View source for Procellariiformes

{{short description|Order of birds}}
{{Good article}}
{{Automatic taxobox
|fossil_range = {{fossil range|Eocene|Present|earliest=Campanian}} <small>Possible [[Late Cretaceous]] record</small>
|image = Thalassarche bulleri in flight 3 - SE Tasmania.jpg
|image_caption = [[Buller's albatross]] (''Thalassarche bulleri'')
|taxon = Procellariiformes
|authority = [[Max Fürbringer|Fürbringer]], 1888
|diversity = 4 extant families, 26 genera, 147 species
|diversity_link = List of Procellariiformes
|subdivision_ranks = Families
|subdivision =
†[[Diomedeoididae]] <br/>
[[Procellariidae]] <br/>
[[Diomedeidae]] <br/>
[[Hydrobatidae]] <br/>
[[Oceanitidae]] 
}}

'''Procellariiformes''' {{IPAc-en|p|r|ɒ|s|ɛ|ˈ|l|ɛər|i|.|ᵻ|f|ɔr|m|iː|z}} is an [[order (biology)|order]] of [[seabird]]s that comprises four [[family (biology)|families]]: the [[albatross]]es, the [[Procellariidae|petrels and shearwaters]], and two families of [[storm petrel]]s. Formerly called '''Tubinares''' and still called '''tubenoses''' in English, procellariiforms are often referred to collectively as the '''[[petrel]]s''', a term that has been applied to all members of the order,<ref name ="war">Warham, J. (1996). ''The Behaviour, Population, Biology and Physiology of the Petrels''. London: Academic Press, {{ISBN|0-12-735415-8}}</ref> or more commonly all the families except the albatrosses.<ref name = "Brooke">Brooke, 2004.</ref> They are almost exclusively [[pelagic]] (feeding in the open ocean), and have a [[cosmopolitan distribution]] across the world's oceans, with the highest [[species diversity|diversity]] being around [[New Zealand]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Tennyson |first=Alan J. D. |title=Extinct birds of New Zealand |date=2006 |publisher=Te Papa Press |others=Paul Martinson |isbn=978-0-909010-21-8 |location=Wellington, N.Z. |page=38 |oclc=80016906}}</ref>

Procellariiforms are [[seabird colony|colonial]], mostly nesting on remote, predator-free islands. The larger species nest on the surface, while most smaller species nest in natural cavities and [[burrow]]s. They exhibit strong [[philopatry]], returning to their natal colony to breed and returning to the same nesting site over many years. Procellariiforms are [[monogamy in animals|monogamous]] and form long-term [[pair bond]]s that are formed over several years and may last for the life of the pair. A single [[Bird egg|egg]] is laid per nesting attempt, and usually a single nesting attempt is made per year, although the larger albatrosses may only nest once every two years. Both parents participate in [[avian incubation|incubation]] and chick rearing. Incubation times are long compared to other birds, as are [[fledge|fledging]] periods. Once a chick has fledged there is no further parental care.

Procellariiforms have had a long relationship with humans. They have been important food sources for many people, and continue to be hunted as such in some parts of the world. The albatrosses in particular have been the subject of numerous cultural depictions. Procellariiforms include some of the most [[endangered species|endangered]] bird [[taxa]], with many species threatened with [[extinction]] due to [[introduced species|introduced predators]] in their breeding colonies, marine [[pollution]] and the danger of fisheries [[by-catch]]. Scientists, conservationists, fishermen, and governments around the world are working to reduce the threats posed to them, and these efforts have led to the signing of the [[Agreement on the Conservation of Albatrosses and Petrels]], a legally binding international treaty signed in 2001.

==Taxonomy==
[[File:Pterodroma macroptera Godman.jpg|thumb|right|''[[Pterodroma macroptera]]'' from [[Frederick DuCane Godman|Godman]]'s ''Monograph of the Petrels'', 1907–1910]]
{{Cladogram
|caption=Phylogeny of the extant procellariforms based on a study by Richard Prum and colleagues published in 2015.<ref name=prum2015>{{ cite journal | last1=Prum | first1=R.O. | author1-link=Richard Prum | last2=Berv | first2=J.S. | last3=Dornburg | first3=A. | last4=Field | first4=D.J. | last5=Townsend | first5=J.P. | last6=Lemmon | first6=E.M. | last7=Lemmon | first7=A.R. | year=2015 | title=A comprehensive phylogeny of birds (Aves) using targeted next-generation DNA sequencing | journal=Nature | volume=526 | issue=7574 | pages=569–573 | doi=10.1038/nature15697 | pmid=26444237 | bibcode=2015Natur.526..569P | s2cid=205246158 | doi-access= }}</ref><!---Kuhl et al 2020 obtained the same cladogram-->  The number of species is taken from the list maintained by [[Frank Gill (ornithologist)|Frank Gill]], [[Pamela C. Rasmussen]] and David Donsker on behalf of the [[International Ornithological Committee]] (IOC).<ref name=ioc/>
|align=right
|cladogram={{Clade| style=font-size:90%;line-height:90%;width:460px;
|label1=Procellariiformes
|1={{clade
   |1=[[Diomedeidae]] – albatrosses (21 species)
   |2={{clade
      |1=[[Oceanitidae]] – austral storm petrels (10 species)
      |2={{clade
         |1=[[Hydrobatidae]] – northern storm petrels (18 species)
         |2=[[Procellariidae]] – petrels and shearwaters (100 species)
      }}
   }}
 }}
}}
}}

The order was named Procellariiformes by German anatomist [[Max Fürbringer]] in 1888.<ref>{{ cite book | last=Fürbringer | first=Max | author-link=Max Fürbringer | date=1888 | title=Untersuchungen zur Morphologie und Systematik der Vögel, zugleich ein Beitrag zur Anatomie der Stütz- und Bewegungsorgane | volume=2 | language=German | location=Amsterdam | publisher=T. van Holkema | page=1566 | url=https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/page/36057172 }}</ref> The word comes from the [[Latin]] word ''procella'', which means ''a violent wind'' or ''a storm'', and ''-iformes'' for ''order''.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Gotch |first1=A. F. |title=Latin Names Explained. A Guide to the Scientific Classifications of Reptiles, Birds & Mammals|year= 1995 |orig-date=1979 |publisher=Facts on File |location=New York, NY|isbn=978-0-8160-3377-5|page=190|chapter=Albatrosses, Fulmars, Shearwaters, and Petrels}}</ref> 
Until the beginning of the 20th century, the family Hydrobatidae was named Procellariidae, and the family now called Procellariidae was rendered "Puffinidae."<ref name=Auk1896>{{cite journal | title=Saunders and Salvin's Catalogue of the Gaviae and Tubinares. | author=Allen, J.A. | journal=The Auk |date=April 1896 | volume=13 | issue=2 | pages=160–162 | url=https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/page/15943644 | author-link=Joel Asaph Allen | quote=Passing now to the Tubinares, Mr. Salvin divides them into four families,—Procellariidae, Puffinidae, Pelecanoididae, and Diomedeidae | doi=10.2307/4068699| jstor=4068699 }}</ref> The order itself was called Tubinares.<ref name=Godman>{{cite book | url=https://sites.google.com/site/mmslouis/ducanegodman,monographofthepetrels | title=A Monograph of the Petrels (Order Tubinares) | publisher=Witherby | author=Godman, Frederick Du Cane | year=1907–1910 | location=London | access-date=2013-03-01 | archive-date=2014-12-22 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141222192230/https://sites.google.com/site/mmslouis/ducanegodman,monographofthepetrels }}</ref><ref name=Auk1896/> A major early work on this group is [[Frederick DuCane Godman]]'s ''Monograph of the Petrels'', five fascicles, 1907–1910, with figures by [[John Gerrard Keulemans]].<ref name=Godman/>

