View source for Procopius

{{Short description|Byzantine historian (c. 500 – 565)}}
{{About|the historian and author of the ''Secret History''|other persons with the given name|Procopius (given name)|the spider genus|Procopius (spider)}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=March 2025}}{{Infobox writer
| name             = Procopius
| birth_date       = {{circa|lk=no|AD&nbsp;500}}
| birth_place      = [[Caesarea Maritima]], [[Palaestina Prima]], [[Eastern Roman Empire]]
| death_date       = {{circa|lk=no|AD&nbsp;565}}
| death_place      = [[Constantinople]]
| occupation       = Legal adviser, political commentator
| subject          = Secular history
| notableworks     = {{plainlist|
* ''History of the Wars''
* ''Buildings''
* ''Secret History''}}
}}

'''Procopius of Caesarea''' ({{IPAc-en|p|r|oʊ|ˈ|k|oʊ|p|i|ə|s}};<ref>{{Cite Merriam-Webster| Procopius}}</ref> {{langx|grc|Προκόπιος ὁ Καισαρεύς}} ''Prokópios ho Kaisareús''; {{langx|la|Procopius Caesariensis}}; {{c.|500}} – 565) was a prominent [[Late antiquity|late antique]] [[Byzantine Greeks|Greek]] scholar and historian from [[Caesarea Maritima]].<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Morcillo|first1=Jesús Muñoz|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=u0sFEAAAQBAJ|title=Genealogy of Popular Science: From Ancient Ecphrasis to Virtual Reality|last2=Robertson-von Trotha|first2=Caroline Y. |date=2020-11-30|publisher=Transcript|isbn=978-3-8394-4835-9|pages=332|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |editor-last1=Hornblower |editor-first1=Simon |editor-last2=Spawforth |editor-first2=Antony |editor-last3=Eidinow |editor-first3=Esther |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bVWcAQAAQBAJ&pg=PA1214 |title=The Oxford Classical Dictionary |date=2012 |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |isbn=978-0-19-954556-8 |pages=1214–1215 |language=en |quote=Procopius: Greek historian, born in *Caesarea (2) in Palestine c. AD 500.}}</ref> Accompanying the Roman general [[Belisarius]] in [[Justinian I|Emperor Justinian]]'s wars, Procopius became the principal historian of the 6th century, writing the ''History of the Wars'', the ''Buildings'', and the infamous ''Secret History''.

==Early life==
Apart from his own writings, the main source for Procopius's life is an entry in the ''[[Suda]]'',<ref name="Suda On Line">[[Suda]] pi.2479. See under 'Procopius' on [http://www.stoa.org/sol/ Suda On Line].</ref> a Byzantine Greek encyclopaedia written sometime after 975 which (based on older sources) discusses his early life. He was a native of [[Caesarea Maritima|Caesarea]] in the [[Roman province|province]] of ''[[Palaestina Prima]]''.<ref>Procopius, ''Wars of Justinian'' I.1.1; [[Suda]] pi.2479. See under 'Procopius' on [http://www.stoa.org/sol/ Suda On Line].</ref> He would have received a conventional upper-class education in the [[Greek literature|Greek classics]] and [[rhetoric]],{{sfn|Cameron|1985|p=7}} perhaps at the famous [[Rhetorical School of Gaza|school at Gaza]].{{sfn|Evans|1972|p=31}} He may have attended law school, possibly at [[Law School of Berytus|Berytus]] (present-day [[Beirut]]) or [[Constantinople]] (now [[Istanbul]]),{{sfn|Cameron|1985|p=6}}{{efn|For an alternative reading of Procopius as a trained engineer, see Howard-Johnson.<ref>Howard-Johnson, James: 'The Education and Expertise of Procopius'; in ''Antiquité Tardive'' 10 (2002), 19–30.</ref>}} and became a lawyer (''rhetor'').<ref name="Suda On Line"/> He evidently knew [[Latin]], as was natural for a man with legal training.{{efn|Procopius uses and translates a number of Latin words in his ''Wars''. [[Henning Börm|Börm]] suggests a possible acquaintance with Vergil and Sallust.{{sfn|Börm|2007|p=46}}}}

==Career==
In 527, the first year of the reign of the emperor [[Justinian I|Justinian{{nbsp}}I]], Procopius became the legal adviser (''{{lang|la|adsessor}}'') for [[Belisarius]], a Roman general whom Justinian made his chief military commander in a great attempt to restore control over the lost western provinces of the empire.{{efn|Procopius speaks of becoming Belisarius's advisor (''symboulos'') in that year.<ref>Procopius, ''Wars'', 1.12.24.</ref>}}

Procopius was with Belisarius on the eastern front until the latter was defeated at the [[Battle of Callinicum]] in 531<ref>''Wars'', I.18.1-56.</ref> and recalled to Constantinople.<ref>''Wars'', I.21.2.</ref> Procopius witnessed the [[Nika riots]] of January, 532, which Belisarius and his fellow general [[Mundus (general)|Mundus]] repressed with a massacre in the [[Hippodrome of Constantinople|Hippodrome]] there.<ref>''Wars'', I.24.1-58.</ref> In 533, he accompanied Belisarius on his victorious expedition against the [[Vandal Kingdom|Vandal kingdom]] in [[North Africa]], took part in the capture of [[Carthage]], and remained in Africa with Belisarius's successor [[Solomon (magister militum)|Solomon the Eunuch]] when Belisarius returned east to the capital. Procopius recorded a few of the [[extreme weather events of 535–536]], although these were presented as a backdrop to Byzantine military activities, such as [[Stotzas|a mutiny in and around Carthage]].<ref>[https://www.gutenberg.org/files/16765/16765-h/16765-h.htm 1].</ref>{{efn|Before modern times, European and Mediterranean historians, as far as weather is concerned, typically recorded only the extreme or major weather events for a year or a multi-year period, preferring to focus on the human activities of policymakers and warriors instead.}} He rejoined Belisarius for his campaign against the [[Ostrogothic Kingdom|Ostrogothic kingdom]] in Italy and experienced the [[Siege of Rome (537–538)|Gothic siege of Rome]] that lasted a year and nine days, ending in mid-March 538. He witnessed Belisarius's entry into the Gothic capital, [[Ravenna]], in 540. Both the ''Wars''<ref>''Wars'', VIII.</ref> and the ''Secret History'' suggest that his relationship with Belisarius cooled thereafter. Perhaps he accompanied the general once more to the Persian front in 542. When Belisarius was sent back to Italy in 544 to cope with [[Gothic War (535–554)|a renewal of the war with the Goths]], now led by the able king [[Totila]], Procopius appears to have no longer been on Belisarius's staff.{{citation needed|date=July 2023}}

