View source for Prenatal care

{{Short description|Medical check-ups during pregnancy}}
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'''Prenatal care''', also known as '''antenatal care''', is a type of [[preventive healthcare]] for pregnant individuals. It is provided in the form of medical checkups and healthy lifestyle recommendations for the pregnant person. Antenatal care also consists of educating the pregnant individual about maternal physiological and biological changes in pregnancy, along with prenatal nutrition; all of which prevent potential health problems throughout the pregnancy and promote good health for the parent and the fetus.<ref>{{Cite web|title=WHO recommendations on antenatal care for a positive pregnancy experience|url=https://www.who.int/publications-detail-redirect/9789241549912|access-date=2021-12-04|website=www.who.int|language=en}}</ref><ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|last1=David|first1=Rodreck|last2=Evans|first2=Ruth|last3=Fraser|first3=Hamish SF|date=2021-01-01|title=Modelling Prenatal Care Pathways at a Central Hospital in Zimbabwe|journal=Health Services Insights|language=en|volume=14|article-number=11786329211062742|doi=10.1177/11786329211062742|pmid=34880627 |pmc=8647229 |issn=1178-6329}}</ref> The availability of routine prenatal care, including [[prenatal diagnosis|prenatal screening and diagnosis]], has played a part in reducing the frequency of [[maternal death]], [[miscarriage]]s, [[birth defects]], [[low birth weight]], [[neonatal infection]]s, and other preventable health problems.
==Prenatal Visits==
Traditional prenatal care in high-income countries generally consists of:
* monthly visits during the first two [[Pregnancy#Physiology|trimesters]] (from the 1st week to the 28th week)
* fortnightly visits from the 28th week to the 36th week of pregnancy
* weekly visits after 36th week to the delivery, from the 38th week to the 42nd week
* Assessment of parental needs and family dynamics

The [[World Health Organization|WHO]] recommends that pregnant women should all receive at least eight antenatal visits to spot and treat problems and give immunizations. Although antenatal care is important to improve the health of both mother and baby, many women do not receive the recommended eight visits.<ref>{{cite web|title=WHO recommendation on antenatal care contact schedules|url=https://extranet.who.int/rhl/topics/improving-health-system-performance/who-recommendation-antenatal-care-contact-schedules|access-date=July 30, 2020|website=WHO|publisher=World Health Organization}}{{dead link|date=December 2021|bot=medic}}{{cbignore|bot=medic}}</ref>
There is little evidence behind the number of antenatal visits pregnant women receive and what care and information is given at each visit.<ref name="ReferenceB">{{cite journal |last1=Dowswell |first1=T |last2=Carroli |first2=G |last3=Duley |first3=L |last4=Gates |first4=S |last5=Gülmezoglu |first5=AM |last6=Khan-Neelofur |first6=D |last7=Piaggio |first7=G |date=16 July 2015 |title=Alternative versus standard packages of antenatal care for low-risk pregnancy. |journal=The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews |volume=2015 |issue=7 |article-number=CD000934 |doi=10.1002/14651858.CD000934.pub3 |pmc=7061257 |pmid=26184394}}</ref> It has been suggested that women who have low-risk pregnancies should have fewer antenatal visits.<ref name="ReferenceB" /> However, when this was tested, women with fewer visits had babies who were much more likely to be admitted to neonatal intensive care and stay there for longer (though this could be down to chance results).<ref name="ReferenceB" /> 

A 2015 Cochrane Review findings buttresses this notion, with evidence that in settings with limited resources, where the number of visits is already low, programmes of ANC with reduced visits are associated with an increase in perinatal mortality.<ref name="ReferenceB" /> Therefore, it is doubtful that the reduced visits model is ideal, even in low-income countries (LICs), where pregnant women are already attending fewer appointments.<ref name=":0" /> Not only is visiting prenatal care early is highly recommended, but also a more flexible pathway allowing more visits, from the time a pregnant woman books for prenatal care, as it potentially enables more attention to those women who come late.<ref name=":0" /> Also, women who had fewer antenatal visits were not as satisfied with the care they received compared with women who had the standard number of visits.<ref name="ReferenceB" />

