Rulebook-v070614.pdf|archive-date=26 July 2014|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.southernpowerlifting.com/form.php?id=7|title=Southern Powerlifting Federation|work=southernpowerlifting.com|access-date=22 February 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140225075134/http://www.southernpowerlifting.com/form.php?id=7|archive-date=25 February 2014|url-status=dead}}</ref>

Men: −52&nbsp;kg, −56&nbsp;kg, −60&nbsp;kg, −67.5&nbsp;kg, −75&nbsp;kg, −82.5&nbsp;kg, −90&nbsp;kg, −100&nbsp;kg, −110&nbsp;kg, −125&nbsp;kg, −140&nbsp;kg, 140&nbsp;kg+

Women: −44&nbsp;kg, −48&nbsp;kg, −52&nbsp;kg, −56&nbsp;kg, −60&nbsp;kg, −67.5&nbsp;kg, −75&nbsp;kg, −82.5&nbsp;kg, −90&nbsp;kg, 90&nbsp;kg+

'''IPF weight classes:'''

In 2010, the IPF introduced the following new weight classes effective January 1, 2011:<ref>{{Cite journal |date=January 2011 |title=IPF Technical Rules Book 2011 |url=https://styrkeloft.no/wp-content/uploads/2011/01/IPF_rulebook_01_2011.pdf |journal=International Powerlifting Federation}}</ref>

Men: −53&nbsp;kg (sub-junior/junior), −59&nbsp;kg, −66&nbsp;kg, −74&nbsp;kg, −83&nbsp;kg, −93&nbsp;kg, −105&nbsp;kg, −120&nbsp;kg, 120&nbsp;kg+

Women: −43&nbsp;kg (sub-junior/junior), −47&nbsp;kg, −52&nbsp;kg, −57&nbsp;kg, −63&nbsp;kg, −72&nbsp;kg, −84&nbsp;kg, 84&nbsp;kg+

In 2020, the IPF announced the 72 kg weight class would be replaced with the 69 and 76 kg weight class effective January 1, 2021.<ref>{{Cite web |title=IPF Technical Rule Changes |url=https://www.powerlifting.sport/fileadmin/ipf/data/news/2020/IPF_Technical_Rule_Changes_for_2021.pdf}}</ref>

'''Age categories'''

Age categories are depended on the federation.

The IPF uses the following age categories: sub-junior (14–18), junior (19–23), open (any age), masters 1 (40–49), masters 2 (50–59), masters 3 (60–69), masters 4 (70+).<ref>{{Cite web |date=2016-04-26 |title=Powerlifting Weight Classes (Infographic) |url=https://barbend.com/powerlifting-weight-classes/ |access-date=2024-07-29 |language=en-US}}</ref>

Age categories are dependent on the year of the participant's birth. For example, if an athlete turns 18 years old in July, the athlete is considered an 18-year-old sub-junior throughout the calendar year.<ref>{{Cite journal |date=January 2023 |title=IPF Technical Rules Book 2023 |url=https://www.powerlifting.sport/fileadmin/ipf/data/rules/technical-rules/english/IPF_Technical_Rules_Book_2023__1_.pdf |journal=International Powerlifting Federation |pages=3–4}}</ref> Other federations typically break the Masters categories down to 5-year increments, for example, 40–44, 45–49, 50–54, etc.<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal |date=January 1, 2022 |title=United States Powerlifting Association Technical Rules |url=https://uspa.net/wp-content/uploads/2022/03/USPA_Rulebook-1.pdf |journal=United States Powerlifting Association |pages=8}}</ref> Some federations also include a sub-master class from 33 (or 35) to 39, however some of these federations only use this category for record keeping purposes and do not use it as a competitive category in meets.<ref name=":2" />

== Competition ==
A powerlifting competition takes place as follows:

<blockquote>
Each competitor is allowed three attempts on each of the squat, bench press, and deadlift, depending on their standing and the organization they are lifting in. The lifter's best valid attempt on each lift counts toward the competition total. For each weightclass, the lifter with the highest total wins. In many meets, the lifter with the highest total relative to their weight class also wins.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Ball |first1=Robert |last2=Weidman |first2=Drew |date=2018 |title=Analysis of USA Powerlifting Federation Data From January 1, 2012–June 11, 2016 |url=https://journals.lww.com/nsca-jscr/fulltext/2018/07000/analysis_of_usa_powerlifting_federation_data_from.6.aspx |journal=The Journal of Strength & Conditioning Research |language=en-US |volume=32 |issue=7 |pages=1843 |doi=10.1519/JSC.0000000000002103 |issn=1064-8011|url-access=subscription }}</ref> If two or more lifters achieve the same total, the lighter lifter ranks above the heavier lifter.<ref>IPF {{cite web |date=March 2007 |title=IPF Technical Rules Book 2007 |url=http://www.powerlifting-ipf.com/IPF_rulebook_2007.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070929023106/http://www.powerlifting-ipf.com/IPF_rulebook_2007.pdf |archive-date=29 September 2007 |access-date=12 August 2007 |website=International Powerlifting Federation}}&nbsp;{{small|(523&nbsp;KB)}} (PDF), p. 3. Retrieved 12 August 2007.</ref>
</blockquote>