As ''[[magister militum]]'', Belisarius was an "illustrious man" ({{langx|la|vir illustris}}; {{langx|grc|ἰλλούστριος}}, ''illoústrios''); being his ''{{lang|la|adsessor}}'', Procopius must therefore have had at least the rank of a "visible man" (''vir spectabilis''). He thus belonged to the mid-ranking group of the senatorial order (''{{lang|la|ordo senatorius}}''). However, the ''Suda'', which is usually well-informed in such matters, also describes Procopius himself as one of the ''{{lang|la|illustres}}''. Should this information be correct, Procopius would have had a seat in [[Byzantine Senate|Constantinople's senate]], which was restricted to the ''{{lang|la|illustres}}'' under Justinian.

==Death==
It is not certain when Procopius died. Many historians{{mdash}}including [[James Howard-Johnson|Howard-Johnson]], [[Averil Cameron|Cameron]], and Geoffrey Greatrex{{mdash}}date his death to 554, but there was an urban prefect of Constantinople (''{{lang|la|praefectus urbi Constantinopolitanae}}'') who was called Procopius in 562. In that year, Belisarius was implicated in a conspiracy and was brought before this urban prefect.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Procopio di Cesarea |url=https://www.summagallicana.it/lessico/p/Procopio%20di%20Cesarea.htm |access-date=2025-07-09 |website=www.summagallicana.it}}</ref>

==Writings==
[[File:Meister von San Vitale in Ravenna.jpg|thumb|200px|right|Emperor Justinian]]

The writings of Procopius are the primary source of information for the rule of the emperor [[Justinian I|Justinian{{nbsp}}I]]. Procopius was the author of a ''history'' in eight books on the wars prosecuted by Justinian, a [[panegyric]] on the emperor's public works projects throughout the empire, and a book known as the ''Secret History'' that claims to report the scandals that Procopius could not include in his officially sanctioned history for fear of angering the emperor, his wife, Belisarius, and the general's wife Antonia.{{anchor|History of the Wars|The Wars of Justinian|The Wars|Procopius's Wars|Procopius' Wars|De Bellis}}

===''History of the Wars''===
Procopius's ''Wars'' or ''History of the Wars'' ({{langx|grc|Ὑπὲρ τῶν Πολέμων Λόγοι}}, ''Hypèr tōn Polémon Lógoi'', "Words on the Wars"; {{langx|la|De Bellis}}, "On the Wars") is his most important work, although less well known than the ''Secret History''.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://data.perseus.org/citations/urn:cts:greekLit:tlg4029.tlg001.perseus-grc1:1.1
 |title=Procopius, de Bellis. H.B. (Henry Bronson) Dewing, Ed. [First section:] Procop. Pers. 1.1 |last=Procopius |date=1914 |website=Perseus Digital Library |access-date=18 October 2023 |quote=[Opening line in Greek] Προκόπιος Καισαρεὺς τοὺς πολέμους ξυνέγραψεν οὓς Ἰουστινιανὸς ὁ Ῥωμαίων βασιλεὺς πρὸς βαρβάρους διήνεγκε τούς τε ἑῴους καὶ ἑσπερίους,... Translation: Procopius from Caesarea wrote the history of the wars of Roman Emperor Justinianus against the barbarians of the East and of the West..}}. Greek text edition by Henry Bronson Dewing, 1914.</ref> The first seven books seem to have been largely completed by 545 and may have been published as a set. They were, however, updated to mid-century before publication, with the latest mentioned event occurring in early 551. The eighth and final book brought the history to 553.

{{anchor|Persian War|De Bello Persico}}
The first two books{{mdash}}often known as ''The Persian War'' ({{langx|la|De Bello Persico}}){{mdash}}deal with the conflict between the Romans and [[Sassanid Persia]] in [[Mesopotamia]], [[Syria (region)|Syria]], [[Armenia (region)|Armenia]], [[Lazica]], and  [[Kingdom of Iberia (antiquity)|Iberia]] (present-day [[Georgia (country)|Georgia]]).{{sfn|Börm|2007}} It details the campaigns of the Sassanid shah [[Kavadh I|Kavadh{{nbsp}}I]], the 532  [[Nika riots|'Nika' revolt]], the war by Kavadh's successor [[Khosrau I|Khosrau{{nbsp}}I]] in 540, his destruction of [[Antioch on the Orontes|Antioch]] and deportation of its inhabitants to Mesopotamia, and the [[Plague of Justinian|great plague]] that devastated the empire from 542. The ''Persian War'' also covers the early career of Procopius's patron [[Belisarius]] in some detail.<ref>Cf. Henning Börm: ''[https://www.academia.edu/9077244/Procopius_and_the_East_in_M_Meier_F_Montinaro_eds_A_Companion_to_Procopius_of_Caesarea_Leiden_Boston_Brill_2022_pp_310ff_uncorrected_proofs_ Procopius and the East]''. In: [[Mischa Meier]], Federico Montinaro (eds.): ''A Companion to Procopius of Caesarea''. Boston 2022, pp. 310 ff.</ref>

{{anchor|Vandal War|Vandalic War|De Bello Vandalico}}
The ''Wars''’ next two books{{mdash}}known as ''The Vandal War'' or ''Vandalic War'' ({{langx|la| De Bello Vandalico}}){{mdash}}cover Belisarius's [[Vandalic War|successful campaign]] against the [[Vandal Kingdom|Vandal kingdom]] that had occupied Rome's provinces in [[northwest Africa]] for the last century.