In the [[Sibley-Ahlquist taxonomy]], the tubenoses were included in a greatly enlarged order "Ciconiiformes". This [[Taxonomy (biology)|taxonomic]] treatment was almost certainly erroneous, but its assumption of a close evolutionary relationship with other "higher waterbirds" – such as [[loon]]s (Gaviiformes) and [[penguin]]s (Sphenisciformes) – appears to be correct.<!-- Mayr (2009): "Paleogene Fossil Birds" is all the source you need. No page numbers needed here; he discusses the issue throughout half of the book. --><ref>{{cite journal |url=http://www.kumarlab.net/pdf_new/PachecoEscalante11.pdf |title=Evolution of modern birds revealed by mitogenomics: Timing the radiation and origin of major orders |author1=Pacheco, M.A. |author2=Battistuzzi, F.U. |author3=Lentino, M. |author4=Aguilar, R.F. |author5=Kumar, S. |author6=Escalante, A.A. |journal=Molecular Biology and Evolution |year=2011 |volume=28 |issue=6 |pages=1927–1942 |doi=10.1093/molbev/msr014 |pmid=21242529 |pmc=3144022 |access-date=2013-02-21 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141213022325/http://www.kumarlab.net/pdf_new/PachecoEscalante11.pdf |archive-date=2014-12-13 }}</ref> The procellariiforms are most closely related to penguins,<ref name = "Jarvis2014">{{Cite journal| doi = 10.1126/science.1253451| pmid = 25504713| url = https://pgl.soe.ucsc.edu/jarvis14.pdf| title = Whole-genome analyses resolve early branches in the tree of life of modern birds| journal = Science| volume = 346| issue = 6215| pages = 1320–1331| date = 2014| last1 = Jarvis| first1 = E. D.| author1-link = Erich Jarvis| last2 = Mirarab| first2 = S.| last3 = Aberer| first3 = A. J.| last4 = Li| first4 = B.| last5 = Houde| first5 = P.| last6 = Li| first6 = C.| last7 = Ho| first7 = S. Y. W.| last8 = Faircloth| first8 = B. C.| last9 = Nabholz| first9 = B.| last10 = Howard| first10 = J. T.| last11 = Suh| first11 = A.| last12 = Weber| first12 = C. C.| last13 = Da Fonseca| first13 = R. R.| last14 = Li| first14 = J.| last15 = Zhang| first15 = F.| last16 = Li| first16 = H.| last17 = Zhou| first17 = L.| last18 = Narula| first18 = N.| last19 = Liu| first19 = L.| last20 = Ganapathy| first20 = G.| last21 = Boussau| first21 = B.| last22 = Bayzid| first22 = M. S.| last23 = Zavidovych| first23 = V.| last24 = Subramanian| first24 = S.| last25 = Gabaldon| first25 = T.| last26 = Capella-Gutierrez| first26 = S.| last27 = Huerta-Cepas| first27 = J.| last28 = Rekepalli| first28 = B.| last29 = Munch| first29 = K.| last30 = Schierup| first30 = M.| pmc = 4405904| display-authors = 29| access-date = 2015-08-28| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20191206033643/https://pgl.soe.ucsc.edu/jarvis14.pdf| archive-date = 2019-12-06| bibcode = 2014Sci...346.1320J| hdl = 10072/67425}}</ref> having diverged from them about 60 million years ago.<ref name = "LiC2014">{{Cite journal | doi = 10.1186/2047-217X-3-27| title = Two Antarctic penguin genomes reveal insights into their evolutionary history and molecular changes related to the Antarctic environment| journal = GigaScience| volume = 3| issue = 1| page = 27| date = 2014-12-12| last1 = Li | first1 = C. | last2 = Zhang | first2 = Y. | last3 = Li | first3 = J. | last4 = Kong | first4 = L. | last5 = Hu | first5 = H. | last6 = Pan | first6 = H. | last7 = Xu | first7 = L. | last8 = Deng | first8 = Y. | last9 = Li | first9 = Q. | last10 = Jin | first10 = L. | last11 = Yu | first11 = H. | last12 = Chen | first12 = Y. | last13 = Liu | first13 = B. | last14 = Yang | first14 = L. | last15 = Liu | first15 = S. | last16 = Zhang | first16 = Y. | last17 = Lang | first17 = Y. | last18 = Xia | first18 = J. | last19 = He | first19 = W. | last20 = Shi | first20 = Q. | last21 = Subramanian | first21 = S. | last22 = Millar | first22 = C. D. | last23 = Meader | first23 = S. | last24 = Rands | first24 = C. M. | last25 = Fujita | first25 = M. K. | last26 = Greenwold | first26 = M. J. | last27 = Castoe | first27 = T. A. | last28 = Pollock | first28 = D. D. | last29 = Gu | first29 = W. | last30 = Nam | first30 = K. | pmid=25671092 | pmc=4322438| doi-access = free}}</ref>

The diving petrels in the genus ''[[Pelecanoides]]'' were formerly placed in their own family Pelecanoididae.<ref>{{ cite book | editor1-last=Mayr | editor1-first=Ernst | editor1-link=Ernst Mayr | editor2-last=Cottrell | editor2-first=G. William | year=1979 | title=Check-List of Birds of the World | volume=1 | edition=2nd | publisher=Museum of Comparative Zoology | place=Cambridge, Massachusetts | page=118 | url=https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/page/16108758 }}</ref> When genetic studies found that they were embedded within the family Procellariidae, the two families were merged.<ref name=prum2015/><ref name=ioc/>

All the storm petrels were once placed in the family Hydrobatidae but genetic data indicated that Hydrobatidae consisted of two deeply divergent clades that were not sister taxa.<ref name=j13/><ref name=hackett/><ref name=prum2015/><ref name=reddy/> In 2018 the austral storm petrels were moved to the new family Oceanitidae.<ref name=ioc/><ref>{{cite journal| last1=Chesser | first1=R.T.  | last2=Burns | first2=K.J. | last3=Cicero | first3=C. | last4=Dunn | first4=J.L.  | last5=Kratter | first5=A.W. | last6=Lovette | first6=I.J. | last7=Rasmussen | first7=P.C. | last8=Remsen | first8=J.V. Jr | last9=Stotz  | first9=D.F. | last10=Winger | first10=B.M. | last11=Winker  | first11=K. | year=2018 | title=Fifty-ninth supplement to the American Ornithological Society's ''Check-list of North American Birds'' |journal=The Auk |volume=135 | issue=3 |pages=798–813 |doi=10.1642/AUK-18-62.1 | doi-access=free }}</ref> The northern storm petrels in the family Hydrobatidae are more closely related to the family Procellariidae than they are to the austral storm petrels in the family Oceanitidae.<ref name=prum2015/>

Earlier [[molecular phylogenetic]] studies found the family Oceantidae containing the austral storm petrels as the most [[Basal (phylogenetics)|basal]] with differing branching topologies for other three families.<ref name=j13/><ref>{{Cite journal | last1=Kennedy | first1=Martyn | last2=Page | first2=Roderic D. M. | date=2002 | title=Seabird supertrees: combining partial estimates of Procellariiform phylogeny | journal=The Auk | volume=119 | issue=1 | pages=88–108 | doi=10.1093/auk/119.1.88 | doi-access=free }}</ref><ref name=hackett>{{ cite journal | last1=Hackett | first1=S.J.| last2=Kimball | first2=R.T. | last3=Reddy | first3=S. | last4=Bowie | first4=R.C.K.| last5=Braun | first5=E.L.| last6=Braun | first6=M.J.| last7=Chojnowski | first7=J.L.| last8=Cox | first8=W.A. | last9=Han | first9=K-L. | last10=Harshman | first10=J. | last11=Huddleston | first11=C.J.| last12=Marks | first12=B.D.| last13=Miglia | first13=K.J.| last14=Moore | first14=W.S.| last15=Sheldon | first15=F.H.| last16=Steadman | first16=D.W.| last17=Witt | first17=C.C.| last18= Yuri | first18= T. | year=2008 | title=A phylogenomic study of birds reveals their evolutionary history | journal=Science | volume=320 | issue=5884 | pages=1763–1767 | doi=10.1126/science.1157704 | pmid=18583609| bibcode=2008Sci...320.1763H| s2cid=6472805}}</ref> More recent large-scale studies have found a consistent pattern with the albatross family Diomedeidae as the most basal and Hydrobatidae [[sister taxon|sister]] to Procellariidae.<ref name=prum2015/><ref name=reddy>{{Cite journal | last1=Reddy | first1=S. | last2=Kimball | first2=R.T. | last3=Pandey | first3=A. | last4=Hosner | first4=P.A. | last5=Braun | first5=M.J. | last6=Hackett | first6=S.J. | last7=Han | first7=K.-L. | last8=Harshman | first8=J. | last9=Huddleston | first9=C.J. | last10=Kingston | first10=S. | last11=Marks | first11=B.D. | last12=Miglia | first12=K.J. | last13=Moore | first13=W.S. | last14=Sheldon | first14=F.H. | last15=Witt | first15=C.C. | last16=Yuri | first16=T. | last17=Braun | first17=E.L. | date=2017 | title=Why do phylogenomic data sets yield conflicting trees? Data type influences the avian tree of life more than taxon sampling | journal=Systematic Biology | volume=66 | issue=5 | pages=857–879 | doi=10.1093/sysbio/syx041 | pmid=28369655 | doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal | last1=Kuhl | first1=H. | last2=Frankl-Vilches | first2=C. | last3=Bakker | first3=A. | last4=Mayr | first4=G. | last5=Nikolaus | first5=G. | last6=Boerno | first6=S.T. | last7=Klages | first7=S. | last8=Timmermann | first8=B. | last9=Gahr | first9=M. | date=2020 | title=An unbiased molecular approach using 3′-UTRs resolves the avian family-level tree of life | journal=Molecular Biology and Evolution | volume=38 | issue=msaa191 | pages=108–127 | doi=10.1093/molbev/msaa191 | pmid=32781465 |pmc=7783168  | doi-access=free }}</ref>

There are 147 living species of procellariiform worldwide,<ref name=ioc>{{cite web| editor1-last=Gill | editor1-first=Frank | editor1-link=Frank Gill (ornithologist) | editor2-last=Donsker | editor2-first=David | editor3-last=Rasmussen | editor3-first=Pamela | editor3-link=Pamela C. Rasmussen | date=December 2023 | title=Petrels, albatrosses | work=IOC World Bird List Version 14.1 | url=https://www.worldbirdnames.org/bow/petrels/ | publisher=International Ornithologists' Union | access-date=29 July 2024 }}</ref> and the order is divided into four extant families, with a fifth [[prehistoric]]ally [[extinct]]:

* Family [[Diomedeidae]] ([[albatross]]es) are very large seabirds with a large strong hooked bill. They have strong legs, enabling them to walk well on land.<ref name=Tickell>Tickell, W.L.N. (2000). ''Albatrosses''. Pica Press. {{ISBN|1-873403-94-1}}</ref>
* Family [[Oceanitidae]] (Austral storm petrels) are among the smallest seabirds, with fluttering flight and long but weak legs. Most have dark upperparts and a white underside.<ref name=hbw-hydrobatidae>{{ cite book | last=Carboneras | first=C. | year=1992 | chapter=Family Hydrobatidae (Storm-petrels) | editor1-last=del Hoyo | editor1-first=J. | editor2-last=Elliott | editor2-first=A. | editor3-last=Sargatal | editor3-first=J. | title=Handbook of the Birds of the World | volume=1: Ostrich to Ducks | location=Barcelona, Spain | publisher=Lynx Edicions | isbn=84-87334-10-5 | pages=258–271 | chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/handbookofbirdso0001unse/page/258/mode/1up | chapter-url-access=registration }}</ref>
* Family [[Hydrobatidae]] (northern storm petrels) are similar to the austral storm petrels but have longer more pointed wings and most species have forked tails.<ref name=hbw-hydrobatidae/>
* Family [[Procellariidae]] ([[shearwater]]s, [[fulmarine petrel]]s, [[gadfly petrel]]s, and [[prion (bird)|prion]]s) are a varied group of small or medium-sized seabirds, the largest being the [[giant petrel]]s. They are heavy for their size, with a high wing loading, so they need to fly fast. Most, except the giant petrels, have weak legs and are nearly helpless on land.<ref name=Maynard />
* Family †[[Diomedeoididae]] (Early [[Oligocene]] – Early [[Miocene]]) is an extinct group that had narrow beaks and feet with wide, flat [[Phalanx bone|phalange]]s, especially on the fourth toe.<ref name="Mayr"/>