==Prenatal Examinations==
{{Main|Prenatal testing}}
At the initial antenatal care visit, pregnant women are classified into either low risk or high risk.<ref name=":7">{{Citation |last1=Board on Children |first1=Youth |title=Assessment of Risk in Pregnancy |date=2013-09-23 |work=An Update on Research Issues in the Assessment of Birth Settings: Workshop Summary |url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK201935/ |access-date=2025-04-21 |publisher=National Academies Press (US) |language=en |last2=Medicine |first2=Institute of |last3=Council |first3=National Research}}</ref> Antenatal risk assessment began in the United Kingdom before becoming a widespread practice.<ref name=":7" /> 

Prenatal screening is [[Experiment|testing]] for diseases or conditions in a [[fetus]] or [[embryo]] before it is born, and prenatal diagnosis refers to the official confirmation of these potential diseases of conditions. [[Obstetricians]] and [[midwives]] have the ability to monitor mother's health and [[prenatal development]] during pregnancy through series of regular check-ups.

Physical examinations generally consist of:
* Collection of the mother's (and general family) [[medical history]] 
* Checking [[blood pressure]] of the mother
* Documentation of the mother's height and weight
* [[Pelvic exam]]
* [[Doppler fetal heart rate monitor]]ing
* [[blood test|Blood]] and [[urine test]]s on the mother
* Discussion with caregiver

In some countries, such as the UK, the symphysial fundal height (SFH) is measured as part of antenatal appointments from 25 weeks of gestation.<ref>{{cite web |date=26 March 2008 |title=Antenatal care for uncomplicated pregnancies |url=https://www.nice.org.uk/guidance/cg62/chapter/appendix-d-antenatal-appointments-schedule-and-content |access-date=September 23, 2017 |website=NICE |publisher=National Institute for Health Care and Excellence}}</ref>  (The SFH is measured from the woman's pubic bone to the top of the uterus.<ref>{{cite web |title=Fetal Growth - Fundal Height Measurements |url=https://www.perinatal.org.uk/fetalgrowth/FundalHeight.aspx |access-date=September 23, 2017 |website=Perinatal Institute |archive-date=May 3, 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180503041956/http://www.perinatal.org.uk/fetalgrowth/FundalHeight.aspx }}</ref> A review into this practice found only one piece of research, so there is not enough evidence to say whether measuring the SFH helps to detect small or large babies.<ref name="pmid26346107">{{cite journal |last1=Robert Peter |first1=J |last2=Ho |first2=JJ |last3=Valliapan |first3=J |last4=Sivasangari |first4=S |date=8 September 2015 |title=Symphysial fundal height (SFH) measurement in pregnancy for detecting abnormal fetal growth. |journal=The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews |volume=2015 |issue=9 |article-number=CD008136 |doi=10.1002/14651858.CD008136.pub3 |pmc=6465049 |pmid=26346107}}</ref> As measuring the SFH is not costly and is used in many places, the review recommends carrying on this practice.<ref name="pmid26346107" />

Growth charts are a way of detecting small babies by the measuring the SFH.<ref name="pmid24830409">{{cite journal |last1=Carberry |first1=AE |last2=Gordon |first2=A |last3=Bond |first3=DM |last4=Hyett |first4=J |last5=Raynes-Greenow |first5=CH |last6=Jeffery |first6=HE |date=16 May 2014 |title=Customised versus population-based growth charts as a screening tool for detecting small for gestational age infants in low-risk pregnant women. |journal=The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews |volume=2014 |issue=5 |article-number=CD008549 |doi=10.1002/14651858.CD008549.pub3 |pmc=7175785 |pmid=24830409}}</ref> There are two types of growth chart:
# Population-based chart, which shows a standard growth and size for each baby
# Customized growth chart, which is calculated by looking at the mother's height and weight, along with the weights of their previous babies.<ref name="pmid24830409" />
Examples of these growth charts are created by the World Health Organization and Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, which differ based on the sex of the infant, and can be found at: https://www.cdc.gov/growthcharts/who-charts.html A review looking into which of these charts detected small babies found that there is no good quality research to show which is best.<ref name="pmid24830409" /> More research is needed before the customized growth charts are recommended because they cost more money and take more time for healthcare workers to make.<ref name="pmid24830409" />