{{anchor|Gothic War|De Bello Gothico}}
The final four books{{mdash}}known as ''The Gothic War'' ({{langx |la|De Bello Gothico}}){{mdash}}cover the [[Gothic War (535–554)|Italian campaigns]] by Belisarius and others against [[Ostrogothic Kingdom|the Ostrogoths]]. Procopius includes accounts of the [[Siege of Naples (536)|1st]] and [[Siege of Naples (542–43)|2nd sieges of Naples]] and the [[Siege of Rome (537–538)|1st]], [[Sack of Rome (546)|2nd]], and [[Siege of Rome (549–550)|3rd sieges of Rome]]. He also includes an account of the rise of the [[Franks]] (see ''[[Arborychoi]]''). The last book describes the [[Eunuch (court official)|eunuch]] [[Narses]]'s successful conclusion of the Italian campaign and includes some coverage of campaigns along the empire's eastern borders as well.

The War histories contain various longer excursions on different topics. These serve both literary and thematic purposes by providing the necessary background information as well as contextualising the acts of war described on different levels.{{sfn|Riemenschneider|2024}}{{sfn|Ziebuhr|2024}} The ''Wars'' proved influential on later Byzantine historiography.{{sfn|Cresci|2001}} In the 570s  [[Agathias of Myrina|Agathias]] wrote ''Histories'', a continuation of Procopius's work in a similar style.
{{anchor|Secret History|Historia Arcana|Anecdota| Anecdotes}}

===''Secret History''===
[[File:Meister von San Vitale in Ravenna 013.jpg|thumb|Belisarius may be this bearded figure on the right of Emperor [[Justinian I]] in the mosaic in the [[Basilica of San Vitale|Church of San Vitale]], [[Ravenna]], which celebrates the reconquest of Italy by the [[Byzantine army|Roman army]] under the skillful leadership of Belisarius.]]
Procopius's now famous ''Anecdota'', also known as ''Secret History'' ({{langx|grc|Ἀπόκρυφη Ἱστορία}}, ''Apókryphe Historía''; {{langx|la|Historia Arcana}}), was discovered centuries later at the [[Vatican Library]] in Rome<ref>{{Cite magazine|url=https://www.newyorker.com/reporting/2011/01/03/110103fa_fact_mendelsohn|title = God's Librarians|first = Daniel|last = Mendelsohn|magazine = [[The New Yorker]]|date = 26 December 2010}}</ref> and published in [[Lyon]] by [[Niccolò Alamanni]] in 1623. Its existence was already known from the ''[[Suda]]'', which referred to it as Procopius's "unpublished works" containing "comedy" and "invective" of Justinian, Theodora, Belisarius and Antonina. The ''Secret History'' covers roughly the same years as the first seven books of ''The History of the Wars'' and appears to have been written after they were published. Current consensus generally dates it to 550, or less commonly 558. Since no author seems to have been aware of this work for centuries, even though Procopius was widely read and quoted, the ''Secret History'' appears to have remained unknown for several generations. How and when the text was published is unknown.

In the eyes of many scholars, the ''Secret History'' reveals an author who had become deeply disillusioned with Emperor Justinian, his wife [[Theodora (wife of Justinian I)|Theodora]], the general [[Belisarius]], and his wife [[Antonina (wife of Belisarius)|Antonina]].  The work claims to expose the secret springs of their public actions, as well as the private lives of the emperor and his entourage. In recent years, however, other scholars have warned against confusing the account in the ''Secret History'' with Procopius' actual opinion.<ref>Börm 2015, pp. 326–338; Stewart 2020, pp. 31–67; Brodka 2022, pp. 71–76.</ref> Justinian is portrayed as cruel, venal, prodigal, and incompetent. In one passage, it is even claimed that he was possessed by demonic spirits or was himself a demon lord:

{{Blockquote|And some of those who have been with Justinian at the palace late at night, men who were pure of spirit, have thought they saw a strange demoniac form taking his place. One man said that the Emperor suddenly rose from his throne and walked about, and indeed he was never wont to remain sitting for long, and immediately Justinian's head vanished, while the rest of his body seemed to ebb and flow; whereat the beholder stood aghast and fearful, wondering if his eyes were deceiving him. But presently he perceived the vanished head filling out and joining the body again as strangely as it had left it.<ref>Procopius, ''[http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/basis/procop-anec.html Secret History]'' 12.20–22, trans. Atwater.</ref>}}

Similarly, the Theodora of the ''Secret History'' is a garish portrait of vulgarity and insatiable lust juxtaposed with cold-blooded self-interest, shrewishness, and envious and fearful mean-spiritedness. Throughout the Secret History, Procopius both reminds us of Theodora's humble origins and criticizes her lack of moral virtue, reputation, and education. <ref> Grau, Sergi & Febrer, Oriol. (2020). Procopius on Theodora: ancient and new biographical patterns. Byzantinische Zeitschrift. 113. 769-788. 10.1515/bz-2020-0034. </ref> Among the more titillating (and dubious) revelations in the ''Secret History'' is Procopius's account of Theodora's thespian accomplishments:

{{blockquote|Often, even in the theatre, in the sight of all the people, she removed her costume and stood nude in their midst, except for a girdle about the groin: not that she was abashed at revealing that, too, to the audience, but because there was a law against appearing altogether naked on the stage, without at least this much of a fig-leaf. Covered thus with a ribbon, she would sink to the stage floor and recline on her back. Slaves to whom the duty was entrusted would then scatter grains of barley from above into the calyx of this passion flower, whence geese, trained for the purpose, would next pick the grains one by one with their bills and eat.<ref>Procopius ''[http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/basis/procop-anec.html Secret History]'' 9.20–21, trans. Atwater.</ref>}}