Fossils of a bird similar to a petrel from the [[Eocene]] have been found in the [[London Clay]] and in [[Louisiana]].<ref>{{cite book |title=The Origin and Evolution of Birds |url=https://archive.org/details/originevolutiono0000fedu |url-access=registration |publisher=Yale University Press |author=Feduccia, A. | year=1996}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |title=A petrel-like bird from the late Eocene of Louisiana: Earliest record of the order Procellariiformes |url=http://biostor.org/reference/65605 |author1=Feduccia, A. |author2=McPherson, B. |journal=Proceedings of the Biological Society of Washington |year=1993 |volume=106 |pages=749–751}}</ref> Diving petrels occurred in the Miocene, with a species from that family (''[[Pelecanoides miokuaka]]'') being described in 2007.<ref name="diving fossil">{{Cite journal |last=Worthy |first=Trevor |author2=Tennyson, Alan J. D. |author3=Jones, C. |author4=McNamara, James A. |author5= Douglas, Barry J.  |year=2007 |title=Miocene waterfowl and other birds from central Otago, New Zealand |journal=Journal of Systematic Palaeontology |volume=5 |issue=1 |pages=1–39 (see p.&nbsp;8) |doi=10.1017/S1477201906001957|bibcode=2007JSPal...5....1W |hdl=2440/43360 |s2cid=85230857 |url=https://digital.library.adelaide.edu.au/dspace/bitstream/2440/43360/1/hdl_43360.pdf |hdl-access=free }}</ref> The most numerous fossils from the [[Paleogene]] are those from the extinct family Diomedeoididae, fossils of which have been found in Central Europe and Iran.<ref name ="Mayr">{{Cite journal |last=Mayr |first=Gerald |year=2009 |title=Notes on the osteology and phylogenetic affinities of the Oligocene Diomedeoididae (Aves, Procellariiformes) |journal=Fossil Record |volume=12 |issue=2 |pages=133–140 |doi=10.1002/mmng.200900003|doi-access=free |bibcode=2009FossR..12..133M }}</ref>

==Biology==
===Distribution and movements===
{{See also|List of Procellariiformes by population}}
The procellariiforms have a [[cosmopolitan distribution]] across the world's oceans and seas, although at the levels of family and genus there are some clear patterns. [[Antarctic petrel]]s, ''Thalassoica antarctica'', have to fly over {{convert|100|mi|km|abbr=on}} to get to the ocean from their breeding colonies in [[Antarctica]], and [[northern fulmar]]s breed on the northeastern tip of [[Greenland]], the northernmost piece of [[land]].<ref name="Double">{{cite encyclopedia |last=Double |first=D.C. |editor1-first=Michael |editor1-last= Hutchins |encyclopedia=Grzimek's Animal Life Encyclopedia |title=Procellariiformes |edition=2 |year=2003 |publisher=Gale Group |volume=8 Birds I Tinamous and Ratites to Hoatzins |location=Farmington Hills, MI |isbn=978-0-7876-5784-0 |pages=107–110}}</ref> The most cosmopolitan family is the [[Procellariidae]], which are found in tropical, temperate and polar zones of both the Northern and the Southern Hemispheres, though the majority do not breed in the tropics, and half the species are restricted to southern temperate and polar regions.<ref>{{cite book | url=https://archive.org/stream/worldatlasofbiod02groo#page/128/mode/2up | title=World Atlas of Biodiversity: earth's living resources in the 21st century | publisher=University of California Press | year=2002 | access-date=2 March 2013 |author1=Groombridge, Brian |author2=Jenkins, Martin D | pages=128&ndash;129 (Table 6.7)| isbn=978-0-520-23668-4 }}</ref> The gadfly petrels, ''[[Pterodroma]]'', have a generally [[tropical]] and [[temperate]] distribution, whereas the [[fulmarine petrel]]s are mostly [[polar region|polar]] with some temperate species. The majority of the fulmarine petrels, along with the [[prion (bird)|prions]], are confined to the Southern Hemisphere.<ref name=Teara>{{cite web |url=http://www.teara.govt.nz/en/petrels/page-1 |title=Petrels | publisher=Teara: The Encyclopedia of New Zealand |date=13 July 2012 |access-date=2 March 2013 |author=Wilson, Kerry-Jayne | pages=1–5}}</ref>

The [[storm petrel]]s are almost as widespread as the procellariids, and fall into two distinct families; the [[Oceanitidae]] have a mostly Southern Hemisphere distribution and the [[Hydrobatidae]] are found mostly in the Northern Hemisphere. Amongst the [[albatross]]es the majority of the family is restricted to the Southern Hemisphere, feeding and nesting in cool temperate areas, although one genus, ''[[Phoebastria]]'', ranges across the north Pacific. The family is absent from the north Atlantic, although fossil records indicate they bred there once.<ref name = "olson">{{cite journal |doi=10.1073/pnas.1934576100 |last1=Olson |first1=S.L. |last2=Hearty |first2=P.J. |year=2003 |title=Probable extirpation of a breeding colony of Short-tailed Albatross (''Phoebastria albatrus'') on Bermuda by Pleistocene sea-level rise |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences |volume=100 |issue=22 |pages=12825–12829 |pmid=14566060 |pmc=240703|bibcode=2003PNAS..10012825O |doi-access=free }}</ref> Finally the [[diving petrel]]s are restricted to the Southern Hemisphere.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/accounts/Pelecanoididae/ |title=Pelecanoididae diving petrels |publisher=University of Michigan Museum of Zoology |year=2012 |access-date=2 March 2013 |author=Cholewiak, Danielle}}</ref>

====Migration====

The various species within the order have a variety of [[bird migration|migration]] strategies. Some species undertake regular trans-equatorial migrations, such as the [[sooty shearwater]] which annually migrates from its breeding grounds in New Zealand and Chile to the North Pacific off [[Japan]], [[Alaska]] and California, an annual round trip of {{convert|64000|km|mi|abbr=on}}, the second longest measured annual migration of any bird.<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1073/pnas.0603715103 |last1=Shaffer |first1=S.A. |last2=Tremblay |first2=Y. |last3=Weimerskirch |first3= H. |last4=Scott |first4=D. |last5=Thompson |first5=D.R. |last6=Sagar |first6=P.M. |last7=Moller |first7=H. |last8=Taylor |first8=G.A. |last9=Foley |first9=D.G. |last10=Block |first10=B.A. | first11=Costa |last11=D.P. |year=2006 |title=Migratory shearwaters integrate oceanic resources across the Pacific Ocean in an endless summer |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America |volume=103 |issue=34 |pages=12799–12802 |pmid=16908846 |pmc=1568927  |bibcode=2006PNAS..10312799S |doi-access=free }}</ref> A number of other petrel species undertake trans-equatorial migrations, including the [[Wilson's storm petrel]] and the [[Providence petrel]], but no albatrosses cross the equator, as they rely on wind assisted flight. There are other long-distance migrants within the order; [[Swinhoe's storm petrel]]s breed in the western Pacific and migrate to the western Indian Ocean,<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Van Den |first1=Berg A.B. |last2=Smeenk |first2=C. |last3=Bosman |first3=C.A.W. |last4=Haase |first4=B.J.M. |last5=Van Der |first5=Niet A.M. |last6=Cadée |first6=G.C. |year=1990 |title=Barau's petrel ''Pterodroma baraui'', Jouanin's petrel ''Bulweria fallax'' and other seabirds in the northern Indian Ocean in June–July 1984 and 1985 |journal=Ardea |volume=79 |pages=1–14 |url=http://ardea.nou.nu/ardea_search3.php?key=nummer&keyin=79&k2=1 }}</ref> and [[Bonin petrel]]s nesting in [[Hawaii]] migrate to the coast of Japan during the non-breeding season.<ref>{{cite book |author1=Seto, N. W. H. |author2=O'Daniel, D. |year=1999 |chapter=Bonin Petrel (''Pterodroma hypoleuca'') |title=The Birds of North America, No. 385 |editor=Poole A. |editor2=Gill, F |publisher=The Birds of North America |location=Philadelphia, PA}}</ref>

====Navigation====

Many species in the order travel long distances over open water but return to the same nest site each year, raising the question of how they navigate so accurately.<ref name=Lockley>{{cite book |last=Lockley |first=Ronald M. |title=Animal Navigation |year=1967 |publisher=Pan Books| pages=114–117}}</ref> The Welsh naturalist [[Ronald Lockley]] carried out early research into [[animal navigation]] with the [[Manx shearwater]]s that nested on the island of [[Skokholm]]. In release experiments, a Manx shearwater flew from [[Boston]] to Skokholm, a distance of {{convert|3000|mi|km|abbr=off}} in 12{{frac|1|2}} days.<ref name=Lockley/><ref name=BirdsBritManx>Cocker, 2005. pp. 21–24</ref>
Lockley showed that when released "under a clear sky" with sun or stars visible, the shearwaters  oriented themselves and then "flew off in a direct line for Skokholm", making the journey so rapidly that they must have flown almost in a straight line. But if the sky was overcast at the time of release, the shearwaters flew around in circles "as if lost" and returned slowly or not at all, implying that they navigated using astronomical cues.<ref name=Lockley/>