Competitors are judged against other lifters of the same [[sex]], [[weight class]], and age.<ref>{{Cite web |last1=Stone |first1=Chris |last2=Miller |first2=Tom |date=2020-07-03 |title=Understanding Powerlifting Weight Classes |url=https://fitnessvolt.com/powerlifting-weight-classes/ |access-date=2024-08-29 |website=Fitness Volt |language=en-US}}</ref> Comparisons of lifters and scores across different weight classes can also be made using [[handicapping]] systems. World federations use the following ones: IPF GL Points,<ref>{{Cite web |title=What Is a Good IPF GL Score for Powerlifters? |url=https://www.sportivetricks.co/articles/powerlifting/266/what-is-a-good-ipf-score-for-powerlifters |website=Sportive Tricks}}</ref> Glossbrenner,<ref>{{Cite web |title=APF BEST LIFTER FORMULA |url=https://worldpowerliftingcongress.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/02/Glossbrenner.htm |access-date=2024-08-29 |website=World Powerlifting Congress}}</ref> Reshel,<ref>{{Cite web |last=Dunn |first=Will Freeman |date=2018-05-06 |title=Powerlifting Formulas – Is Wilks Best, and What Are the Alternatives? |url=https://www.taylorsstrength.co.uk/powerlifting-formulas-is-wilks-best-and-what-are-the-alternatives/ |access-date=2024-08-29 |website=Taylor's Strength Training |language=en-GB}}</ref> Outstanding Lifter,<ref>{{cite web |title=Bodovni koeficijenti |url=http://gmax.hr/?page_id=600 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150217101110/http://gmax.hr/?page_id=600 |archive-date=17 February 2015 |access-date=5 September 2019 |publisher=Go Max |language=hr}}</ref> Schwartz/Malone,<ref>{{Cite journal |date=June 2009 |title=SCHWARTZ & MALONE FORMULA |url=https://www.bellarmine.edu/docs/default-source/intramural-docs-2/BenchPress_pdf.pdf?sfvrsn=e420c7d3_0 |journal=Bellarmine University Intramural Sports |pages=1}}</ref> Siff;<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-10-03 |title=Infographic: The Greatest Wilks Scores of All Time (2024) |url=https://barbend.com/best-wilks-scores/ |access-date=2024-08-29 |website=BarBend |language=en-US}}</ref> for the junior age categories, Foster coefficient is mostly used;<ref name=":14">{{Cite journal |title=Age Coefficients Used In USA Powerlifting |url=https://www.usaplmn.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/04/USAPL-Age-Coefficients.pdf |journal=USA Powerlifting Minnesota |pages=1}}</ref> for the masters age categories, McCulloch or Reshel coefficients are mostly used.<ref name=":14" /> Winner of a competition based on an official coefficient used by presiding world federation is called ''best lifter''.<ref>{{Cite web |last=sannong |date=2015-02-13 |title=How is the "Best Lifter" determined in a meet? |url=https://worldpowerliftingcongress.com/how-is-the-best-lifter-determined-in-an-apf-meet/ |access-date=2024-08-25 |website=World Powerlifting Congress |language=en-US}}</ref>

== Events ==

In a powerlifting competition, sometimes referred to as standard competition, there are three events: [[bench press]], [[squat (exercise)|squat]] and [[deadlift]]. Placing is achieved via combined total.<ref name=":13">{{Cite web |date=April 7, 2021 |title=Beginner's Guide to Powerlifting - Lifts, Competitions, Judges |url=https://www.issaonline.com/blog/post/beginners-guide-to-powerlifting-lifts-competitions-judges |access-date=2024-08-27 |website=ISSA Online |language=en}}</ref> Some variations of this are found at some meets such as "push-pull only" meets where lifters only compete in the bench press and deadlift, with the bench press coming first and the deadlift after.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Halse |first=Henry |date=July 8, 2011 |title=What Is Pull/Push Powerlifting? |url=https://www.sportsrec.com/419541-what-is-pull-push-powerlifting.html |access-date=2024-08-27 |website=SportsRec |language=en}}</ref> Single lift meets are often held for the bench press and the deadlift.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Goggins |first=Steve |date=2018-02-16 |title=WATCH: How Would You Program for a Deadlift Only Meet? |url=https://www.elitefts.com/education/watch-how-would-you-program-for-a-deadlift-only-meet/ |access-date=2024-08-27 |website=Elite FTS |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Naspinski |first=Gabriel |date=2015-02-05 |title=Programming Considerations for Bench-Only Competitors |url=https://www.elitefts.com/education/programming-considerations-for-bench-only-competitors/ |access-date=2024-08-27 |website=Elite FTS |language=en}}</ref>

At a meet, the events will follow in order: squat, then bench press, and the deadlift will be the final lift of the meet.<ref name=":13" />

== Rules ==
=== Squat ===
There are two types depending on equipment used: conventional stand and monolift stand.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.powerliftingtowin.com/powerlifting-federations/|title=Powerlifting Federations|last=Navraez|first=Israel Thomas|website=Powerlifting to Win}}</ref>