Justinian and Theodora are portrayed as the antithesis of good rulers, with each representing the opposite side of the emotional spectrum. Justinian was approachable and kindly, even while ordering property confiscations or people's destruction. Conversely, Theodora was described as irrational and driven by her anger, often by minor affronts.<ref>{{Citation |last=Georgiou |first=Andriani |title=Empresses in Byzantine Society: Justifiably Angry or Simply Angry? |date=2019 |url=http://link.springer.com/10.1007/978-3-319-96038-8_5 |work=Emotions and Gender in Byzantine Culture |series=New Approaches to Byzantine History and Culture |pages=123–126 |editor-last=Constantinou |editor-first=Stavroula |place=Cham |publisher=Springer International Publishing |language=en |doi=10.1007/978-3-319-96038-8_5 |isbn=978-3-319-96037-1 |s2cid=149788509 |editor2-last=Meyer |editor2-first=Mati|url-access=subscription }}</ref>

Furthermore, ''Secret History'' portrays Belisarius as a weak man completely emasculated by his wife, Antonina, who is portrayed in very similar terms to Theodora. They are both said to be former actresses and close friends. Procopius claimed Antonina worked as an agent for Theodora against Belisarius, and had an ongoing affair with Belisarius' godson, Theodosius.

{{anchor|The Buildings|The Buildings of Justinian|Buildings}}

===''The Buildings''===
{{Main|On Buildings}}
[[File:Sangarius Bridge. Drawing 01.jpg|thumb|upright|Triumphal arch at the entrance to the [[Sangarius Bridge]]]]

''The Buildings'' ({{langx|grc|Περὶ Κτισμάτων}}, {{lang|grc-Latn|Perì Ktismáton}}; {{langx|la|De Aedificiis}}, "On Buildings") is a [[panegyric]] on Justinian's public works projects throughout the empire.<ref name="Downey">Downey, Glanville: "The Composition of Procopius, De Aedificiis", in ''Transactions and Proceedings of the American Philological Association'' 78: pp.&nbsp;171–183; [https://www.jstor.org/pss/283492 abstract] from JSTOR.</ref> The first book may date to before the collapse of the first dome of [[Hagia Sophia]] in 557, but some scholars think that it is possible that the work postdates the building of the [[Sangarius Bridge|bridge over the Sangarius]] in the late 550s.<ref>Whitby, Michael: "Procopian Polemics: a review of A. Kaldellis ''Procopius of Caesarea. Tyranny, History, and Philosophy at the End of Antiquity''", in ''The Classical Review'' 55 (2006), pp.&nbsp;648ff.</ref> Historians consider ''Buildings'' to be an incomplete work due to evidence of the surviving version being a draft with two possible redactions.<ref name="Downey" />{{sfn|Cameron|1985}}

''Buildings'' was likely written at Justinian's behest, and it is doubtful that its sentiments expressed are sincere. It tells us nothing further about Belisarius, and it takes a sharply different attitude towards Justinian. He is presented as an idealised [[Eastern Orthodox Church|Christian]] emperor who built churches for the glory of God and defenses for the safety of his subjects. He is depicted showing particular concern for the water supply, building new [[Roman aqueduct|aqueducts]] and restoring those that had fallen into disuse. Theodora, who was dead when this panegyric was written, is mentioned only briefly, but Procopius's praise of her beauty is fulsome.

Due to the [[panegyric]]al nature of Procopius's ''Buildings'', historians have discovered several discrepancies between claims made by Procopius and accounts in other primary sources. A prime example is Procopius's starting the reign of Justinian in 518, which was the start of the reign of his uncle and predecessor {{nowrap|[[Justin I]].}} By treating the uncle's reign as part of his nephew's, Procopius was able to credit Justinian with buildings erected or begun under Justin's administration. Such works include renovation of the walls of [[Edessa]] after its 525 flood and consecration of several churches in the region. Similarly, Procopius falsely credits Justinian for the extensive refortification of the cities of [[Constanța|Tomis]] and [[Histria (Sinoe)|Histria]] in [[Scythia Minor (Roman province)|Scythia Minor]]. This had been carried out under {{nowrap|[[Anastasius I (emperor)|Anastasius I]],}} who reigned before Justin.<ref>Croke, Brian and James Crow: "Procopius and Dara", in ''The Journal of Roman Studies'' 73 (1983), 143–159.</ref>

== Interpretations of Procopius' works ==
Procopius is generally believed to be aligned with the senatorial ranks that disagreed with Justinian's tax policy (''Secret History'' 12.12-14).<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Grau |first1=Sergi |last2=Febrer |first2=Oriol |date=2020-08-01 |title=Procopius on Theodora: ancient and new biographical patterns |journal=Byzantinische Zeitschrift |language=en |volume=113 |issue=3 |pages=779–780 |doi=10.1515/bz-2020-0034 |s2cid=222004516 |issn=1868-9027|doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Evans |first=James Allan |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.7560/721050 |title=The Empress Theodora |date=2002 |publisher=University of Texas Press |isbn=978-0-292-79895-3 |pages=x|doi=10.7560/721050 }}</ref> Over time, Procopius' initial optimism may have been replaced by his disillusionment with Belisarius and increasing dislike of Justinian.{{sfn|Tougher|1996|p=206}}

[[Henning Börm]] has argued that Procopius prepared the ''Secret History'' as an exaggerated document out of fear that a conspiracy might overthrow Justinian's regime, which{{mdash}}as a kind of court historian{{mdash}}might be reckoned to include him. The unpublished manuscript would then have been an insurance that could be offered to the new ruler as a way to avoid punishment. If this hypothesis is correct, the ''Secret History'' would not be proof that Procopius hated Justinian or Theodora.<ref>Cf. Börm (2015).</ref>

[[Anthony Kaldellis]] suggests that the ''Secret History'' tells the dangers of "the rule of women". For Procopius, it was not that women could not lead an empire, but only women demonstrating masculine virtues could.{{sfn|Kaldellis|2004|pp=144-147}} According to Averil Cameron, the definition of "feminine" behavior in the sixth century would be described as "intriguing" and "interfering".{{sfn|Cameron|1985|pp=68–69}} At his core, Procopius wanted to preserve the social order.{{efn|Henning Börm described this social order as a "social hierarchy: people stood over animals, freemen stood over slaves, men stood over eunuchs, and men stood over women. Whenever Procopius denounces the alleged breach of these rules, he is following the rules of historiography."{{sfn|Stewart|2020|p=173}}}}