Researchers have also begun investigating olfaction's role in procellariiform navigation. In a study where Cory's shearwaters were rendered anosmic with zinc sulphate, a compound which kills the surface layer of the olfactory epithelium, and released hundreds of kilometers away from their home colony at night, control birds found their way to their home nests before night was over, whereas anosmic birds did not home until the next day.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Dell'Ariccia|first1=G.|last2=Bonadonna|first2=F.|date=2013-04-15|title=Back home at night or out until morning? Nycthemeral variations in homing of anosmic Cory's shearwaters in a diurnal colony|journal=Journal of Experimental Biology|language=en|volume=216|issue=8|pages=1430–1433|doi=10.1242/jeb.082826|pmid=23307801|issn=0022-0949|doi-access=free}}</ref> A similar study that released Cory's shearwaters 800&nbsp;km from their home nests, testing both magnetic and olfactory disturbances' effects on navigation, found that anosmic birds took longer to home than magnetically disturbed or control birds.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Gagliardo|first1=A.|last2=Bried|first2=J.|last3=Lambardi|first3=P.|last4=Luschi|first4=P.|last5=Wikelski|first5=M.|last6=Bonadonna|first6=F.|date=2013-08-01|title=Oceanic navigation in Cory's shearwaters: evidence for a crucial role of olfactory cues for homing after displacement|journal=Journal of Experimental Biology|language=en|volume=216|issue=15|pages=2798–2805|doi=10.1242/jeb.085738|pmid=23842626|bibcode=2013JExpB.216.2798G |issn=0022-0949|doi-access=free|hdl=11568/208687|hdl-access=free}}</ref>

===Morphology and flight===
[[File:070226 southern royal albatross off Kaikoura 2.jpg|alt= massive white bird with black wings and pink bill sits on the surface of the water|thumb|left|The [[southern royal albatross]] is one of the largest of the Procellariiformes.]]
Procellariiforms range in size from the very large [[wandering albatross]], at {{convert|11|kg|lb|abbr=on}} and a {{convert|3.6|m|ft|abbr=off|adj=on}} wingspan, to tiny birds like the [[least storm petrel]], at {{convert|20|g|oz|abbr=on}} with a {{convert|32|cm|in|abbr=off|adj=on}} wingspan,<ref name="Double" /> and the smallest of the prions, the [[fairy prion]], with a wingspan of {{convert|23|to|28|cm|in|abbr=on}}.<ref name="Maynard">{{cite encyclopedia |last=Maynard |first=B. J.|editor1-first=Michael |editor1-last= Hutchins|encyclopedia=Grzimek's Animal Life Encyclopedia |title=Shearwaters, petrels, and fulmars (procellariidae) |edition=2 |year=2003 |publisher=Gale Group|volume=8 Birds I Tinamous and Ratites to Hoatzins |pages=123–127 |isbn=978-0-7876-5784-0}}</ref> Their nostrils are enclosed in one or two tubes on their straight deeply-grooved bills with hooked tips. The beaks are made up of several plates. Their wings are long and narrow; the feet are webbed, and the hind toe is undeveloped or non-existent; their adult [[plumage]] is predominantly black, white, and grey.<ref>{{cite journal |title=Adaptive significance of seabird coloration: The case of Procellariiforms |author=Bretagnolle, Vincent |journal=The American Naturalist |year=1993 |volume=142 |issue=1 |pages=141–173 |jstor=2462637|pmid=19425973 |doi=10.1086/285532 |bibcode=1993ANat..142..141B |s2cid=205983145 }}</ref>

The order has a few unifying characteristics, starting with their tubular nasal passage which is used for [[olfaction]].<ref name=j1/> Procellariiformes that nest in burrows have a strong sense of smell, being able to detect [[dimethyl sulfide]] released from [[plankton]] in the ocean.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Buskirk|first1=R. W. Van|last2=Nevitt|first2=G. A.|date=2008|title=The influence of developmental environment on the evolution of olfactory foraging behaviour in procellariiform seabirds|url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1420-9101.2007.01465.x|journal=Journal of Evolutionary Biology|language=en|volume=21|issue=1|pages=67–76|doi=10.1111/j.1420-9101.2007.01465.x|pmid=18021198|s2cid=30270085|issn=1420-9101|url-access=subscription}}</ref> This ability to smell helps to locate patchily distributed prey at sea and may also help locate their nests within [[seabird colony|nesting colonies]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Bonadonna |first1=Francesco |last2=Cunningham |first2=Gregory B. |last3=Jouventin |first3=Pierre |last4=Hesters |first4=Florence |last5=Nevitt |first5=Gabrielle A. |year=2003 |title=Evidence for nest-odour recognition in two species of diving petrel |journal=Journal of Experimental Biology |volume=206 |issue=Pt 20 |pages=3719–3722 |doi=10.1242/jeb.00610 |pmid=12966063|bibcode=2003JExpB.206.3719B |doi-access=free }}</ref> In contrast, surface nesting Procellariiformes have increased vision, having six times better [[spatial resolution]] than those that nest in burrows.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Mitkus|first1=Mindaugas|last2=Nevitt|first2=Gabrielle A.|last3=Danielsen|first3=Johannis|last4=Kelber|first4=Almut|date=2016-11-01|title=Vision on the high seas: spatial resolution and optical sensitivity in two procellariiform seabirds with different foraging strategies|url=https://jeb.biologists.org/content/219/21/3329|journal=Journal of Experimental Biology|language=en|volume=219|issue=21|pages=3329–3338|doi=10.1242/jeb.140905|issn=0022-0949|pmid=27591308|doi-access=free}}</ref> The structure of the [[Beak|bill]], which contains seven to nine distinct horny plates, is another unifying feature, although there are differences within the order. Petrels have a plate called the maxillary unguis that forms a hook on the maxilla. The smaller members of the order have a comb-like mandible, made by the [[tomia]]l plate, for [[plankton]] feeding. Most members of the order are unable to walk well on land, and many species visit their remote breeding islands only at night. The exceptions are the huge albatrosses, several of the gadfly petrels and shearwaters and the fulmar-petrels. The latter can disable even large predatory birds with their obnoxious [[stomach oil]], which they can project some distance. This stomach oil, stored in the [[proventriculus]], is a digestive residue created in the [[foregut]] of all tubenoses except the diving petrels, and is used mainly for storage of energy-rich food during their long flights.<ref>{{cite journal |url=http://www.marineornithology.org/PDF/31_2/31_2_101-112.pdf |title=Biogeography of Procellariiform foraging strategies: does ocean productivity influence provisioning? |author1=Baduini, Cheryl L. |author2=Hyrenbach, K. David |journal=Marine Ornithology |year=2003 |volume=31 |issue=2 |pages=101–112|doi=10.5038/2074-1235.31.2.570 }}</ref> The oil is also fed to their young, as well as being used for defense.<ref name="Double"/><ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qrI5ph6BWiIC&pg=PA149 |title=A Wildlife Guide to Chile: Continental Chile, Chilean Antarctica, Easter Island, Juan Fernandez Archipelago |publisher=Princeton University Press |author=Chester, Sharon |year=2010 |page=149 |isbn=978-0-691-12976-1}}</ref>

[[File:Whitefacedstormpetrel1.jpg|thumb|alt= White bird with grey upperparts and black face mask jumps off water surface with elongated legs.|The [[white-faced storm petrel]] moves across the water's surface in a series of bounding leaps.]]
Procellariiforms drink seawater, so they have to excrete excess salt.  All birds have an enlarged nasal gland at the base of the bill, above the eyes, and in the Procellariiformes the gland is active. In general terms, the salt gland removes salt from the system and forms a 5 percent saline solution that drips out of the nostrils, or is forcibly ejected in some petrels.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Ehrlich |first1=Paul R. |last2=Dobkin |first2=David, S. |last3=Wheye |first3=Darryl |title=The Birders Handbook |edition=First |year=1988 |publisher=Simon & Schuster |location=New York, NY |isbn=978-0-671-65989-9 |pages=29–31 |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/birdershandbookf00ehrl_0 }}</ref> The processes behind this involve high levels of [[sodium]] ion reabsorption into the [[blood plasma]] within the kidneys, and secretion of [[sodium chloride]] via the [[salt gland]]s using less water than was absorbed, which essentially generates salt-free water for other physiological uses. This high efficiency of sodium ion absorption is attributed to mammalian-type [[nephrons]].<ref>{{cite journal |last=Hughes |first=M.R. |title=Regulation of salt gland, gut and kidney interactions |journal=Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology A |year=2003 |volume=136 |issue=3 |doi=10.1016/j.cbpb.2003.09.005 |pmid=14613781 |pages=507–524}}</ref>

Most albatrosses and procellariids use two techniques to minimise exertion while flying, namely, [[dynamic soaring]] and [[slope soaring]]. The albatrosses and [[giant petrel]]s share a morphological adaptation to aid in flight, a sheet of [[tendon]] which locks the wing when fully extended, allowing the wing to be kept up and out without any muscle effort.<ref name ="pen">{{cite journal |doi=10.1098/rstb.1982.0158 |last1=Pennycuick |first1= C.J. |year=1982 |title=The flight of petrels and albatrosses (Procellariiformes), observed in South Georgia and its vicinity |journal =Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London B |volume=300 |issue=1098 |pages=75–106 |bibcode=1982RSPTB.300...75P |doi-access= }}</ref> Amongst the Oceanitinae storm-petrels there are two unique flight patterns, one being surface pattering. In this they move across the water surface holding and moving their feet on the water's surface while holding steady above the water, and remaining stationary by hovering with rapid fluttering or by using the wind to anchor themselves in place.<ref name = "Withers"/> A similar flight method is thought to have been used by the extinct petrel family [[Diomedeoididae]].<ref name ="Mayr"/> The [[white-faced storm petrel]] possesses a unique variation on pattering: holding its wings motionless and at an angle into the wind, it pushes itself off the water's surface in a succession of bounding jumps.<ref name=j2/>