== Prenatal Ultrasounds ==
[[Obstetric ultrasonography|Obstetric ultrasound]]s are most commonly performed during the second trimester at approximately week 20. Ultrasounds are considered relatively safe and have been used for over 35 years for monitoring pregnancy.
Among other things, ultrasounds are used to:{{citation needed|date=January 2025}}
* Diagnose pregnancy (uncommon)
* Check for the number of fetuses (e.g., twins, triplets, etc.) 
* Assess possible risks to the mother (e.g., [[miscarriage]], [[blighted ovum]], [[ectopic pregnancy]], or a [[molar pregnancy]] condition)
* Check for fetal malformation (e.g., [[club foot]], [[spina bifida]], [[cleft palate]], clenched fists)
* Determine if an [[intrauterine growth retardation]] condition exists
* Note the development of fetal body parts (e.g., [[heart]], [[brain]], [[liver]], [[stomach]], [[human skull|skull]], other [[bone]]s)
* Check the [[amniotic fluid]] and [[umbilical cord]] for possible problems
* Determine the due date and how far along the mother is based on measurements and relative developmental progress
Generally, an ultrasound is ordered whenever an abnormality is suspected, or along a schedule similar to the following:{{citation needed|date=January 2025}}
* 7 weeks — confirm pregnancy, ensure that it's neither molar nor ectopic, determine due date
* 13–14 weeks (some areas) — evaluate the possibility of [[Down syndrome]]
* 18–20 weeks — see the expanded list above
* 34 weeks (some areas) — evaluate the size, verify the placental position

A review looking at routine ultrasounds past 24 weeks found that there is no evidence to show any benefits to the mother or the baby.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Bricker |first1=L |last2=Medley |first2=N |last3=Pratt |first3=JJ |date=29 June 2015 |title=Routine ultrasound in late pregnancy (after 24 weeks' gestation). |journal=The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews |volume=2015 |issue=6 |article-number=CD001451 |doi=10.1002/14651858.CD001451.pub4 |pmc=7086401 |pmid=26121659}}</ref>

Early scans mean that multiple pregnancies can be detected at an early stage of pregnancy<ref name="pmid26171896">{{cite journal |last1=Whitworth |first1=M |last2=Bricker |first2=L |last3=Mullan |first3=C |date=14 July 2015 |title=Ultrasound for fetal assessment in early pregnancy. |journal=The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews |volume=2015 |issue=7 |article-number=CD007058 |doi=10.1002/14651858.CD007058.pub3 |pmc=4084925 |pmid=26171896}}</ref> and also gives more accurate due dates so that fewer women are induced who do not need to be.<ref name="pmid26171896" />

Levels of feedback from the ultrasound can differ. High feedback is when the parents can see the screen and are given a detailed description of what they can see.<ref name="pmid26241793">{{cite journal |last1=Nabhan |first1=AF |last2=Aflaifel |first2=N |date=4 August 2015 |title=High feedback versus low feedback of prenatal ultrasound for reducing maternal anxiety and improving maternal health behaviour in pregnancy. |journal=The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews |volume=2015 |issue=8 |article-number=CD007208 |doi=10.1002/14651858.CD007208.pub3 |pmc=6486291 |pmid=26241793}}</ref> Low feedback is when the findings are discussed at the end and the parents are given a picture of the ultrasound.<ref name="pmid26241793" /> The different ways of giving feedback affect how much the parents worry and the mother's health behaviour, although there is not enough evidence to make clear conclusions.<ref name="pmid26241793" /> In a small study, mothers receiving high feedback were more likely to stop smoking and drinking alcohol, however, the quality of the study is low, and more research is needed to say for certain which type of feedback is better.<ref name="pmid26241793" />

Women experiencing a complicated pregnancy may have a test called a Doppler ultrasound to look at the blood flow to their unborn baby.<ref name="pmid25874722">{{cite journal |last1=Alfirevic |first1=Z |last2=Stampalija |first2=T |last3=Medley |first3=N |date=15 April 2015 |title=Fetal and umbilical Doppler ultrasound in normal pregnancy. |journal=The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews |volume=4 |issue=4 |article-number=CD001450 |doi=10.1002/14651858.CD001450.pub4 |pmc=4171458 |pmid=25874722}}</ref> This is performed to detect signs that the baby is not getting a normal blood flow and therefore is 'at risk'. A review looked at performing Doppler ultrasounds on all women, even if they were at 'low risk' of having complications.<ref name="pmid25874722" /> The review found that routine Doppler ultrasounds may have reduced the number of preventable baby deaths, but the evidence was not strong enough to recommend that they should be made routine for all pregnant women.<ref name="pmid25874722" />

== Prenatal Nutrition ==
Main article: [[Prenatal nutrition]]