The squat starts with the lifter standing erect and the bar loaded with weights resting on the lifter's shoulders or traps. A high bar and low bar position can be used.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Padilla |first=Sebastian |title=High bar vs Low bar Squats |url=https://www.socalpowerlifting.net/post/high-bar-vs-low-bar-squats#:~:text=Now%20both%20high%20bar%20and,and%20express%20top-end%20strength. |access-date=2024-08-23 |website=SoCal Powerlifting}}</ref> At the referee's command, the squat begins. The lifter creates a break in the hips, bends their knees and drops into a [[squatting position]]. The lifter then ascends back to an erect position. At the referee's command, the bar is returned to the rack and the lift is completed.<ref name=":9">{{Cite journal |date=January 23, 2024 |title=IPF Technical Rules Book 2024 |url=https://www.powerlifting.sport/fileadmin/ipf/data/rules/technical-rules/english/IPF_Technical_Rules_Book_2024_24_Jan.pdf |journal=International Powerlifting Federation |pages=20}}</ref>

After removing the bar from the racks while facing the front of the platform, the lifter may move forward or backward to establish the lifting position. The bar shall be held horizontally across the shoulders with the hands and/or fingers gripping the bar, and the feet flat upon the platform with the knees locked. The lifter shall wait in this position for the head referee's signal to rack the weights.<ref name=":9" />

The lifter will be allowed only one commencement signal per attempt. The lifter may be given an additional attempt at the same weight at the head referee's discretion if failure in an attempt was due to any error by one or more of the spotters or by misload.<ref name=":9" />

==== Causes for disqualification ====
*Failure to observe the head referee's signals at the commencement or completion of a squat.<ref name=":8" />
*Double bouncing at the bottom of the squat.<ref name=":10" />
*Failure to assume an erect position with knees locked at the end of the squat.<ref name=":10" />
*Any downward movement during the squat ascent.<ref name=":10" />
*Movement of the feet laterally, backward or forward that would constitute a step or stumble after given the 'squat' command and before the 'rack' command.<ref name=":8" />
*Failure to squat to depth.{{Explanatory footnote|Depth rules are dependent on the federation. The IPF requires that lifters bend the knees and lower the body until the surface of the legs at the hip joint is lower than the tops of the knees.<ref>{{Cite journal |date=January 23, 2024 |title=IPF Technical Rules Book 2024 |url=https://www.powerlifting.sport/fileadmin/ipf/data/rules/technical-rules/english/IPF_Technical_Rules_Book_2024_24_Jan.pdf |journal=International Powerlifting Federation |pages=10}}</ref> Other federations allow the hip joint to be parallel with the knee joint.<ref>{{Cite journal |date=March 13, 2024 |title=USPA Rulebook March 13th, 2024 |url=https://uspa.net/wp-content/uploads/2024/03/USPA-Rulebook-March-13th-2024.pdf |journal=United States Powerlifting Association |pages=26 & 27}}</ref>}}
*Contact with the bar by the spotters between the referee's signals.<ref name=":8" />
*Contact of elbows or upper arms with the legs.<ref name=":8" />
*Any dropping or dumping of the bar.<ref name=":8" />

=== Bench press ===
With the lifter resting on the bench, the lifter takes the loaded bar at arm's length. At the discretion of the referee's signal, the lifter lowers the bar to the chest. When the bar becomes motionless on the chest, the referee gives a press command. Then the referee will call 'rack' and the lift is completed as the weight is returned to the rack.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Jacques |first=Heather |date=2022-11-01 |title=Powerlifting Rules & Commands for Squat, Bench & Deadlift |url=https://liftvault.com/resources/powerlifting-commands/ |access-date=2024-08-25 |website=Lift Vault |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Padilla |first=Sebastian |title=Possible Reasons for Red Lights in Powerlifting |url=https://www.socalpowerlifting.net/post/possible-reasons-for-red-lights-in-powerlifting |access-date=2024-08-25 |website=SoCal Powerlifting}}</ref>

The bench equipment will be placed on the platform with the head facing the front or angled up to 45 degrees. The head referee will be positioned on the head side of the bench press discipline.<ref name=":11">{{Cite journal |date=January 23, 2024 |title=IPF Technical Rules Book 2024 |url=https://www.powerlifting.sport/fileadmin/ipf/data/rules/technical-rules/english/IPF_Technical_Rules_Book_2024_24_Jan.pdf |journal=International Powerlifting Federation |pages=21}}</ref>

To achieve firm footing, a lifter of any height may use discs or blocks to build up the surface of the platform. Whichever method is chosen, the shoes must be in a solid contact with the surface.<ref name=":11" />

A lift off may be used by the discretion of the lifter to arm's length. A designated spotter, having provided a centre lift off, must immediately clear the area in front of the head referee. If the personal spotter does not immediately leave the platform area and/or is in any way which impedes the head referees' responsibilities, the referees may determine that the lift is unacceptable, and be declared "no lift" by the referees and given three red lights.<ref name=":11" /><ref>{{Cite journal |title=WPC Official Rule Book 2016 Edition |url=https://worldpowerliftingcongress.com/wp-content/uploads/rules/WPC_Rule_book_Official.pdf |journal=World Powerlifting Congress |pages=8}}</ref>