===Diet and feeding===
The procellariiforms are for the most part exclusively marine [[foraging|foragers]]; the only exception to this rule are the two species of giant petrel, which regularly feed on [[carrion]] or other seabirds while on land. While some other species of fulmarine and ''[[Procellaria]]'' petrels also take carrion, the diet of most species of albatrosses and petrels is dominated by fish, squid, krill and other marine zooplankton. The importance of these food sources varies from species to species and family to family. For example, of the two albatross species found in Hawaii, the [[black-footed albatross]] takes mostly fish, while the [[Laysan albatross|Laysan]] feeds mainly on squid.<ref>Brooke, 2004. p. 126</ref> The albatrosses in general feed on fish, squid and krill. Among the procellariids, the prions concentrate on small crustacea, the fulmarine petrels take fish and krill but little squid, while the ''Procellaria'' petrels consume mainly squid.  The storm petrels take small droplets of oil from the surface of the water,<ref>{{cite book |title=Birds of Venezuela |publisher=Princeton University Press |author=Hilty, Steven L. |year=2002 |page=188 |isbn=978-0-691-09250-8}}</ref> as well as small crustaceans and fish.<ref>Brooke, 2004. p. 127</ref>

Petrels obtain food by snatching prey while swimming on the surface, snatching prey from the wing or diving down under the water to pursue prey. Dipping down from flight is most commonly used by the [[gadfly petrel]]s and the [[storm petrel]]s. There have been records of [[wedge-tailed shearwater]]s snatching [[flying fish]] from the air, but as a rule this technique is rare. Some diving birds may aid diving by beginning with a plunge from the air, but for the most part petrels are active divers and use their wings to move around under the water. The depths achieved by various species were determined in the 1990s and came as a surprise to scientists; [[short-tailed shearwater]]s have been recorded diving to {{convert|70|m|abbr=on}} and the [[Light-mantled sooty albatross]] to {{convert|12|m|abbr=on}}.<ref>Brooke, 2004. pp. 128–131</ref>

===Breeding behaviour===
{{see also|Seabird breeding behavior|l1=Seabird breeding behaviour}}

====Breeding colonies====
[[File:Xmas shearwaters roosting.jpg|thumb|220px|[[Christmas shearwater]]s are one of the surface-nesting tropical procellariiforms.]]
All procellariiforms are colonial, predominantly breeding on offshore or oceanic islands. The few species that nest on continents do so in inhospitable environments such as dry deserts or on Antarctica. These colonies can vary from the widely spaced colonies of the giant petrels to the dense 3.6 million-strong colonies of [[Leach's storm petrel]]s.<ref name=j3/> For almost all species the need to breed is the only reason that procellariiforms return to land at all. Some of the larger petrels have to nest on windswept locations as they require wind to take off and forage for food.<ref name="Double" /> Within the colonies, pairs defend usually small [[Territory (animal)|territories]] (the giant petrels and some albatrosses can have very large territories) which is the small area around either the nest or a burrow. Competition between pairs can be intense, as is competition between species, particularly for burrows. Larger species of petrels will even kill the chicks and even adults of smaller species in disputes over burrows.<ref name ="Medeiros"/> Burrows and natural crevices are most commonly used by the smaller species; all the storm petrels and [[diving petrel]]s are cavity nesters, as are many of the [[procellariid]]s. The fulmarine petrels and some tropical [[gadfly petrel]]s and [[shearwater]]s are surface nesters, as are all the albatrosses.<ref>{{cite book |title=Chemical Signals in Vertebrates 10 | publisher=Springer |author1=Cunningham, G.B. |author2=Nevitt, G.A. |year=2005 |page=403 |editor1=Mason, R.T. |editor2=Lemaster, Michael P. |editor3=Müller-Schwarze, D. | chapter=The Sense of Smell in Procellariiformes |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zBZZNiN9_PoC&pg=PA403|isbn=978-0-387-25159-2 }}</ref>

Procellariiforms show high levels of [[philopatry]], both site fidelity and natal philopatry. Natal philopatry is the tendency of an individual bird to return to its natal colony to breed, often many years after leaving the colony as a chick. This tendency has been shown through [[bird ringing|ringing studies]] and [[mitochondrial DNA]] studies. Birds ringed as chicks have been recaptured close to their original nests, sometimes extremely close; in the Laysan albatross the average distance between hatching site and the site where a bird established its own territory was {{convert|22|m|ft|abbr=on}},<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Fisher |first1=H. I. |year=1976 |title=Some dynamics of a breeding colony of Laysan Albatrosses |url=http://sora.unm.edu/node/129258 |journal=Wilson Bulletin |volume=88 |pages=121–142}}</ref> and a study of [[Cory's shearwater]]s nesting near [[Corsica]] found that nine out of 61 male chicks that returned to breed at their natal colony actually bred in the burrow they were raised in.<ref name=j4/> Mitochondrial DNA provides evidence of restricted [[gene flow]] between different colonies, strongly suggesting philopatry.<ref name=j5/>

The other type of philopatry exhibited is site fidelity, where pairs of birds return to the same nesting site for a number of years. Among the most extreme examples known of this tendency was the fidelity of a ringed northern fulmar that returned to the same nest site for 25 years. The average number of birds returning to the same nest sites is high in all species studied, with around 91 percent for [[Bulwer's petrel]]s,<ref name=j6/> and 85 percent of males and 76 percent of females for Cory's shearwaters (after a successful breeding attempt).<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1080/00063659409477193 |last1=Thibault |first1=J.-C. |year=1994 |title=Nest-site tenacity and mate fidelity in relation to breeding success in Cory's Shearwater ''Calonectris diomedea'' |journal=Bird Study |volume=41 |issue=1 |pages=25–28|bibcode=1994BirdS..41...25T }}</ref>

====Pair bonds and life history====
[[File:Kerguelen - Diomedea exulans - wooing.jpg|thumb|alt= Three massive birds stand on low grasslands, the closest bird has its long wings outstretched and its head pointing upward|left|[[Wandering albatross]]es performing their mating dances on the [[Kerguelen Islands]]]]
Procellariiforms are [[monogamy in animals|monogamous]] breeders and form long-term pair bonds. These pair bonds take several years to develop in some species, particularly with the albatrosses. Once formed, they last for many breeding seasons, in some cases for the life of the pair. Petrel courtship can be elaborate. It reaches its extreme with the albatrosses, where pairs spend many years perfecting and elaborating mating dances.<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1163/156853981X00257 |last1=Jouventin |first1=P. |last2=de Monicault |first2=G. |last3=Blosseville |first3=J.M. |year=1981 |title=La danse de l'albatros, ''Phoebetria fusca'' |journal=Behaviour |volume=78 |issue=1–2 |pages=43–80 |language=fr}}</ref> These dances are composed of synchronised performances of various actions such as [[preening]], pointing, calling, bill clacking, staring, and combinations of such behaviours (like the sky-call).<ref name=j7/> Each particular pair will develop their own individual version of the dance. The breeding behaviour of other procellariiforms is less elaborate, although similar bonding behaviours are involved, particularly for surface-nesting species. These can involve synchronised flights, mutual preening and [[Birdsong|calling]]. Calls are important for helping birds locate potential mates and distinguishing between species, and may also help individuals assess the quality of potential mates.<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1080/08927014.1994.9522988 |last1=Genevois |first1=F. |last2=Bretagnolle |first2=V. |year=1994 |title=Male Blue Petrels reveal their body mass when calling |journal=Ethology Ecology & Evolution |volume=6 |issue=3 |pages=377–383|bibcode=1994EtEcE...6..377G }}</ref> After pairs have been formed, calls serve to help them reunite; the ability of individuals to recognise their own mate has been demonstrated in several species.<ref>{{cite thesis |url= https://cdr.lib.unc.edu/concern/dissertations/cc08hg50x |title=Acoustic communication in colonial seabirds: individual, sexual, and species-specific variation in acoustic signals of Pterodroma petrels |publisher=University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill |degree=PhD |year=2008 |author=McKown, Matthew W. |pages=90–91 |access-date=31 August 2024}}</ref>

Procellariiforms are [[k-selection|K-selected]], being long-lived and caring extensively for their few offspring. Breeding is delayed for several years after [[fledge|fledging]], sometimes for as long as ten years in the largest species. Once they begin breeding, they make only a single breeding attempt per nesting season; even if the egg is lost early in the season, they seldom re-lay. Much effort is placed into laying a single (proportionally) large [[egg (biology)|egg]] and raising a single chick. Procellariiforms are long-lived: the longest living albatross known survived for 51 years, but was probably older,<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1071/MU9930269 |last1=Robertson |first1=C.J.R. |year=1993 |title=Survival and longevity of the Northern Royal Albatross ''Diomedea epomophora sanfordi'' at Taiaroa Head" 1937–93 |journal=Emu |volume=93 |issue=4 |pages=269–276|bibcode=1993EmuAO..93..269R }}</ref> and even the tiny storm-petrels are known to have survived for 30 years.<ref>Klimkiewicz, M. K. 2007. [https://www.pwrc.usgs.gov/BBL/homepage/longvrec.htm Longevity Records of North American Birds] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110519022957/http://www.pwrc.usgs.gov/BBL/homepage/longvrec.htm |date=2011-05-19 }}. Version 2007.1. Patuxent Wildlife Research Center. Bird Banding Laboratory. Laurel MD.</ref> Additionally, the oldest living bird is [[Wisdom (albatross)|Wisdom]], a female Laysan albatross.