[[Averil Cameron]] makes a case that all of his works form a continuous, unified discourse, rather than being contradictory to one another.{{sfn|Tougher|1996|p=205}} In her view, Procopius was a better reporter than a historian, whose strength lay in descriptions rather than analyses.{{sfn|Cameron|1985|pp=241}} She argues that his vision is too black-and-white and remains almost silent on theological and ecclesiastical debates.{{sfn|Cameron|1985|pp=227–229}} However, Shaun Tougher notes Procopius' intention to write an ecclesiastical history, which may have provided a more holistic picture of his time, and argues that Procopius should not be assessed as negatively.{{sfn|Tougher|1996|pp=206, 209}}

==Style==
Procopius belongs to the school of [[late antiquity|late antique]] historians who continued the traditions of the [[Second Sophistic]]. Writing in [[Attic dialect|Attic Greek]], these historians relied on Classical writers such as [[Herodotus]], [[Polybius]] and in particular [[Thucydides]] as their models and, similar to these, dealt with secular subjects. The Classically influenced historians avoided vocabulary unknown to Attic Greek, inserting an explanation when they had to use contemporary words. Thus Procopius includes glosses of monks ("the most temperate of Christians") and churches (as equivalent to a "temple" or "shrine"), since monasticism was unknown to the ancient Athenians and their ''ekklesía'' had been [[Ecclesia (ancient Athens)|a popular assembly]].<ref>''Wars'', 2.9.14 and 1.7.22.</ref>

The secular historians eschewed the history of the Christian church.  Ecclesiastical history was left to a separate genre after [[Eusebius of Caesarea|Eusebius]]. [[Averil Cameron|Cameron]] has argued that Procopius's works reflect the tensions between the classical and Christian models of history in 6th-century Constantinople. This has been supported by [[Mary Whitby|Whitby]]'s analysis of Procopius's depiction of the capital and [[Hagia Sophia|its cathedral]] in comparison to contemporary pagan panegyrics.<ref>''Buildings'', Book I.</ref> Procopius can be seen as depicting Justinian as essentially God's [[vicegerent]], making the case for buildings being a primarily religious panegyric.<ref>Whitby, Mary: "Procopius' ''Buildings'' Book I: A Panegyrical Perspective", in ''Antiquité Tardive'' 8 (2000), 45–57.</ref> Procopius indicates that he planned to write an ecclesiastical history himself<ref>''Secret History'', 26.18.</ref> and, if he had, he would probably have followed the rules of that genre. As far as known, however, such an ecclesiastical history was never written.

Some historians have criticized Propocius's description of some barbarians, for example, he dehumanized the unfamiliar Moors as "not even properly human". This was, however, inline with Byzantine ethnographic practice in late antiquity.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Kaldellis |first=Anthony |title=Ethnography after antiquity : foreign lands and peoples in Byzantine literature |date=2013 |publisher=University of Pennsylvania Press |isbn=978-0-8122-0840-5 |page=10 |location=Philadelphia |oclc=859162344}}</ref>

==Legacy==
A number of [[historical novel]]s based on Procopius's works (along with other sources) have been written. ''[[Count Belisarius]]'' was written by poet and novelist [[Robert Graves]] in 1938. Procopius himself appears as a minor character in [[Felix Dahn]]'s ''[[A Struggle for Rome]]'' and in [[L. Sprague de Camp]]'s alternate history novel ''[[Lest Darkness Fall]]''. The novel's main character, archaeologist Martin Padway, derives most of his knowledge of historical events from the ''Secret History''.<ref>{{cite book|title=Lest Darkness Fall|last=de Camp|first=L. Sprague|date=1949|publisher=Ballantine Books|page=111}}</ref>

The narrator in [[Herman Melville]]'s novel ''[[Moby-Dick]]'' cites Procopius's description of a [[Porphyrios (whale)|captured sea monster]] as evidence of the narrative's feasibility.<ref>{{Cite book|doi=10.5962/bhl.title.62077|title=Moby-Dick, or, the Whale |last=Melville|first=Herman|date=1851|volume=c.1 |publisher=Harper & Brothers |location=London |url=https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/126294 }}</ref> A fictionalized version of Procopius, named Pertennius, appears in the fantasy novelist [[Guy Gavriel Kay]]'s duology [[The Sarantine Mosaic]].

==List of selected works==
* {{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=66ECMwEACAAJ |title=Procopii Caesariensis opera omnia |publisher=[[Teubner]] |others=Revised by G. Wirth |year=1962–1964 |editor-last=J. Haury |location=Leipzig |language=el |quote=4 volumes |orig-year=1905}} 
* {{Cite book |title=Procopius |publisher=Harvard University Press and Hutchinson |year=1914–1940 |editor-first=H. B. |editor-last=Dewing |series=Loeb Classical Library |location=Cambridge, Massachusetts and London}} Seven volumes, Greek text and English translation.
** {{Cite book |title=Buildings of Justinian |publisher=Harvard University Press |year=1940 |location=Cambridge, Massachusetts |language=en |editor-last=Downey |editor-first=G. |editor-link=Glanville Downey |editor-last2=Dewing |editor-first2=Henry B. |series=[[Loeb Classical Library]]}}
* {{Cite book |title=Procopius: The Secret History |publisher=Penguin Books |year=2007 |isbn=978-0140455281 |translator-last1=Williamson |translator-first1=G. A. |translator-link1=G. A. Williamson |series=Penguin Classics |location=Harmondsworth |others=Revised by Peter Sarris |orig-year=1966}} English translation of the ''Anecdota''.
* {{Cite book |title=Prokopios: The Secret History |publisher=Hackett |year=2010 |isbn=978-1603841801 |location=Indianapolis |translator-last=Anthony Kaldellis}}

==See also==
* [[Jordanes]]
* [[Gregory of Tours]]

==Notes==
{{notelist}}

==References==
{{Reflist|30em}}
* ''This article is based on an [https://web.archive.org/web/20010822205003/http://www.nupedia.com/article/391/ earlier version] by James Allan Evans, originally posted at [[Nupedia]].''