==== Causes for disqualification ====
*Failure to observe the referee's signals at the commencement or completion of the lift.<ref name=":8">{{Cite journal |date=January 23, 2024 |title=IPF Technical Rules Book 2024 |url=https://www.powerlifting.sport/fileadmin/ipf/data/rules/technical-rules/english/IPF_Technical_Rules_Book_2024_24_Jan.pdf |journal=International Powerlifting Federation |pages=12}}</ref>
*Any change in the elected position such as shoulders, glutes, and head after the 'start' and before the 'rack' command.<ref name=":8" />
*Allowing the bar to sink into the chest after receiving the referee's signal.<ref name=":8" />
*Pronounced uneven extension of the arms during or at the completion of the lift.<ref>{{Cite journal |title=Move United Para Powerlifting Rulebook 2023 |url=https://moveunitedsport.org/app/uploads/2023/02/2023-Move-United-Para-Powerlifting-Rules.pdf |journal=Move United |pages=6}}</ref>
*Any downward motion of the bar during the course of being pressed out.<ref name=":10">{{Cite journal |date=January 23, 2024 |title=IPF Technical Rules Book 2024 |url=https://www.powerlifting.sport/fileadmin/ipf/data/rules/technical-rules/english/IPF_Technical_Rules_Book_2024_24_Jan.pdf |journal=International Powerlifting Federation |pages=11}}</ref>
*Contact with the bar by the spotters between the referee's signals.<ref name=":8" />
*Any contact of the lifter's shoes with the bench or its supports.<ref name=":8" />
*Deliberate contact between the bar and the bar rest uprights during the lift to assist the completion of the press.<ref name=":8" />
*Failure to lower both elbow joints to the level with or below the top surface of both shoulder joints.<ref name=":12">{{Cite journal |date=January 23, 2024 |title=IPF Technical Rules Book 2024 |url=https://www.powerlifting.sport/fileadmin/ipf/data/rules/technical-rules/english/IPF_Technical_Rules_Book_2024_24_Jan.pdf |journal=International Powerlifting Federation |pages=10}}</ref>

=== Deadlift ===
In the deadlift, the lifter may choose a conventional stance or [[Sumo deadlift|sumo stance]].<ref>{{Cite web |last=Scantalides |first=Artemis |date=2017-06-20 |title=How To Choose Your Deadlift Stance |url=https://ironbodybyartemis.com/2017/06/20/how-to-choose-your-deadlift-stance/ |access-date=2024-08-25 |website=Aligned & Empowered Coaching |language=en}}</ref> The lifter grasps the loaded bar which is resting on the platform floor. The lifter pulls the weights off the floor and assumes an erect position. The knees must be locked and the shoulders must be back, with the weight held by the lifter's hands. At the referee's command, the bar will be returned to the floor under the control of the lifter.<ref>{{Cite web |date=December 31, 2019 |title=A Guide Powerlifting Deadlift Rules |url=https://gunsmithfitness.com/blogs/news/powerlifting-deadlift-rules-guide |access-date=2024-08-25 |website=Gunsmith Fitness |language=en}}</ref>

The bar must be laid horizontally in front of the lifter's feet, gripped with an optional grip in both hands, and lifted until the lifter is standing erect. Any raising of the bar or any deliberate attempt to do so will count as an attempt.<ref>{{Cite journal |date=January 23, 2024 |title=IPF Technical Rules Book 2024 |url=https://www.powerlifting.sport/fileadmin/ipf/data/rules/technical-rules/english/IPF_Technical_Rules_Book_2024_24_Jan.pdf |journal=International Powerlifting Federation}}</ref>

==== Causes for disqualification ====
* Any downward motion of the bar before lockout.<ref name=":10" />
* Failure to stand erect.<ref name=":12" />
* Failure to lock the knees while standing erect.<ref name=":12" />
* Supporting the bar on the thighs during the performance of the lift.<ref name=":10" />{{Explanatory footnote|'Supporting' is defined as a body position adopted by the lifter that could not be maintained without the counterbalance of the weight being lifted.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Hitching the Deadlift {{!}} Mark Rippetoe |url=https://startingstrength.com/training/hitching-the-deadlift |access-date=2024-08-25 |website=Starting Strength |language=en-US}}</ref>}}
* Movement of the feet laterally, backward or forward that would constitute a step or stumble.<ref name=":8" />
* Lowering the bar before receiving the head referee's signal.<ref name=":8" />
* Lowering the bar to the platform without maintaining control with both hands.<ref name=":8" />

== Training ==

=== Weight training ===
Powerlifters practice [[weight training]] to improve performance in the three competitive lifts—the squat, bench press and deadlift. Weight training routines used in powerlifting are extremely varied. For example, some methods call for the use of many variations on the contest lifts, while others call for a more limited selection of exercises and an emphasis on mastering the contest lifts through repetition.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.marylandpowerlifting.com/page.asp?contentID=146 |title=Training Specificity for Powerlifters |website=Marylandpowerlifting.com |access-date=2014-02-22}}</ref> While many powerlifting routines invoke principles of [[sports science]], such as specific adaptation to imposed demand ([[SAID principle]]),<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.powerliftingwatch.com/node/16205|title=The Seven Principles and You|work=powerliftingwatch.com}}</ref> there is some controversy around the scientific foundations of particular training methods, as exemplified by the debate over the merits of "speed work" using [[Velocity Based Training (VBT)|velocity based training]] or training to attain maximum acceleration of submaximal weights.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.jtsstrength.com/articles/2013/03/25/why-speed-work-doesnt-work/|title=Why Speed Work Doesn't Work|website=Jtsstrength.com|date=25 March 2013}}</ref> Powerlifting training differs from [[bodybuilding]] and [[Olympic weightlifting|weightlifting]], with less focus on volume and [[hypertrophy]] than bodybuilding and less focus on [[Power training|power generation]] than weightlifting.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Chiu|first=Loren|title=Powerlifting Versus Weightlifting for Athletic Performance|journal= Strength and Conditioning Journal|volume=29|issue=5|pages=55–57|doi=10.1519/00126548-200710000-00008|year=2007|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Schoenfeld|first1=Brad J.|last2=Ratamess|first2=Nicholas A.|last3=Peterson|first3=Mark D.|last4=Contreras|first4=Bret|last5=Sonmez|first5=G. T.|last6=Alvar|first6=Brent A.|date=October 2014|title=Effects of different volume-equated resistance training loading strategies on muscular adaptations in well-trained men|journal= Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research|volume=28|issue=10|pages=2909–2918|doi=10.1519/JSC.0000000000000480|issn=1533-4287|pmid=24714538|s2cid=619257|doi-access=free}}</ref>