Prenatal care not only applies to the parent carrying the baby, but it also applies to the sperm donor. Sperm affects the fetus's ability to grow properly, and proper nutrition is one of the main factors.<ref name=":4">{{Cite journal |last1=Fallah |first1=Ali |last2=Mohammad-Hasani |first2=Azadeh |last3=Colagar |first3=Abasalt Hosseinzadeh |date=2018 |title=Zinc is an Essential Element for Male Fertility: A Review of Zn Roles in Men's Health, Germination, Sperm Quality, and Fertilization |journal=Journal of Reproduction & Infertility |volume=19 |issue=2 |pages=69–81 |issn=2228-5482 |pmc=6010824 |pmid=30009140}}</ref> For example, a zinc deficiency can lead to sperm deformations and reduced sperm motility which can cause infertility or improper fertilization of the egg, which has the potential to cause miscarriages or fetal deformities.<ref name=":4" /> Spina bifida, which is caused by a folic acid deficiency, is another example of the effects of prenatal malnutrition.<ref name=":5">{{Cite web |last=CDC |date=2025-01-02 |title=Data and Statistics |url=https://www.cdc.gov/spina-bifida/data/index.html#:~:text=2,875%20births1.-,Hispanic%20women%20have%20the%20highest%20rate%20of%20having%20a%20child,pregnancies%20affected%20by%20spina%20bifida. |access-date=2025-03-05 |website=Spina Bifida |language=en-us}}</ref>  Foods are typically fortified with folic acid to reduce this, but some flours like masa flour are not within those federal outlines,<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Hamner |first1=Heather C. |last2=Tinker |first2=Sarah C. |date=2014 |title=Fortification of corn masa flour with folic acid in the United States: an overview of the evidence |journal=Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences |language=en |volume=1312 |issue=1 |pages=8–14 |bibcode=2014NYASA1312....8H |doi=10.1111/nyas.12325 |issn=1749-6632 |pmc=4480372 |pmid=24494975}}</ref> which is theorized to be why Hispanic women are most likely to have children with spina bifida.<ref name=":5" /> Because of all this, it is normally encouraged that women take a prenatal vitamin to prevent these fetal deformations and deficiency symptoms.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Freedman |first1=Robert |last2=Hunter |first2=Sharon K. |last3=Hoffman |first3=M. Camille |date=July 2018 |title=Prenatal Primary Prevention of Mental Illness by Micronutrient Supplements in Pregnancy |journal=American Journal of Psychiatry |volume=175 |issue=7 |pages=607–619 |doi=10.1176/appi.ajp.2018.17070836 |issn=0002-953X |pmc=6984656 |pmid=29558816}}</ref>

== Exercise Intensity and Delivery Outcomes ==
Research suggests that physical activity levels during pregnancy can impact delivery outcomes.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Hinman |first1=Sally K. |last2=Smith |first2=Kristy B. |last3=Quillen |first3=David M. |last4=Smith |first4=M. Seth |date=November 2015 |title=Exercise in Pregnancy: A Clinical Review |journal=Sports Health: A Multidisciplinary Approach |language=en |volume=7 |issue=6 |pages=527–531 |doi=10.1177/1941738115599358 |issn=1941-7381 |pmc=4622376 |pmid=26502446}}</ref> A study examining the effects of exercise intensity on delivery type and risk of preterm birth found that varying levels of physical activity were linked to different pregnancy outcomes and associated risks.