====Nesting and chick rearing====
[[File:W-tail with chick.jpg|thumb|A semi-precocial [[wedge-tailed shearwater]] chick with guarding parent]]
The majority of procellariiforms nest once a year and do so seasonally.<ref>Brooke, 2004. p. 46</ref> Some tropical shearwaters, like the [[Christmas shearwater]], are able to nest on cycles slightly shorter than a year, and the large [[great albatross]]es (genus ''[[Diomedea]]'') nest in alternate years (if successful). Most temperate and polar species nest over the spring-summer, although some albatrosses and procellariids nest over the winter. In the tropics, some species can be found breeding throughout the year, but most nest in discreet periods. Procellariiforms return to nesting colonies as much as several months before laying, and attend their nest sites regularly before copulation. Prior to laying, females embark on a lengthy pre-laying exodus to build up energy reserves in order to lay the exceptionally large egg. In the stormy petrel{{clarification|reason= Which species of storm petrel?|date=October 2023}}, a very small procellariiform, the egg can be 29 percent of the body weight of the female, while in the grey-faced petrel, the female may spend as much as 80 days feeding out at sea after courtship before laying the egg.<ref name=Teara2>{{cite web |url=http://www.teara.govt.nz/en/petrels/page-1 | title=Petrels: Breeding |publisher=Teara: The Encyclopedia of New Zealand |date=13 July 2012 |access-date=2 March 2013 |author=Wilson, Kerry-Jayne |page=2}}</ref>

When the female returns and lays, incubation is shared between the sexes, with the male taking the first [[avian incubation|incubation]] stint and the female returning to sea. The duration of individual stints varies from just a few days to as much as several weeks, during which the incubating bird can lose a considerable amount of weight.<ref>Warham, J. (1990) ''The Petrels – Their Ecology and Breeding Systems'' London: Academic Press. {{ISBN|978-0-12-735420-0}}</ref> The incubation period varies from species to species, around 40 days for the smallest storm-petrels but longer for the largest species; for albatrosses it can span 70 to 80 days, which is the longest incubation period of any bird.<ref>Brooke, 2004. p. 67</ref>
[[File:Feeding chick.JPG|thumb|left|A [[Laysan albatross]] feeds its chick. The parent pumps food from a modified foregut, the proventriculus, and the chick catches the meal in its lower mandible.]]

Upon hatching, the chicks are semi-[[precocial]], having open eyes, a dense covering of white or grey [[down feather]]s, and the ability to move around the nesting site. After hatching, the incubating adult remains with the chick for a number of days, a period known as the guard phase. In the case of most burrow-nesting species, this is only until the chick is able to [[thermoregulation|thermoregulate]], usually two or three days. Diving-petrel chicks take longer to thermoregulate and have a longer guard phase than other burrow nesters. However, surface-nesting species, which have to deal with a greater range of weather and to contend with predators like [[skua]]s and [[frigatebird]]s, consequently have a longer guard phase (as long as two weeks in procellariids and three weeks in albatrosses).<ref>Brooke, 2004. p. 75</ref>

The chick is fed by both parents. Chicks are fed on fish, squid, krill, and [[stomach oil]]. Stomach oil is [[oil]] composed of neutral dietary [[lipid]]s that are the residue created by [[digestion]] of the prey items. As an energy source for chicks it has several advantages over undigested prey, its [[calorie|calorific]] value is around 9.6 kcal per gram, which is only slightly lower than the value for [[Diesel fuel|diesel]] oil.<ref name = "stomach"/> This can be a real advantage for species that range over huge distances to provide food for hungry chicks.<ref name=j8/> The oil is also used in defence. All procellariiforms create stomach oil except the diving-petrels.<ref name = "stomach"/>

The chick fledges between two and nine months after hatching, almost twice as long as a gull of the same body mass. The reasons behind the length of time are associated with the distance from the breeding site to food. First, there are few predators at the nesting colonies, therefore there is no pressure to fledge quickly.  Second, the time between feedings is long due to the distance from the nest site that adults forage, thus a chick that had a higher growth rate would stand a better chance of starving to death.<ref name="Double" /> The duration between feedings vary among species and during the stages of development. Small feeds are frequent during the guard phase, but afterward become less frequent. However, each feed can deliver a large amount of energy; both sooty shearwater and mottled petrel chicks have been recorded to double their weight in a single night, probably when fed by both parents.<ref name=Teara2/>

==Relationship with humans==

===Role in culture===
[[File:The Albatross about my Neck was Hung by William Strang.jpg|thumb|upright=1.2|''The Albatross about my Neck was Hung'': 1896 etching by [[William Strang]] illustrating [[Samuel Taylor Coleridge|Coleridge]]'s 1798 poem ''[[The Rime of the Ancient Mariner]]'']]
The most important family culturally is the albatrosses, which have been described by one author as "the most legendary of birds".<ref name ="delhoyo">Carboneras, C. (1992) "Family Diomedeidae (Albatross)" in ''Handbook of Birds of the World'' Vol 1. Barcelona:Lynx Edicions, {{ISBN|84-87334-10-5}}</ref> Albatrosses have featured in poetry in the form of [[Samuel Taylor Coleridge]]'s famous 1798 poem ''[[The Rime of the Ancient Mariner]]'', which in turn gave rise to the usage of albatross as [[Albatross (metaphor)|metaphor for a burden]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Lasky |first1=E |year=1992 |title=A modern day albatross: The Valdez and some of life's other spills |journal=The English Journal |volume=81 |issue=3 |pages=44–46 |doi=10.2307/820195 |jstor=820195 }}</ref> More generally, albatrosses were believed to be good omens, and to kill one would bring bad luck.<ref name="Double" /> There are few instances of [[petrel]]s in culture, although there are sailors' legends regarding the storm petrels, which are considered to warn of oncoming storms. In general, petrels were considered to be "soul birds", representing the souls of drowned sailors, and it was considered unlucky to touch them.<ref name = "HBW storm">Carboneras, C. (1992) "Family Hydrobatidae (Storm-petrels)" pp. 258–265 in ''Handbook of Birds of the World'' Vol 1. Barcelona:Lynx Edicions, {{ISBN|84-87334-10-5}}</ref>

In the Russian language, many petrel species from the  [[Hydrobatidae]] and [[Procellariidae]] families of the order Procellariiformes are known as ''[[burevestnik (disambiguation)|burevestnik]]'', which literally means 'the announcer of the storm'. When in 1901, the Russian writer [[Maxim Gorky]] turned to the imagery of subantarctic avifauna to describe Russian society's attitudes to the [[Russian Revolution|coming revolution]], he used a ''storm-announcing'' petrel as the lead character of a poem  that soon became popular in the revolutionary circles as "the battle anthem of the revolution".<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20090224220231/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,833822,00.html "A Legend Exhumed"], review of "STORMY PETREL: THE LIFE AND WORK OF MAXIM GORKY" by Dan Levin. 329 pages. Appleton-Century. Review published in the [[Time Magazine]], Friday, Jun. 25, 1965</ref>  Although the species called "[[stormy petrel]]" in English is not one of those to which the ''burevestnik'' name is applied in Russian (it, in fact, is known in Russian as an entirely un-romantic ''[[:ru:Качурки|kachurka]]''), the English translators uniformly used the "stormy petrel" image in their translations of the poem, usually known in English as ''[[The Song of the Stormy Petrel]]''.<ref>[http://www.marxists.org/archive/gorky-maxim/1901/misc/x01.htm "The Song of the Stormy Petrel", Translation by Sally Ryan]</ref>

Various tubenose birds are relevant to the mythologies and oral traditions of [[Polynesia]]. The [[Māori people|Māori]] used the wing bones of the albatross to carve [[flute]]s.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Mclean|first=Mervyn|title=A Chronological and Geographical Sequence of Maori Flute Scales|journal=Man|year=1982|volume=17|issue=1|pages=123–157 |jstor=2802105|doi=10.2307/2802105}}</ref> In [[Hawaiian mythology]], Laysan albatrosses are considered ''[[aumakua]]'', being a sacred manifestation of the ancestors, and quite possibly also the sacred bird of [[Kāne]].<ref>Hor Osterlund, Holy Mōlī: Albatross and Other Ancestors, Oregon State University Press</ref> The storm petrel features prominently in the "Origin of Birds" myth.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://nzetc.victoria.ac.nz/tm/scholarly/tei-Bes02Reli-t1-body-d4-d3-d10.html | title=Origin of Birds &#124; NZETC }}</ref>

===Exploitation===
[[File:Bird's Eggs from Sea-Cliffs tail-piece in Bewick British Birds 1804.jpg|thumb|left|220px|A tail-piece [[wood engraving|engraving]] in [[Thomas Bewick|Bewick]]'s ''[[A History of British Birds]]'', showing men exploiting birds nesting on sea cliffs, 1804]]

Albatrosses and petrels have been important food sources for humans for as long as people have been able to reach their remote breeding colonies. Amongst the earliest-known examples of this is the remains of shearwaters and albatrosses along with those of other seabirds in 5,000-year-old [[midden]]s in [[Chile]],<ref name=j9/> although it is likely that they were exploited prior to this. Since then, many other marine cultures, both subsistence and industrial, have exploited procellariiforms, in some cases almost to [[extinction]]. Some cultures continue to harvest shearwaters (a practice known as [[muttonbirding]]); for example, the [[Māori people|Māori]] of [[New Zealand]] use a sustainable traditional method known as ''[[kaitiaki]]tanga''. In Alaska, residents of [[Kodiak Island]] harpoon [[short-tailed albatross]]es, ''Diomedea albatrus'', and until the late 1980s residents of [[Tristan Island (Antarctica)|Tristan Island]] in the [[Indian Ocean]] harvested the eggs of the [[Atlantic yellow-nosed albatross|Yellow-nosed Mollymawks]], ''Diomedea chlororhynchos'', and [[sooty albatross]]es, ''Phoebetria fusca''.<ref name="Double" /> Albatrosses and petrels are also now tourist draws in some locations, such as [[Taiaroa Head]]. While such exploitation is non-consumptive, it can have deleterious effects that need careful management to protect both the birds and the tourism.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Higham |first=J. |year=1998 |title=Tourists and albatrosses: The dynamics of tourism at the Northern Royal Albatross Colony, Taiaroa Head, New Zealand |journal=Tourism Management |volume=19 |issue=6 |pages=521–531 |doi=10.1016/S0261-5177(98)00054-5}}</ref>