Common [[Strength training|set & rep schemes]] are based on a [[percentage]] of the lifter's 1RM (one rep maximum—meaning the most weight they are capable of lifting one time). For example, 5 sets of 5 reps (5x5) at 75% of the 1RM. Rest periods between sets range from 2–5 minutes based on the lifter's ability to recover fully for the next set.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.t-nation.com/training/22-proven-rep-schemes|title=22 Proven Rep Schemes|last=Thibaudeau|first=Christian|website=T-nation.com|date=16 June 2014|access-date=2016-04-13}}</ref>

Recent advances in the accessibility of reliable and affordable technology has seen a rise in the popularity of [[Velocity Based Training (VBT)|velocity based training]] as a method to autoregulate daily training loads based on bar speed as a marker of readiness and neural fatigue status.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Nevin|first=Jonpaul|date=August 2019|title=Autoregulated Resistance Training: Does Velocity-Based Training Represent the Future?|url=https://dx.doi.org/10.1519/SSC.0000000000000471|journal=Strength & Conditioning Journal|language=en|volume=41|issue=4|pages=34–39|doi=10.1519/SSC.0000000000000471|s2cid=86816034|issn=1524-1602|url-access=subscription}}</ref> Research has shown this to be effective when used both generally or on an individualized basis,<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Dorrell|first1=Harry F.|last2=Moore|first2=Joseph M.|last3=Gee|first3=Thomas I.|date=2020-06-09|title=Comparison of individual and group-based load-velocity profiling as a means to dictate training load over a 6-week strength and power intervention|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/02640414.2020.1767338|journal=Journal of Sports Sciences|volume=38|issue=17|pages=2013–2020|doi=10.1080/02640414.2020.1767338|pmid=32516094|s2cid=219561461|issn=0264-0414|url-access=subscription}}</ref> and in some studies a superior programming methodology to percentage systems.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Orange|first1=Samuel T.|last2=Metcalfe|first2=James W.|last3=Robinson|first3=Ashley|last4=Applegarth|first4=Mark J.|last5=Liefeith|first5=Andreas|date=2020-04-01|title=Effects of In-Season Velocity- Versus Percentage-Based Training in Academy Rugby League Players|url=https://journals.humankinetics.com/view/journals/ijspp/15/4/article-p554.xml|journal=International Journal of Sports Physiology and Performance|volume=15|issue=4|pages=554–561|doi=10.1123/ijspp.2019-0058|pmid=31672928|s2cid=202250276|issn=1555-0265|url-access=subscription}}</ref><ref>{{Cite thesis|title=Analysis of Heart Rate Training Responses in Division I Collegiate Athletes|publisher=Illinois State University|first=Maria|last=Canino|year=2015 |doi=10.30707/etd2015.canino.m|doi-access=free}}</ref>

Accessory movements are used to complement the competition lifts. Common accessory movements in powerlifting include [[Bent-over row|bent over row]],<ref>{{Cite web |last=Dewar |first=Mike |date=2022-05-25 |title=Use the Bent-Over Row to Make Big Gains With Big Weights |url=https://barbend.com/bent-over-row/ |access-date=2024-08-25 |website=BarBend |language=en-US}}</ref> lunges,<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Lee |first1=Jihoo |last2=Kim |first2=Jisu |date=2022-12-26 |title=Effects of an 8-week lunge exercise on an unstable support surface on lower-extremity muscle function and balance in middle-aged women |journal=Physical Activity and Nutrition |volume=26 |issue=4 |pages=14–21 |doi=10.20463/pan.2022.0020 |issn=2733-7545 |pmc=9925109 |pmid=36775647}}</ref> good mornings,<ref>{{Cite web |last=Antonio Cortes |first=Alexander Juan |date=2013-01-21 |title=Good Mornings: Understanding a Great Exercise |url=https://www.elitefts.com/education/training/good-mornings-understanding-a-great-exercise/ |access-date=2024-08-25 |website=Elite FTS |language=en}}</ref> [[Pull-up (exercise)|pull ups]]<ref>{{Cite web |last= |first= |title=Pull Up Exercises for Powerlifting: What You Need to Know |url=https://magmafitness.com/blogs/magma-blog/pull-up-exercises-for-powerlifting-what-you-need-to-know |access-date=2024-08-25 |website=MAGMA Fitness |language=en}}</ref> and dips.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2023-04-21 |title=Will Dips Make You Stronger at Bench Press |url=https://www.fringesport.com/blogs/news/will-dips-make-you-stronger-at-bench-press |access-date=2024-08-25 |website=Fringe Sport |language=en}}</ref>