Very low levels of physical activity are associated with an increased risk of both preterm and instrumental deliveries.<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal |last1=Takami |first1=Mio |last2=Tsuchida |first2=Akiko |last3=Takamori |first3=Ayako |last4=Aoki |first4=Shigeru |last5=Ito |first5=Mika |last6=Kigawa |first6=Mika |last7=Kawakami |first7=Chihiro |last8=Hirahara |first8=Fumiki |last9=Hamazaki |first9=Kei |last10=Inadera |first10=Hidekuni |last11=Ito |first11=Shuichi |last12=and the Japan Environment & Children's Study (JECS) Group |date=2018-10-29 |editor-last=Rosenfeld |editor-first=Cheryl S. |title=Effects of physical activity during pregnancy on preterm delivery and mode of delivery: The Japan Environment and Children's Study, birth cohort study |journal=PLOS ONE |language=en |volume=13 |issue=10 |article-number=e0206160 |bibcode=2018PLoSO..1306160T |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0206160 |issn=1932-6203 |pmc=6205641 |pmid=30372455 |doi-access=free}}</ref> Pregnant individuals with minimal activity may experience lower overall fitness and muscle tone, which can impact the body's ability to manage the physical demands of labor. Another study showed that individuals with higher handgrip strength are more likely to have a vaginal delivery, as greater muscle strength and endurance can support the labor process. In contrast, those who gained more weight during pregnancy or had larger arm and calf circumferences were more likely to undergo cesarean delivery, particularly in cases of nonprogressive labor.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=ErtüRk çEli̇K |first1=GüLsemi̇N |last2=ErtüRk Aksakal |first2=Sezi̇N |last3=Engi̇N üStüN |first3=Yaprak |date=2024-10-18 |title=The impact of maternal muscle strength on cesarean delivery outcomes: a comparative study of nulliparous women |url=https://journals.tubitak.gov.tr/medical/vol54/iss5/6 |journal=Turkish Journal of Medical Sciences |language=en |volume=54 |issue=5 |pages=908–914 |doi=10.55730/1300-0144.5867 |issn=1300-0144 |pmc=11518347 |pmid=39473746}}</ref> Low levels of physical activity during pregnancy have been linked to a slightly elevated risk of cesarean delivery.<ref name=":1" /> Regular moderate exercise may help enhance pelvic muscle tone and cardiovascular fitness, potentially reducing the likelihood of cesarean intervention by supporting the body's endurance during labor.

For individuals seeking to engage in levels of vigorous or high-intensity physical activity, one study did observe a slight increase in instrumental delivery, which involves the use of medical tools like forceps or vacuum devices.<ref name=":1" /> More intense physical activity may add extra demands on the body, potentially affecting labor progression and increasing the need for instrumental assistance.<ref name=":1" /> Pregnant individuals need to consult with their healthcare provider before beginning or adjusting exercise routines, particularly if they are new to regular physical activity or have any health conditions that may affect pregnancy by adding additional stress to the body.<ref name=":1" />

==Types of Care ==

=== Individual vs Group Care ===
Group prenatal care, in recent years, has been implemented in around 22 countries that are aiming to improve maternal care.<ref name=":3">{{Cite journal |last1=Andrade-Romo |first1=Zafiro |last2=Heredia-Pi |first2=Ileana B. |last3=Fuentes-Rivera |first3=Evelyn |last4=Alcalde-Rabanal |first4=Jacqueline |last5=Cacho |first5=Lourdes Bravo Bolaños |last6=Jurkiewicz |first6=Laurie |last7=Darney |first7=Blair G. |date=2019-09-27 |title=Group prenatal care: effectiveness and challenges to implementation |url=https://revistas.usp.br/rsp/article/view/162711 |journal=Revista de Saúde Pública |language=en |volume=53 |page=85 |doi=10.11606/s1518-8787.2019053001303 |issn=1518-8787 |pmc=6763281 |pmid=31576945}}</ref> This type of care offers a group of multiple pregnant people (typically around 8-12 of them that are in a similar stage of pregnancy) to see one or more providers simultaneously, along with following up every few weeks to these group appointments for continual care.<ref name=":3" /> Group antenatal care is beneficial in terms of reduced cost, increased education, and increased sense of support.<ref name=":3" />  It has also been found that women who used group prenatal care visits were more likely to utilize family planning services after the baby had been delivered.<ref name=":3" />

=== Midwife-led Care ===
Midwife-led care is where a midwife team (and general practitioner, if needed) leads the care a woman receives, and she does not usually see a specialist doctor during her pregnancy.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://pathways.nice.org.uk/#path=view%3A/pathways/antenatal-care/routine-care-for-all-pregnant-women.xml&content=view-node%3Anodes-basic-principles-of-antenatal-care|title=Everything NICE says on a topic in an interactive flowchart|website=NICE|publisher=National Institute for Health Care and Excellemce|access-date=September 23, 2017|archive-date=December 9, 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181209121123/https://pathways.nice.org.uk/#path=view%3A/pathways/antenatal-care/routine-care-for-all-pregnant-women.xml&content=view-node%3Anodes-basic-principles-of-antenatal-care}}</ref> Midwife-led care is typically used by women with low-risk pregnancies. Women with midwife-led pregnancies are more likely to give birth without being induced, instead, they partake in natural labor. However, they are less likely to have their waters broken, an instrumental delivery, [[episiotomy]] or preterm birth.<ref name="Soltani2016">{{cite journal|last1=Sandall|first1=J|author-link=Jane Sandall|last2=Soltani|first2=H|last3=Gates|first3=S|last4=Shennan|first4=A|last5=Devane|first5=D|date=28 April 2016|title=Midwife-led continuity models versus other models of care for childbearing women.|url=http://roar.uel.ac.uk/3352/1/JPHCCochraneCornerDec2013.pdf|journal=The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews|volume=2016|issue=4|article-number=CD004667|doi=10.1002/14651858.CD004667.pub5|pmid=27121907|pmc=8663203}}</ref> However, around the same number of women in each group underwent a caesarean section.<ref name="Soltani2016" />