The English naturalist [[William Yarrell]] wrote in 1843 that "ten or twelve years ago, [[John Gould|Mr. Gould]] exhibited twenty-four [storm petrels], in a large dish, at one of the evening meetings of the [[Zoological Society of London|Zoological Society]]".<ref>{{cite book | title=A History of British Birds |volume= III | publisher=John Van Voorst | year=1843 | author=Yarrell, William| author-link=William Yarrell | page=525}}</ref>

The engraver [[Thomas Bewick]] wrote in 1804 that "[[Thomas Pennant|Pennant]], speaking of those [birds] which breed on, or inhabit, the [[Isle of St Kilda]], says—'No bird is of so much use to the islanders as this: the [[northern fulmar|Fulmar]] supplies them with oil for their lamps, down for their beds, a delicacy for their tables, a balm for their wounds, and a medicine for their distempers.'"<ref>{{cite book | title=A History of British Birds, volume II, Water Birds | author=Bewick, Thomas | author-link=Thomas Bewick | year=1847|edition=revised | page=226| title-link=A History of British Birds }}</ref> A photograph by [[George Washington Wilson]] taken about 1886 shows a "view of the men and women of St Kilda on the beach dividing up the catch of Fulmar".<ref>{{cite web | url=http://digitool.abdn.ac.uk/R/935LPQ7V1PJNRMHJXAFL3YNEU9A26DHRH4JK6P1CY15UC3XCIN-00058 | archive-url=https://archive.today/20130419125559/http://digitool.abdn.ac.uk/R/935LPQ7V1PJNRMHJXAFL3YNEU9A26DHRH4JK6P1CY15UC3XCIN-00058 | archive-date=April 19, 2013 | title=Dividing the Catch of Fulmar St Kilda | publisher=Aberdeen Library Special Collections and Museums | work=GB 0231 MS 3792/C7187 6188 | author-link=George Washington Wilson | date=2 December 1901 | orig-date=1886 | access-date=9 March 2013 | author=Wilson, George Washington }}</ref> James Fisher, author of ''The Fulmar'' (1952)<ref>{{cite book | title=The Fulmar | publisher=Collins | author=Fisher, J. | year=1952}}</ref> calculated that every person on St Kilda consumed over 100 fulmars each year; the meat was their staple food, and they caught around 12,000 birds annually. However, when the human population left St Kilda in 1930, the population did not suddenly grow.<ref name=BirdsBritFulmar>Cocker, 2005. pp. 12–18</ref>

===Threats and conservation===

{{See also|Introduced mammals on seabird breeding islands}}

[[File:Oceanites maorianus.jpg|thumb|The poorly known [[New Zealand storm petrel]] was considered extinct for 150 years before being rediscovered in 2003.]]
The albatrosses and petrels are "amongst the most severely threatened taxa worldwide".<ref name ="Medeiros"/> They face a variety of threats, the severity of which varies greatly from species to species. Several species are among the most common of seabirds, including Wilson's storm petrel (an estimated 12 to 30 million individuals)<ref>{{cite iucn |author=BirdLife International |date=2018 |title=''Oceanites oceanicus'' |volume=2018 |article-number=e.T22698436A132646007 |doi=10.2305/IUCN.UK.2018-2.RLTS.T22698436A132646007.en |access-date=12 November 2021}}</ref> and the [[short-tailed shearwater]] (23 million individuals);<ref>{{cite iucn | url=https://www.iucnredlist.org/details/106003934/0 | title=Puffinus tenuirostris | year=2012 | access-date=4 March 2013}}</ref> while the total population of some other species is a few hundred. There are less than 200 [[Magenta petrel]]s breeding on the [[Chatham Islands]],<ref>{{cite iucn |author=BirdLife International |date=2018 |title=''Pterodroma magentae'' |volume=2018 |article-number=e.T22698049A131879320 |doi=10.2305/IUCN.UK.2018-2.RLTS.T22698049A131879320.en |access-date=12 November 2021}}</ref> only 130 to 160 [[Zino's petrel]]s<ref>{{cite iucn |author=BirdLife International |date=2018 |title=''Pterodroma madeira'' |volume=2018 |article-number=e.T22698062A132622973 |doi=10.2305/IUCN.UK.2018-2.RLTS.T22698062A132622973.en |access-date=12 November 2021}}</ref> and only 170 [[Amsterdam albatross]]es.<ref>{{cite iucn |author=BirdLife International |date=2018 |title=''Diomedea amsterdamensis'' |volume=2018 |article-number=e.T22698310A132397831 |doi=10.2305/IUCN.UK.2018-2.RLTS.T22698310A132397831.en |access-date=12 November 2021}}</ref> Only one species is thought to have become extinct since 1600, the [[Guadalupe storm petrel]] of [[Mexico]],<ref>{{Cite journal | doi = 10.2307/1360977 | last1 = Thayer | first1 = J. | last2 = Bangs | first2 = O. | year = 1908 | title = The Present State of the Ornis of Guadaloupe Island | url = http://sora.unm.edu/sites/default/files/journals/condor/v010n03/p0101-p0106.pdf| journal = Condor | volume = 10 | issue = 3| pages = 101–106 | jstor = 1360977| hdl = 2027/hvd.32044072250186 | hdl-access = free }}</ref> although a number of species had died out before this. Numerous species are very poorly known; for example, the [[Fiji petrel]] has rarely been seen since its discovery.<ref>{{cite iucn |author=BirdLife International |date=2018 |title=''Pseudobulweria macgillivrayi'' |volume=2018 |article-number=e.T22697935A132613365 |doi=10.2305/IUCN.UK.2018-2.RLTS.T22697935A132613365.en |access-date=12 November 2021}}</ref> The breeding colony of the [[New Zealand storm petrel]] was not located until February 2013;<ref>{{cite news| last=Mason| first=Cassandra| title=Critically endangered NZ storm petrel found breeding| url=http://www.nzherald.co.nz/nz/news/article.cfm?c_id=1&objectid=10867625| access-date=1 March 2013 |newspaper=New Zealand Herald| date=25 February 2013}}</ref> it had been thought extinct for 150 years until its rediscovery in 2003,<ref>{{cite journal |author=Flood |year=2003 |title=The New Zealand storm-petrel is not extinct, it was last seen in 2003 |journal=Birding World |volume=16 |pages=479–483}}</ref> while the [[Bermuda petrel]] had been considered extinct for nearly 300 years.<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.birdlife.org/news/news/2008/03/Bermuda_Petrel.html | title=Bermuda Petrel returns to Nonsuch Island (Bermuda) after 400 years | publisher=BirdLife International | date=24 March 2008 | access-date=March 1, 2013}}</ref>

[[File:Albatross hook.jpg|thumb|left|250px|[[Black-browed albatross]] hooked on a long-line]]
The principal threat to the albatrosses and larger species of procellariids is [[long-line fishing]]. Bait set on hooks is attractive to foraging birds and many are hooked by the lines as they are set. As many as 100,000 albatrosses are hooked and drown each year on [[tuna]] lines set out by long-line fisheries.<ref>BirdLife International/RSPB (2005) [http://www.savethealbatross.net/the_problem.asp Save the Albatross: The Problem] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130623234319/http://www.rspb.org.uk/supporting/campaigns/albatross/ |date=2013-06-23 }} Retrieved March 17, 2006</ref><ref>{{cite journal | doi = 10.1016/0006-3207(91)90031-4 | last1 = Brothers | first1 = N.P. | year = 1991 | title = Albatross mortality and associated bait loss in the Japanese longline fishery in the southern ocean  | journal = Biological Conservation | volume = 55 | issue = 3| pages = 255–268 | bibcode = 1991BCons..55..255B }}</ref> Before 1991 and the ban on [[drift net fishing|drift-net fisheries]], it was estimated that 500,000 seabirds a year died as a result.<ref name="Double" /> This has caused steep declines in some species, as procellariiforms are extremely slow breeders<ref>{{cite journal | title=How slow breeding can be selected in seabirds: Testing Lack's hypothesis | last1=Dobson |first1=F.S. | last2=Jouventin |first2=P. | journal=Proceedings of the Royal Society B | year=2007 | volume=274 | issue=1607 | pages=275–279 | doi=10.1098/rspb.2006.3724| pmid=17148257 | pmc=1685855 }}</ref> and cannot replace their numbers fast enough. Losses of albatrosses and petrels in the Southern Ocean were estimated at between 1 percent and 16 percent per year, which these species cannot sustain for long.<ref>{{cite journal | url=http://icesjms.oxfordjournals.org/content/57/3/531.full.pdf |title=The impacts of fishing on marine birds |author1=Tasker, M.L. |author2=Camphuysen, C.J. |author3=Cooper, J. |author4=Garthe, S. |author5=Montevecchi, W.A. |author6=Blaber, S.J. |journal=ICES Journal of Marine Science |year=2000 |volume=57 |pages=531–547 |issue=3 |doi=10.1006/jmsc.2000.0714|doi-access=free |bibcode=2000ICJMS..57..531T }}</ref>