== Bibliography ==
* {{Cite book|last=Börm|first=Henning|url=https://www.academia.edu/1012245|title=Prokop und die Perser. Untersuchungen zu den römisch-sasanidischen Kontakten in der ausgehenden Spätantike|trans-title=Procopius and the Persians. Studies on the Roman-Sasanian contacts in late antiquity|location=Stuttgart|publisher=Franz Steiner|year=2007|isbn=978-3-515-09052-0}} ([http://bmcr.brynmawr.edu/2008/2008-05-23.html Review in English by G. Greatrex] and [http://www.degruyter.com/view/j/byzs.2009.101.issue-2/byzs.2008.025b/byzs.2008.025b.xml?format=INT Review in English by A. Kaldellis])
* Brodka, Dariusz: ''Prokop von Caesarea.'' Hildesheim: Olms 2022. 
* {{Cite book|last=Cameron|first=Averil|title=Procopius and the Sixth Century|location=London|publisher=Duckworth|year=1985}}
* {{Cite journal|last=Cresci|first=Lia Raffaella|title=Procopio al confine tra due tradizioni storiografiche|trans-title=Procopius on the border between two historiographical traditions|journal=Rivista di Filologia e di Istruzione Classica|volume=129|year=2001|pages=61–77}}
* {{Cite book|last=Evans|first=James A. S.|title=Procopius|location=New York|publisher=Twayne Publishers|year=1972}}
* {{Cite book|last=Kaldellis|first=Anthony|title=Procopius of Caesarea: Tyranny, History and Philosophy at the End of Antiquity|location=Philadelphia|publisher=University of Pennsylvania Press|year=2004|isbn=978-0-8122-0241-0 }}
* {{Cite book|last=Stewart|first=Michael|title=Masculinity, Identity, and Power Politics in the Age of Justinian: A Study of Procopius|location=Amsterdam|publisher=Amsterdam University Press|year=2020|isbn=978-90-485-4025-9}}
* {{Cite book |last=Ziebuhr|first=Albrecht |title= Die Exkurse im Geschichtswerk des Prokopios von Kaisareia: Literarische Tradition und spätantike Gegenwart in klassizistischer Historiographie|trans-title=The digressions in the historical works of Prokopios of Kaisareia: literary tradition and the late antique present in classical historiography|series=[[Hermes (classical philology journal)|Hermes]] Einzelschriften|volume=126|publisher=Steiner|location=Stuttgart|year=2024|isbn=9783515136709}}