=== Self-led Care ===
In many countries, women are given a summary of their case notes, including important background information about their pregnancy, such as their medical history, growth charts, and scan reports.<ref name="pmid26465209">{{cite journal |last1=Brown |first1=HC |last2=Smith |first2=HJ |last3=Mori |first3=R |last4=Noma |first4=H |date=14 October 2015 |title=Giving women their own case notes to carry during pregnancy. |journal=The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews |volume=2015 |issue=10 |article-number=CD002856 |doi=10.1002/14651858.CD002856.pub3 |pmc=7054050 |pmid=26465209}}</ref> If the mother goes to a different hospital for care or to give birth the summary of her case notes can be used by the midwives and doctors until her hospital notes arrive.<ref name="pmid26465209" /> A review looking into women keeping their case notes shows they have a higher risk of having a caesarean section.<ref name="pmid26465209" /> However, the women reported feeling more in control having their notes and would like to have them again in future pregnancies.<ref name="pmid26465209" /> 25% of women reported their hospital notes were lost in the hospital, though none of the women forgot to take their notes to any appointments.<ref name="pmid26465209" />

== Access to Prenatal Care ==
In 2018, it was found that a million women in the United States did not receive adequate prenatal care, which was defined as attending 80 percent of the recommended prenatal care visits or beginning prenatal care during the first trimester.<ref name=":6">{{Cite journal |last1=Wu |first1=Katrina K. |last2=Lopez |first2=Cristina |last3=Nichols |first3=Michelle |date=2022 |title=Virtual Visits in Prenatal Care: An Integrative Review |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/jmwh.13284 |journal=Journal of Midwifery & Women's Health |language=en |volume=67 |issue=1 |pages=39–52 |doi=10.1111/jmwh.13284 |pmid=34767317 |issn=1542-2011|url-access=subscription }}</ref> Transportation is one of the biggest threats to prenatal care access, making it hard for pregnant people in rural communities to have access to proper prenatal care. Specifically, over half of the people in rural areas who are seeking prenatal care have to travel at least 30 minutes to receive care, and there are higher rates of clinic closures in rural areas. Because of Telemedicine, the gap in care due to transportation issues has been reduced. 

=== Telemedicine ===
A new alternative for some of the routine prenatal care visits is [[Telemedicine]], which is an online route of performing these prenatal appointments, and became more of a standardized practice due to the COVID pandemic.<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal |last1=Wu |first1=Huailiang |last2=Sun |first2=Weiwei |last3=Huang |first3=Xinyu |last4=Yu |first4=Shinning |last5=Wang |first5=Hao |last6=Bi |first6=Xiaoyu |last7=Sheng |first7=Jie |last8=Chen |first8=Sihan |last9=Akinwunmi |first9=Babatunde |last10=Zhang |first10=Casper J P |last11=Ming |first11=Wai-Kit |date=2020-07-22 |title=Online Antenatal Care During the COVID-19 Pandemic: Opportunities and Challenges |journal=Journal of Medical Internet Research |language=en |volume=22 |issue=7 |article-number=e19916 |doi=10.2196/19916 |issn=1438-8871 |pmc=7407486 |pmid=32658860 |doi-access=free}}</ref> Specifically, over half of pregnant women were afraid of stepping foot inside a hospital because of the risk of contracting the virus, so Telemedicine offered a way of communication that was not face to face, but would still get people the care they required.<ref name=":2" /> In depth obstetric examinations and blood work are not possible through Telemedicine, but other appointment tasks are possible, such as using personal devices to detect fetal heart rate, conducting maternal mental health consults, and general sharing of information between provider and patient.<ref name=":2" /> Overall, Telemedicine is seen as an improvement in prenatal care because it offers the potential for higher accessibility of care to marginalized groups.<ref name=":6" /> However, it does tend to be younger, White patients who utilize Telemedicine because of their increased access to and familiarity with technology.<ref name=":6" /> 