=== Variable resistance training ===
Variable resistance training relies upon adjusting resistance for stronger and weaker parts of a lift.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Arazi |first1=Hamid |last2=Khoshnoud |first2=Amin |last3=Asadi |first3=Abbas |last4=Tufano |first4=James J. |date=2021-04-12 |title=The effect of resistance training set configuration on strength and muscular performance adaptations in male powerlifters |journal=Scientific Reports |language=en |volume=11 |issue=1 |pages=7844 |doi=10.1038/s41598-021-87372-y |pmid=33846516 |pmc=8041766 |bibcode=2021NatSR..11.7844A |issn=2045-2322}}</ref> Any given movement has a strength phase sequence which involves moving through phases where a person is relatively stronger or weaker. This is commonly called a ‘strength curve’ which refers to the graphical representation of these phases.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Lingenfelser |first=Ryan |date=2014-07-22 |title=Understanding Strength Curves |url=https://www.rdlfitness.com/blog/understanding-strength-curves |access-date=2024-08-30 |website=RDLFITNESS |language=en-US}}</ref>{{Explanatory footnote|A movement may be considered as having any number of strength phases but usually is considered as having two main phases: a stronger and a weaker. When the movement becomes stronger during the exercise, this is called an ''ascending strength curve''. And when it becomes weaker this is called a ''descending strength curve''. Some exercises involve a different pattern of strong-weak-strong. This is called a ''bell shaped strength curve''.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Lingenfelser |first=Ryan |date=2014-07-22 |title=Understanding Strength Curves |url=https://www.rdlfitness.com/blog/understanding-strength-curves |access-date=2024-08-30 |website=RDLFITNESS |language=en-US}}</ref>}} These phases are based upon related anatomical factors such as joint angles, limb length, muscle engagement patterns, muscle strength ratios, etc.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Trezise |first1=J. |last2=Blazevich |first2=A. J. |date=2019-08-06 |title=Anatomical and Neuromuscular Determinants of Strength Change in Previously Untrained Men Following Heavy Strength Training |journal=Frontiers in Physiology |volume=10 |pages=1001 |doi=10.3389/fphys.2019.01001 |doi-access=free |issn=1664-042X |pmc=6691166 |pmid=31447693}}</ref> Variable resistance training typically involves increasing resistance (usually weight) in the stronger phase and reducing it in the weaker phase.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Silvester |first1=L Jay |title=Weight Training for Strength and Fitness |date=1992 |publisher=Jones and Bartlett |location=London |isbn=0867201398 |pages=23–25}}</ref> The additional resistance can be added through the use of chains attached to the barbell for a squat in the bottom portion of the squat reduce the overall weight.<ref name=":15">{{Cite journal |last1=Jiang |first1=Dongting |last2=Xu |first2=Gang |date=2022-08-29 |title=Effects of chains squat training with different chain load ratio on the explosive strength of young basketball players' lower limbs |journal=Frontiers in Physiology |language=English |volume=13 |doi=10.3389/fphys.2022.979367 |doi-access=free |pmid=36105293 |pmc=9465379 |issn=1664-042X}}</ref> At the top portion of the squat, the chains are lifted from the floor to increase overall weight.<ref name=":15" /> Bands can be used to increase resistance in a similar manner.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Andersen |first1=Vidar |last2=Fimland |first2=Marius S. |last3=Kolnes |first3=Maria K. |last4=Saeterbakken |first4=Atle H. |date=2015-10-29 |title=Elastic Bands in Combination With Free Weights in Strength Training: Neuromuscular Effects |journal=Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research |volume=29 |issue=10 |pages=2932–2940 |doi=10.1519/JSC.0000000000000950 |issn=1533-4287 |pmid=25807031}}</ref> Alternatively, partial reps with heavier weights can be used in conjunction with full reps with lighter weights.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Dieter |first=Brad |title=Are Partial Reps A Waste of Time? |url=https://blog.nasm.org/are-partial-reps-a-waste-of-time |access-date=2024-08-30 |website=NASM |language=en}}</ref> Training both phases accordingly through variable resistance techniques can allow the muscles to strengthen in accordance with a person’s natural strength curve.<ref name=":16" /> It avoids a situation where, as a result of training, the weaker phase force potential is disproportionately great in regard to the stronger phase force potential.<ref name=":16" /> These benefits can help a lifter to become more explosive and to complete a lift.<ref name=":16">{{cite web |last1=Conalton |first1=Bobby |title=Benefits of Lifting Chains |url=https://www.elitefts.com/education/training/benefits-of-lifting-chains/ |website=elitefts |date=15 May 2013 |access-date=19 March 2021}}</ref>

=== Aerobic exercise ===
In addition to weight training, powerlifters may pursue other forms of training to improve their performance. [[aerobic exercise|Aerobic exercises]] may be used to improve endurance during drawn-out competitions and support recovery from weight training sessions.<ref>{{cite web |title=Do Powerlifters Need Cardio? |url=http://articles.elitefts.com/training-articles/do-powerlifters-need-cardio/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130609131634/http://articles.elitefts.com/training-articles/do-powerlifters-need-cardio/ |archive-date=9 June 2013 |access-date=12 June 2013 |website=EliteFTS}}</ref> This would be more noted as GPP training.