[[Introduced species|Exotic species introduced]] to the remote breeding colonies threaten all types of procellariiform. These principally take the form of [[predator]]s; most albatross and petrel species are clumsy on land and unable to defend themselves from [[mammal]]s such as [[rat]]s, [[feral cat]]s and [[pig]]s. This phenomenon, [[island tameness|ecological naivete]], has resulted in declines in many species and was implicated in the extinction of the Guadalupe storm petrel.<ref name=j10/> Already in 1910 Godman wrote:

{{blockquote|Owing to the introduction of the [[mongoose]] and other small [[carnivore|carnivorous]] mammals into their breeding haunts, some species, such as ''Oestrelata jamaicensis'' and ''newelli'', have already been completely exterminated, and others appear to be in danger of extinction.|Frederick Du Cane Godman, 1910, vol 1, p. 14.<ref name=Godman/>}}

[[File:Toothbrush regurgitated by albatross on Tern Island, Hawaii - 20060614.jpg|thumb|This albatross bolus found in the Hawaiian Islands includes [[flotsam]] that was ingested but successfully ejected along with other indigestible matter. If such flotsam cannot be ejected it may cause sickness or death.]]
Introduced herbivores may unbalance the [[ecology]] of islands; introduced rabbits destroyed the forest [[understory]] on [[Cabbage Tree Island (John Gould Nature Reserve)|Cabbage Tree Island]] off [[New South Wales]], which increased the vulnerability of the [[Gould's petrel]]s nesting on the island to natural predators, and left them vulnerable to the sticky fruits of the native birdlime tree (''[[Pisonia umbellifera]]''). In the natural state these fruits lodge in the understory of the forest, but with the understory removed the fruits fall to the ground where the petrels move about, sticking to their feathers and making flight impossible.<ref name ="car">{{cite journal |last1=Carlile |first1=N. |last2=Proiddel |first2=D. |last3=Zino |first3=F. |last4=Natividad |first4=C. | last5 = Wingate |first5=D.B. |year=2003 |title=A review of four successful recovery programmes for threatened sub-tropical petrels |journal=Marine Ornithology |volume=31 |issue=2 |url=http://marineornithology.org/PDF/31_2/31_2_185-192.pdf |pages=185–192|doi=10.5038/2074-1235.31.2.579 }}</ref>

Exploitation has decreased in importance as a threat. Other threats include the ingestion of plastic [[flotsam]]. Once swallowed, plastic can cause a general decline in the fitness of the bird, or in some cases lodge in the gut and cause a blockage, leading to death by starvation.<ref name=j11/> It can also be picked up by foraging adults and fed to chicks, stunting their development and reducing the chances of successfully fledging.<ref>Auman, H.J., Ludwig, J.P., Giesy, J.P., Colborn, T., (1997) [http://www.mindfully.org/Plastic/Ocean/Albatross-Plastic-Ingestion1997.htm "Plastic ingestion by Laysan Albatross chicks on Sand Island, Midway Atoll, in 1994 and 1995."] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20051030093845/http://www.mindfully.org/Plastic/Ocean/Albatross-Plastic-Ingestion1997.htm |date=2005-10-30 }} in ''Albatross Biology and Conservation'', G. Robinson and R. Gales (eds.). Surrey Beatty & Sons: Chipping Norton. pp. 239–44</ref>  Procellariids are also vulnerable to [[marine pollution]], as well as [[oil spill]]s. Some species, such as [[Barau's petrel]], [[Newell's shearwater]] and  Cory's shearwater, which nest high up on large developed islands, are victims of light pollution.<ref>{{Cite journal | doi=10.1111/cobi.12900|pmid = 28151557|title = Seabird mortality induced by land-based artificial lights| journal=Conservation Biology| volume=31| issue=5| pages=986–1001|year = 2017|last1 = Rodríguez|first1 = Airam| last2=Holmes| first2=Nick D.| last3=Ryan| first3=Peter G.| last4=Wilson| first4=Kerry-Jayne| last5=Faulquier| first5=Lucie| last6=Murillo| first6=Yovana| last7=Raine| first7=André F.| last8=Penniman| first8=Jay F.| last9=Neves| first9=Verónica| last10=Rodríguez| first10=Beneharo| last11=Negro| first11=Juan J.| last12=Chiaradia| first12=André| last13=Dann| first13=Peter| last14=Anderson| first14=Tracy| last15=Metzger| first15=Benjamin| last16=Shirai| first16=Masaki| last17=Deppe| first17=Lorna| last18=Wheeler| first18=Jennifer| last19=Hodum| first19=Peter| last20=Gouveia| first20=Catia| last21=Carmo| first21=Vanda| last22=Carreira| first22=Gilberto P.| last23=Delgado-Alburqueque| first23=Luis| last24=Guerra-Correa| first24=Carlos| last25=Couzi| first25=François-Xavier| last26=Travers| first26=Marc| last27=Corre| first27=Matthieu Le| bibcode=2017ConBi..31..986R | hdl=10400.3/4515| hdl-access=free}}</ref> Fledging chicks are attracted to streetlights and may then be unable to reach the sea. An estimated 20 to 40 percent of fledging Barau's petrels and 45 to 60 percent of fledging Cory's shearwater are attracted to the streetlights on [[Réunion]] and [[Tenerife]], respectively.<ref>{{cite journal | doi = 10.1016/S0006-3207(01)00207-5 | last1 = Le Correa | first1 = M. | last2 = Ollivier | first2 = A. | last3 = Ribesc | first3 = S. | last4 = Jouventin | first4 = P. | year = 2002 | title = Light-induced mortality of petrels: a 4-year study from Réunion Island (Indian Ocean) | journal = Biological Conservation | volume = 105 | issue = 1 | pages = 93–102 | bibcode = 2002BCons.105...93L }}</ref><ref name=j12/>

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<ref name=j11>{{cite journal |author1=Pierce, K. |author2=Harris, R. |author3=Larned, L. |author4=Pokras, M. |year=2004 |title=Obstruction and starvation associated with plastic ingestion in a Northern Gannet ''Morus bassanus'' and a Greater Shearwater ''Puffinus gravis'' |journal=Marine Ornithology |volume=32 |issue=2 |pages=187–189 |doi=10.5038/2074-1235.32.2.623 |url=http://www.marineornithology.org/PDF/32_2/32_2_187-189.pdf}}</ref>

<ref name=j12>{{cite journal |author1=Rodriguez, A. |author2=Rodriguez, B. |year=2009 |title=Attraction of petrels to artificials lights in the Canary Islands: Effects of the moon phase and age class |journal=Ibis |volume=151 |issue=2 |pages=299–310 |doi=10.1111/j.1474-919X.2009.00925.x|hdl=10261/45133 |hdl-access=free }}</ref>

<ref name=j13>{{cite journal |author1=Nunn, G. |author2=Stanley, S. |year=1998 |title=Body size effects and rates of cytochrome ''b'' evolution in tube-nosed seabirds |journal=Molecular Biology and Evolution |volume=15 |issue=10 |pages=1360–1371 |doi=10.1093/oxfordjournals.molbev.a025864 |pmid=9787440|doi-access=free }}[http://mbe.oxfordjournals.org/cgi/reprint/17/11/1774 Corrigendum]</ref>

<ref name ="Medeiros">{{cite journal |author1=Medeiros R. |author2=Hothersall B. |author3=Campos A. |year=2003 |title=The use of artificial breeding chambers as a conservation measure for cavity-nesting procellariiform seabirds: A case study of the Band-rumped Storm Petrel (''Oceanodroma castro'') |journal=Biological Conservation |volume=116 |issue=1 |pages=73–80 |doi=10.1016/S0006-3207(03)00178-2}}</ref>

<ref name="stomach">{{cite journal |author=Warham, J. |year=1976 |title=The incidence, function and ecological significance of petrel stomach oils |journal=Proceedings of the New Zealand Ecological Society |volume=24 |pages=84–93 |url=http://www.nzes.org.nz/nzje/free_issues/ProNZES24_84.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060724172107/http://www.nzes.org.nz/nzje/free_issues/ProNZES24_84.pdf |archive-date=2006-07-24 }}</ref>

<ref name = "Withers">{{cite journal |author=Withers, P.C. |year=1979 |title=Aerodynamics and hydrodynamics of the 'hovering' flight of Wilson's Storm Petrel |journal=Journal of Experimental Biology |volume=80 |pages=83–91 |url=http://jeb.biologists.org/cgi/reprint/80/1/83 |format=PDF |issue=1|doi=10.1242/jeb.80.1.83 |bibcode=1979JExpB..80...83W |doi-access=free |url-access=subscription }}</ref>

}}

==Bibliography==

* Brooke, M. (2004). ''Albatrosses And Petrels Across The World''. Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK. {{ISBN|0-19-850125-0}}
* {{cite book | title=Birds Britannica | publisher=Chatto and Windus |author1=Cocker, M. |author2=Mabey, R. | year=2005 | author-link=Richard Mabey | isbn=978-0-701-16907-7}}
* Onley, D.; Scofield P. (2007). ''Albatrosses, Petrels and Shearwaters of the World''. Princeton University Press, Princeton, New Jersey. {{ISBN|978-0-691-13132-0}}

==External links==
{{Commons category|Procellariiformes}}
{{Wikispecies|Procellariiformes}}
* [http://www.acap.aq/ The Agreement for the Conservation of Albatrosses and Petrels (ACAP)]

{{Birds}}
{{Procellariiformes}}
{{Portal bar|Birds|Animals|Biology}}
{{Taxonbar|from=Q21685}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Procellariiformes| ]]
[[Category:Seabirds]]
[[Category:Bird orders]]
[[Category:Extant Eocene first appearances]]
[[Category:Eocene taxonomic orders]]
[[Category:Oligocene taxonomic orders]]
[[Category:Miocene taxonomic orders]]
[[Category:Pliocene taxonomic orders]]
[[Category:Pleistocene taxonomic orders]]
[[Category:Holocene taxonomic orders]]
[[Category:Taxa named by Max Fürbringer]]