==Further reading==
* Adshead, Katherine: ''Procopius' Poliorcetica: continuities and discontinuities'', in: G. Clarke et al. (eds.): ''Reading the past in late antiquity'', Australian National UP, Rushcutters Bay 1990, pp.&nbsp;93–119
* Alonso-Núñez, J. M.: ''[http://brepols.metapress.com/content/h005k0l43p535213 Jordanes and Procopius on Northern Europe]'', in: ''Nottingham Medieval Studies'' 31 (1987), 1–16.
* Amitay, Ory: ''[https://www.academia.edu/1179971/Procopius_of_Caesarea_and_the_Girgashite_Diaspora Procopius of Caesarea and the Girgashite Diaspora]'', in: ''Journal for the Study of the Pseudepigrapha'' 20 (2011), 257–276.
* Anagnostakis, Ilias: ''[https://www.academia.edu/5413582/Ilias_Anagnostakis_Procopius_s_dream_before_the_campaign_against_Libya_a_reading_of_Wars_3.12.1-5_in_C._Angelidi_and_G._Calofonos_eds_Dreaming_in_Byzantium_and_Beyond_Ashgate_Publishing_2014_79-94 Procopius's dream before the campaign against Libya: a reading of Wars 3.12.1-5]'', in: C. Angelidi and G. Calofonos (eds.), ''[http://www.ashgate.com/isbn/9781409400554 Dreaming in Byzantium and Beyond]'', Farnham: Ashgate Publishing 2014, 79–94.
* Bachrach, Bernard S.: ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20150403015217/http://journals.cambridge.org/action/displayAbstract?fromPage=online&aid=7553520 Procopius, Agathias and the Frankish Military]'', in: ''Speculum'' 45 (1970), 435–441.
* Bachrach, Bernard S.: ''Procopius and the chronology of Clovis's reign'', in: ''Viator'' 1 (1970), 21–32.
* Baldwin, Barry: ''An Aphorism in Procopius'', in: ''Rheinisches Museum für Philologie'' 125 (1982), 309–311.
* Baldwin, Barry: ''Sexual Rhetoric in Procopius'', in: ''Mnemosyne'' 40 (1987), pp.&nbsp;150–152
* Belke, Klaus: ''[https://www.academia.edu/1402492/Prokops_De_aedificiis_Buch_V_zu_Kleinasien._Antiquité_Tardive_8_2000_115_125 Prokops De aedificiis, Buch V, zu Kleinasien]'', in: ''Antiquité Tardive'' 8 (2000), 115–125.
* Börm, Henning: ''[http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/procopius Procopius of Caesarea]'', in ''Encyclopaedia Iranica Online'', New York 2013.
* Börm, Henning: ''[https://www.academia.edu/6966236/Procopius_his_Predecessors_and_the_Genesis_of_the_Anecdota_Antimonarchic_discourse_in_Late_Antique_Historiography_in_H._B%C3%B6rm_ed._Antimonarchic_Discourse_in_Antiquity_Stuttgart_Franz_Steiner_Verlag_2015_pp._305ff Procopius, his predecessors, and the genesis of the Anecdota: Antimonarchic discourse in late antique historiography]'', in: H. Börm (ed.): ''Antimonarchic discourse in Antiquity''. Stuttgart: Franz Steiner Verlag 2015, 305–346.
* Braund, David: ''Procopius on the Economy of Lazica'', in: ''The Classical Quarterly'' 41 (1991), 221–225.
* Brodka, Dariusz: ''Die Geschichtsphilosophie in der spätantiken Historiographie. Studien zu Prokopios von Kaisareia, Agathias von Myrina und Theophylaktos Simokattes''. Frankfurt am Main: Peter Lang, 2004.
* Burn, A. R.: ''[https://www.jstor.org/discover/10.2307/557467?sid=21105682255551&uid=4&uid=2 Procopius and the island of ghosts]'', in: ''[[English Historical Review]]'' 70 (1955), 258–261.
* Cameron, Averil: ''The scepticism of Procopius'', in: ''Historia'' 15 (1966), 466–482.
* Colvin, Ian: ''Reporting Battles and Understanding Campaigns in Procopius and Agathias: Classicising Historians' Use of Archived Documents as Sources'', in: A. Sarantis (ed.): ''War and warfare in late antiquity. Current perspectives'', Leiden: Brill 2013, 571–598.
* Cristini, Marco: ''Il seguito ostrogoto di Amalafrida: confutazione di Procopio, Bellum Vandalicum 1.8.12'', in: ''Klio'' 99 (2017), 278–289.
* Cristini, Marco: ''Totila and the Lucanian Peasants: Procop. Goth. 3.22.20'', in: ''Greek, Roman and Byzantine Studies'' 61 (2021), 73–84.
* Croke, Brian and James Crow: ''Procopius and Dara'', in: ''The Journal of Roman Studies'' 73 (1983), 143–159.
* Downey, Glanville: ''[https://www.jstor.org/discover/10.2307/283492?sid=21105682495671&uid=4&uid=2 The Composition of Procopius, De Aedificiis]'', in: ''Transactions and Proceedings of the American Philological Association'' 78 (1947), 171–183.
* Evans, James A. S.: ''Justinian and the Historian Procopius'', in: ''Greece & Rome'' 17 (1970), 218–223.
* Gordon, C. D.: ''Procopius and Justinian's Financial Policies'', in: [[Phoenix (classics journal)|Phoenix]] 13 (1959), 23–30.
* Greatrex, Geoffrey: ''Procopius and the Persian Wars'', D.Phil. thesis, Oxford, 1994.
* Greatrex, Geoffrey: ''The dates of Procopius' works'', in: [[Byzantine and Modern Greek Studies|BMGS]] 18 (1994), 101–114.
* Greatrex, Geoffrey: ''The Composition of Procopius' Persian Wars and John the Cappadocian'', in: ''Prudentia'' 27 (1995), 1–13.
* Greatrex, Geoffrey: ''Rome and Persia at War, 502–532''. London: Francis Cairns, 1998.
* Greatrex, Geoffrey: ''Recent work on Procopius and the composition of Wars VIII'', in: [[Byzantine and Modern Greek Studies|BMGS]] 27 (2003), 45–67.
* Greatrex, Geoffrey: ''[http://research.ncl.ac.uk/histos/documents/2014A03GreatrexPerceptionsofProcopius.pdf Perceptions of Procopius in Recent Scholarship]'', in: ''Histos'' 8 (2014), 76–121 and 121a–e (''addenda'').
* Greatrex, Geoffrey: ''Procopius of Caesarea: The Persian Wars. A Historical Commentary.'' Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 2022.
* Howard-Johnson, James: ''The Education and Expertise of Procopius'', in: ''Antiquité Tardive'' 10 (2002), 19–30
* Kaçar, Turhan: "[https://histos.org/documents/SV09.19.KacarProcopiusinTurkish.pdf Procopius in Turkey]", ''Histos'' Supplement 9 (2019) 19.1–8.
* Kaegi, Walter: ''Procopius the military historian,'' in: ''Byzantinische Forschungen.'' 15, 1990, {{ISSN|0167-5346}}, 53–85 ([https://web.archive.org/web/20070206192341/http://www.deremilitari.org/resources/pdfs/kaegi.pdf online (PDF; 989 KB)]).
* Kaldellis, Anthony: ''[https://www.academia.edu/14480463/_Classicism_Barbarism_and_Warfare_Prokopios_and_the_Conservative_Reaction_to_Later_Roman_Military_Policy_American_Journal_of_Ancient_History_n.s._3-4_2004-2005_2007_189-218 Classicism, Barbarism, and Warfare: Prokopios and the Conservative Reaction to Later Roman Military Policy]'', ''American Journal of Ancient History'', n.s. 3-4 (2004-2005 [2007]), 189–218.