=== Nutrition ===
Although powerlifting nutrition is subjective as there can be differences from person to person, there are general guidelines that athletes typically follow in order to perform optimally that can be applied to a strength sport setting. The primary concern of most diets is caloric intake as sufficient calories are needed to offset the energy expenditure of training allowing for adequate recovery from exercise. The International Society of Sports Nutrition recommends 40-70 kcals/kg/day for strength athletes who engage in 2-3 hours of intense training 5-6 days per week, compared to the 25–35 kcals/kg/day recommended for the average person engaging in a general fitness program, as regular training causes additional energy expenditure.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |last1=Kerksick |first1=Chad M. |last2=Wilborn |first2=Colin D. |last3=Roberts |first3=Michael D. |last4=Smith-Ryan |first4=Abbie |last5=Kleiner |first5=Susan M. |last6=Jäger |first6=Ralf |last7=Collins |first7=Rick |last8=Cooke |first8=Mathew |last9=Davis |first9=Jaci N. |last10=Galvan |first10=Elfego |last11=Greenwood |first11=Mike |last12=Lowery |first12=Lonnie M. |last13=Wildman |first13=Robert |last14=Antonio |first14=Jose |last15=Kreider |first15=Richard B. |date=2018-08-01 |title=ISSN exercise & sports nutrition review update: research & recommendations |journal=Journal of the International Society of Sports Nutrition |volume=15 |issue=1 |pages=38 |doi=10.1186/s12970-018-0242-y |issn=1550-2783 |pmc=6090881 |pmid=30068354 |doi-access=free }}</ref> Additionally, when powerlifters are in the off season, it is recommended that athletes increase their caloric intake in order to meet the recommendations of the ISSN and optimize their training.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Oliver |first1=Jonathan M |last2=Mardock |first2=Michelle A |last3=Biehl |first3=Adam J |last4=Riechman |first4=Steven E |date=2010-09-15 |title=Macronutrient intake in Collegiate powerlifters participating in off season training |journal=Journal of the International Society of Sports Nutrition |volume=7 |issue=sup1 |pages=P8 |doi=10.1186/1550-2783-7-S1-P8 |pmc=2951052 |doi-access=free }}</ref> In addition to caloric intake, macronutrient intake plays a major role in the success of an athlete's diet. Protein, carbohydrates, and fats all play different roles in the performance and recovery process.<ref name=":0" /> Optimizing protein intake enables a powerlifter to build more muscle and recover properly from intense training sessions.<ref name=":0" /> The Journal of Sports Sciences recommends that strength athletes consume 1.6g–1.7g protein/kg/day in servings of 20 grams, 5 to 6 times a day for maximal muscle growth.<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal |last1=Slater |first1=Gary |last2=Phillips |first2=Stuart M. |date=2011-01-01 |title=Nutrition guidelines for strength sports: Sprinting, weightlifting, throwing events, and bodybuilding |url=https://doi.org/10.1080/02640414.2011.574722 |journal=Journal of Sports Sciences |volume=29 |issue=sup1 |pages=S67–S77 |doi=10.1080/02640414.2011.574722 |issn=0264-0414 |pmid=21660839|s2cid=8141005 |url-access=subscription }}</ref> Sufficient carbohydrate intake allows an athlete to have adequate energy during training and restore any glycogen that is lost throughout their respect exercise.<ref name=":0" /> However, it may not be as crucial for powerlifters as it for endurance athletes like runners due to the nature of the sport. For strength athletes, it is recommended to ingest a range of 4g to 7g carbohydrate/kg/day depending on the stage of training. Timing carbohydrate intake around training sessions may benefit powerlifters by giving them more energy throughout their workout.<ref name=":1" /> Moreover, fats may help a strength athlete who is struggling to stay energized by providing more energy density, however, there is unclear evidence on the necessity of fats in a powerlifter's diet.<ref name=":1" /> In addition to nutrition from foods, it is very common for powerlifters to take supplements in their diets. Caffeine and creatine mono-hydrate are two of the most research and common supplements among strength athletes as are proven to have benefits for training and recovery.<ref name=":1" />

== Federations ==
Prominent international federations include:
* Powerlifting America
* 100% Raw Powerlifting Federation
* [[International Powerlifting Federation]] (IPF)
* Natural Athlete Strength Association (NASA)
* Revolution Powerlifting Syndicate (RPS)
* [[USA Powerlifting]] (USAPL)
* [[World Drug-Free Powerlifting Federation]] (WDFPF)
* World Powerlifting Alliance (WPA)
* [[World Powerlifting Congress]] (WPC)
* Southern Powerlifting Federation (SPF)
* Global Powerlifting Committee (GPC)
* Canadian Powerlifting Union (CPU)

Of these federations, the oldest and most prominent is the [[International Powerlifting Federation|IPF]], which comprises federations from over 100 countries located on six continents.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Disciplines - International Powerlifting Federation IPF |url=https://www.powerlifting.sport/about-ipf/disciplines |access-date=2024-08-30 |website=www.powerlifting.sport}}</ref>

The IPF is the federation responsible for coordinating participation in the [[World Games]], an international event affiliated with the [[International Olympic Committee]].<ref>{{Cite web |last=Whiteley |first=Jo |date=2023-07-03 |title=Raw Powerlifting Will Debut at the 2025 World Games |url=https://barbend.com/raw-powerlifting-debut-2025-world-games/ |access-date=2024-08-30 |website=BarBend |language=en-US}}</ref> The IPF has many international affiliates.<ref>{{cite web|title=Regions|url=https://www.powerlifting.sport/federation/regions|publisher=International Powerlifting Federation|access-date=28 November 2022}}</ref>