=== Racial Health Disparities ===
Main article: [[Racial health disparities]]

Racial differences are also prevalent in prenatal care, especially because there is a trend of reduced funding for Black and Hispanic communities.<ref name=":6" /> All racial minorities also experience higher levels of perinatal mortality, especially Black individuals.<ref name=":8">{{Cite journal |last1=Healy |first1=Andrew J. |last2=Malone |first2=Fergal D. |last3=Sullivan |first3=Lisa M. |last4=Porter |first4=T Flint |last5=Luthy |first5=David A. |last6=Comstock |first6=Christine H. |last7=Saade |first7=George |last8=Berkowitz |first8=Richard |last9=Klugman |first9=Susan |last10=Dugoff |first10=Lorraine |last11=Craigo |first11=Sabrina D. |last12=Timor-Tritsch |first12=Ilan |last13=Carr |first13=Stephen R. |last14=Wolfe |first14=Honor M. |last15=Bianchi |first15=Diana W. |date=March 2006 |title=Early Access to Prenatal Care: Implications for Racial Disparity in Perinatal Mortality |url=http://journals.lww.com/00006250-200603000-00015 |journal=Obstetrics & Gynecology |language=en |volume=107 |issue=3 |pages=625–631 |doi=10.1097/01.AOG.0000201978.83607.96 |pmid=16507934 |issn=0029-7844|url-access=subscription }}</ref> Racial minorities are also more likely to have high-risk pregnancies and conditions such as preeclampsia, gestational diabetes, and gestational hypertension.<ref name=":8" /> Because race and class are very heavily intertwined, there is a complex relationship between race and preterm birth risks that cannot be simplified into a specific cause.<ref name=":9">{{Cite journal |last1=Kramer |first1=Michael R. |last2=Hogue |first2=Carol J. |last3=Dunlop |first3=Anne L. |last4=Menon |first4=Ramkumar |date=2011 |title=Preconceptional stress and racial disparities in preterm birth: an overview |journal=Acta Obstetricia et Gynecologica Scandinavica |language=en |volume=90 |issue=12 |pages=1307–1316 |doi=10.1111/j.1600-0412.2011.01136.x |issn=1600-0412 |pmc=5573146 |pmid=21446927}}</ref> However, pregnant Black women who encounter racism end up having physiological changes in their amniotic fluid and alterations in immune and endocrine mechanisms.<ref name=":9" /> Women of color are less likely to access prenatal care within the first trimester than white women, along with Black women having the least amount of access to prenatal care out of all racial minorities.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Silva |first1=Pedro Henrique Alcântara da |last2=Aiquoc |first2=Kezauyn Miranda |last3=Silva Nunes |first3=Aryelly Dayane da |last4=Medeiros |first4=Wilton Rodrigues |last5=Souza |first5=Talita Araujo de |last6=Jerez-Roig |first6=Javier |last7=Barbosa |first7=Isabelle Ribeiro |date=2022-07-04 |title=Prevalence of Access to Prenatal Care in the First Trimester of Pregnancy Among Black Women Compared to Other Races/Ethnicities: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis |journal=Public Health Reviews |volume=43 |doi=10.3389/phrs.2022.1604400 |doi-access=free |issn=2107-6952 |pmc=9289875 |pmid=35860809}}</ref>

=== Class-based Health Disparities ===
The World Health Organization (WHO) reported that in 2015, around 830 women died every day from problems in [[pregnancy]] and [[childbirth]].<ref name="who.int">{{cite web |title=Maternal mortality |url=https://www.who.int/gho/maternal_health/mortality/maternal_mortality_text/en/ |access-date=September 23, 2017 |website=WHO |publisher=World Health Organization}}</ref> Only 5 lived in high-income countries, and the rest lived in low-income countries.<ref name="who.int" /> A study examined the differences in early and low-weight birth deliveries between local and immigrant women and saw that the difference was caused by receiving prenatal care.<ref name=":10">{{Cite journal |last1=Castelló |first1=Adela |last2=Río |first2=Isabel |last3=Martinez |first3=Encarnación |last4=Rebagliato |first4=Marisa |last5=Barona |first5=Carmen |last6=Llácer |first6=Alicia |last7=Bolumar |first7=Francisco |date=2012-03-01 |title=Differences in Preterm and Low Birth Weight Deliveries Between Spanish and Immigrant Women: Influence of the Prenatal Care Received |url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S104727971200004X |journal=Annals of Epidemiology |volume=22 |issue=3 |pages=175–182 |doi=10.1016/j.annepidem.2011.12.005 |pmid=22285869 |issn=1047-2797|url-access=subscription }}</ref> The study, between 1997 and 2008, looked at 21,708 women giving birth in a region of Spain. The results indicated that very preterm birth (VPTB) and very low birth weight (VLBW) were much more common for immigrants than locals.<ref name=":10" /> The study showed the importance of prenatal care and how universal prenatal care would help people of all origins get proper care before pregnancy/birth.<ref name=":10" />