Different federations have different rules and different interpretations of these rules, leading to a myriad of variations.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-06-30 |title=Choosing A Powerlifting Federation |url=https://fitnessvolt.com/powerlifting-federations/ |access-date=2024-09-01 |website=Fitness Volt |language=en-US}}</ref> Differences arise on the equipment eligible, clothing, drug testing and aspects of allowable technique.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Krawczyk |first=Bryce |date=2017-07-11 |title=So You Wanna Be a Powerlifter? Know Your Equipment |url=https://barbend.com/powerlifting-equipment-federations/ |access-date=2024-09-01 |website=BarBend |language=en-US}}</ref>

Further, the IPF has suspended entire member nations' federations, including the Russian Federation, Ukraine, Kazakhstan, Iran, India and Uzbekistan, for repeated violations of the IPF's anti-doping policies.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://powerlifting-ipf.com/fileadmin/data/Media_Newsletter/Press_Release_Russian_and_Ukranian_Suspension.pdf|title=Suspension of the Russian and Ukrainian Federation|website=IPF.com|access-date=2009-07-04|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110715110804/http://powerlifting-ipf.com/fileadmin/data/Media_Newsletter/Press_Release_Russian_and_Ukranian_Suspension.pdf|archive-date=15 July 2011|url-status=dead}}</ref>

In January 2019, USA Powerlifting (at the time, an affiliate of the IPF) updated their policy to exclude transgender participation, in accordance with [[IOC]] guidelines.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.usapowerlifting.com/transgender-participation-policy/|title=Transgender Participation Policy {{!}} USA Powerlifting|access-date=2020-03-30}}</ref>

On March 1, 2022, the IPF announced that [[Russia]] and [[Belarus]] has been temporarily banned from competition due to [[Russian invasion of Ukraine|Russia's invasion of Ukraine]] and the president of Belarus, [[Alexander Lukashenko]], supporting Russia's invasion.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2022-03-01 |title=War in Ukraine |url=https://www.powerlifting.sport/about-ipf/news/news-detail/war-in-ukraine |access-date=2024-08-05 |website=www.powerlifting.sport |language=en}}</ref>

== Rank and classification ==
There are several classifications in powerlifting determining rank. These typically include Elite, Master, Class I, II, III, IV. The Elite standard is considered to be within the top 1% of competing powerlifters.<ref name=":17">{{Cite web |last=Henriques |first=Tim |date=2024-07-01 |title=Lifter Classification Information |url=https://allaboutpowerlifting.com/lifter-classification-information/ |access-date=2024-09-01 |website=All About powerlifting |language=en-US}}</ref> Several standards exist, including the United States Powerlifting Association classifications,<ref name=":17" /> the IPF/Powerlifting America, USAPL (single-ply) classifications,<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.usapowerlifting.com/lifterscorner/ipfclass.shtml |title=USA Powerlifting - the Choice for Drug-free Strength Sport : USAPL/IPF Lifter Classification Standards |access-date=12 June 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130715155954/http://www.usapowerlifting.com/lifterscorner/ipfclass.shtml |archive-date=15 July 2013 |url-status=dead}}</ref> the APF (multi-ply) classifications,<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.worldpowerliftingcongress.com/Qualifying%20Rankings.htm |title=American Powerlifting Federation |access-date=12 June 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130517095453/http://www.worldpowerliftingcongress.com/Qualifying%20Rankings.htm |archive-date=17 May 2013 |url-status=dead}}</ref> and the Anti-Drug Athletes United (ADAU, raw) classifications.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.criticalbench.com/powerlifting-elite-classifications.htm|title=Powerlifting Equipped and Unequipped Elite Classification Charts|work=criticalbench.com}}</ref>

The ''Master'' classification should not be confused with the Master age division, which refers to athletes who are at least 40 years old.<ref>{{cite web |date=2013-01-01 |title=Technical Rule Book 2013 |url=http://www.powerlifting-ipf.com/fileadmin/data/Technical_Rules/2013_Technical_Rules_english.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130319094920/http://www.powerlifting-ipf.com/fileadmin/data/Technical_Rules/2013_Technical_Rules_english.pdf |archive-date=2013-03-19 |access-date=2013-06-07 |website=www.powerlifting.sport}}</ref>

== See also ==
{{Commons category|Powerlifting}}
{{Wiktionary}}
* [[List of world championships medalists in powerlifting (men)]]
* [[List of world championships medalists in powerlifting (women)]]
* [[World Drug-Free Powerlifting Federation]]
* [[Paralympic powerlifting]]
* [[Powerlifting USA]]
* [[Power training]]
* [[Strongman (strength athlete)]]
* [[Intercollegiate sports team champions#Powerlifting|U.S. intercollegiate powerlifting champions]]
* [[Weight training]]
* [[Progression of the bench press world record]]
* [[History of physical training and fitness]]
* [[List of powerlifters]]
* [[Weightlifting]]
* [[Strength athletics]]

== Notes ==
{{Notelist}}

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

{{Sports of the World Games program}}
{{Strength Sports}}
{{Main world championships}}

[[Category:Powerlifting| ]]
[[Category:Individual sports]]
[[Category:Athletic sports]]
[[Category:Physical exercise]]