=== Increasing Access ===
There are many ways of changing health systems to help women access antenatal care, such as new health policies, educating health workers, and health service reorganization.<ref name="ReferenceA">{{cite journal |last1=Mbuagbaw |first1=L |last2=Medley |first2=N |last3=Darzi |first3=AJ |last4=Richardson |first4=M |last5=Habiba Garga |first5=K |last6=Ongolo-Zogo |first6=P |date=1 December 2015 |title=Health system and community level interventions for improving antenatal care coverage and health outcomes. |journal=The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews |volume=12 |issue=12 |article-number=CD010994 |doi=10.1002/14651858.CD010994.pub2 |pmc=4676908 |pmid=26621223}}</ref> Community interventions to help people change their behavior can also play a part. Examples of interventions are media campaigns reaching many people, enabling communities to take control of their health, informative-education-communication interventions, and financial incentives.<ref name="ReferenceA" /> A review looking at these interventions found that one intervention helps improve the number of women receiving antenatal care.<ref name="ReferenceA" /> However, interventions used together may reduce baby deaths in pregnancy and early life, lower the number of low birth weight babies born, and improve the number of women receiving antenatal care.<ref name="ReferenceA" />

==See also==
* [[Brain health and pollution]]
* [[Reproductive Health Supplies Coalition]]

==References==
{{Reflist|30em|refs=

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==Further reading==

{{Refbegin|60em}}
* {{cite journal |author=Fiscella K |title=Does Prenatal Care Improve Birth Outcomes? A Critical Review |journal=Obstetrics & Gynecology |volume=85 |issue=3 |pages=468–479 |date=March 1995 |pmid=7862395 |doi=10.1016/0029-7844(94)00408-6 |s2cid=2983070 |doi-access=free }}
* {{cite journal |vauthors=Sheiner E, Hallak M, Twizer I, Mazor M, Katz M, Shoham-Vardi I |title=Lack of prenatal care in two different societies living in the same region and sharing the same medical facilities |journal=J Obstet Gynaecol |volume=21 |issue=5 |pages=453–8 |date=September 2001 |pmid=12521796 |doi=10.1080/01443610120071974 |s2cid=218859219 }}
* {{cite journal |doi=10.1128/JCM.41.1.84-89.2003  |vauthors=Howard M, Sellors JW, Jang D, etal |title=Regional distribution of antibodies to herpes simplex virus type 1 (HSV-1) and HSV-2 in men and women in Ontario, Canada |journal=J. Clin. Microbiol. |volume=41 |issue=1 |pages=84–9 |date=January 2003 |pmid=12517830 |pmc=149555 }}
* {{cite web|title=Prenatal Care - FAQs|url=http://www.4woman.gov/faq/prenatal.htm|publisher=Womenshealth.gov|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081024165328/http://www.4woman.gov//faq/prenatal.htm|archive-date=24 October 2008|date=April 2006}}
{{Refend}}

==External links==
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20090328120640/http://www.pregnancyeducation.org/ Pregnancy Education]
* [https://www.cdc.gov/nchs/fastats/births.htm CDC US birth and prenatal care statistics]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20070301062711/http://www.engenderhealth.org/wh/mch/pprecare.html EngenderHealth-Prenatal Care and Planning]
* [https://www.cdc.gov/preconception/planning.html Care and Planning]

{{Women's health|state=collapsed}}
{{Pathology of pregnancy, childbirth and the puerperium}}
{{Pregnancy}}
{{Reproductive health}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Childbirth]]
[[Category:Health issues in pregnancy|*]]
[[Category:Midwifery]]