* Kaldellis, Anthony: ''[https://www.academia.edu/14480453/_Identifying_Dissident_Circles_in_Sixth-Century_Byzantium_The_Friendship_of_Prokopios_and_Ioannes_Lydos_Florilegium_21_2004_1-17 Identifying Dissident Circles in Sixth-Century Byzantium: The Friendship of Prokopios and Ioannes Lydos]'', ''Florilegium'', Vol. 21 (2004), 1–17.
* Kaldellis, Anthony: ''[https://www.academia.edu/14481622/_Prokopios_Persian_War_A_Thematic_and_Literary_Analysis_in_R._Macrides_ed._History_as_Literature_in_Byzantium_Aldershot_Ashgate_2010_253-273 Prokopios’ Persian War: A Thematic and Literary Analysis]'', in: R. Macrides, ed., ''History as Literature in Byzantium'', Aldershot: Ashgate, 2010, 253–273.
* Kaldellis, Anthony: ''[https://www.academia.edu/21739559/_Prokopios_Vandal_War_Thematic_Trajectories_and_Hidden_Transcripts_in_S._T._Stevens_and_J._Conant_eds._North_Africa_under_Byzantium_and_Early_Islam_Washington_D.C_Dumbarton_Oaks_2016_13-21 Prokopios’ Vandal War: Thematic Trajectories and Hidden Transcripts]'', in: S. T. Stevens & J. Conant, eds., ''North Africa under Byzantium and Early Islam'', Washington, D.C.: Dumbarton Oaks, 2016, 13–21.
* Kaldellis, Anthony: ''[https://www.academia.edu/14481490/_The_Date_and_Structure_of_Prokopios_Secret_History_and_his_Projected_Work_on_Church_History_Greek_Roman_and_Byzantine_Studies_49_2009_585-616 The Date and Structure of Prokopios’ Secret History and his Projected Work on Church History]'', in: ''Greek, Roman, and Byzantine Studies'', Vol. 49 (2009), 585–616.
* Kovács, Tamás: [https://digilib.phil.muni.cz/bitstream/handle/11222.digilib/141757/1_GraecoLatinaBrunensia_24-2019-2_10.pdf "Procopius's Sibyl - the fall of Vitigis and the Ostrogoths"], ''Graeco-Latina Brunensia'' 24.2 (2019), 113–124.
* Kruse, Marion: ''[http://journals.cambridge.org/action/displayAbstract?fromPage=online&aid=9067489&fileId=S0009838813000335 The Speech of the Armenians in Procopius: Justinian's Foreign Policy and the Transition between Books 1 and 2 of the Wars]'', in: [[The Classical Quarterly]] 63 (2013), 866–881.
* Lillington-Martin, Christopher: "Hard and Soft Power on the Eastern Frontier: a Roman Fortlet between Dara and Nisibis, Mesopotamia, Turkey: Prokopios’ Mindouos?" in The Byzantinist, edited by Douglas Whalin, Issue 2 (2012), pp.&nbsp;4–5, http://oxfordbyzantinesociety.files.wordpress.com/2012/06/obsnews2012final.pdf
* Lillington-Martin, Christopher: ''Procopius on the struggle for Dara and Rome'', in A. Sarantis, N. Christie (eds.): ''War and Warfare in Late Antiquity: Current Perspectives'' (Late Antique Archaeology 8.1–8.2 2010–11), Leiden: Brill 2013, pp.&nbsp;599–630, {{ISBN|978-90-04-25257-8}};
* Lillington-Martin, Christopher: “La defensa de Roma por Belisario” in: ''Justiniano I el Grande'' (Desperta Ferro) edited by Alberto Pérez Rubio, no. 18 (July 2013), pages 40–45, ISSN 2171-9276
* Lillington-Martin, Christopher (ed.): ''Procopius of Caesarea: Literary and Historical Interpretations''. Routledge (2017), [http://www.routledge.com/9781472466044 www.routledge.com/9781472466044];
* Maas, Michael Robert: ''Strabo and Procopius: Classical Geography for a Christian Empire'', in H. Amirav et al. (eds.): ''From Rome to Constantinople. Studies in Honour of Averil Cameron'', Leuven: Peeters, 2007, 67–84.
* Martindale, John: ''[[The Prosopography of the Later Roman Empire]] III'', Cambridge 1992, 1060–1066.
* Max, Gerald E., "Procopius' Portrait of the (Western Roman) Emperor Majorian: History and Historiography," ''Byzantinische Zeitschrift'', Sonderdruck Aus Band 74/1981, pp.&nbsp;1–6.
* Meier, Mischa: ''Prokop, Agathias, die Pest und das ′Ende′ der antiken Historiographie'', in ''[[Historische Zeitschrift]]'' 278 (2004), 281–310.
* Meier, Mischa and Federico Montinaro (eds.): ''A Companion to Procopius of Caesarea.'' Brill, Leiden 2022, ISBN 978-3-89781-215-4.
* Pazdernik, Charles F.: ''[https://www.academia.edu/1605355/Xenophon_s_Hellenica_in_Procopius_Wars_Pharnabazus_and_Belisarius Xenophon’s Hellenica in Procopius’ Wars: Pharnabazus and Belisarius]'', in: ''Greek, Roman and Byzantine Studies'' 46 (2006) 175–206.
* Rance, Philip: ''[https://www.academia.edu/3677007/_Narses_and_the_Battle_of_Taginae_552_AD_Procopius_and_Sixth-Century_Warfare_Historia._Zeitschrift_f%C3%BCr_Alte_Geschichte_30.4_2005_424-472 Narses and the Battle of Taginae (552 AD): Procopius and Sixth-Century Warfare]'', in: ''Historia. Zeitschrift für alte Geschichte'' 30.4 (2005) 424–472.
* {{Cite book |last=Riemenschneider|first=Jakob|title=Prokop und der soziale Kosmos der Historiographie: Exkurse, Diskurse und die römische Gesellschaft der Spätantike|trans-title=Procopius and the social cosmos of historiography: digressions, discourses and Roman society in late antiquity|publisher=De Gruyter|location=Berlin/Boston|year=2024|doi=10.1515/9783111547640 |isbn=978-3-11-154686-5|url=https://doi.org/10.1515/9783111547640}}
* Rubin, Berthold: ''Prokopios'', in ''[[Realencyclopädie der Classischen Altertumswissenschaft]]'' 23/1 (1957), 273–599. Earlier published (with index) as ''Prokopios von Kaisareia'', Stuttgart: Druckenmüller, 1954.
* Stewart, Michael, ''[http://ejournals.lib.auth.gr/parekbolai/article/view/4253 Contests of Andreia in Procopius’ Gothic Wars]'', ''Παρεκβολαι'' 4 (2014), pp.&nbsp;21–54.
* Stewart, Michael, ''[http://openjournals.arts.uwa.edu.au/index.php/cerae/article/view/44/45 The Andreios Eunuch-Commander Narses: Sign of a Decoupling of martial Virtues and Hegemonic Masculinity in the early Byzantine Empire?]'', Cerae 2 (2015), pp.&nbsp;1–25.
* {{Cite journal |last=Tougher |first=Shaun |date=1996 |title=Cameron and Beyond: A. Cameron, Procopius and the Sixth Century |url=https://histos.org/index.php/histos/article/view/158 |journal=Histos |language=en |volume=1 |doi=10.29173/histos158 |issn=2046-5963|doi-access=free|url-access=subscription }}
* Treadgold, Warren: ''The Early Byzantine Historians'', Basingstoke: Macmillan 2007, 176–226.
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20151117022452/http://blogs.artinfo.com/secrethistoryofart/2011/11/16/vatican-mysteries-whats-so-secret-about-procopius-secret-history-2/ The Secret History of Art by Noah Charney on the Vatican Library and Procopius]. An article by art historian [[Noah Charney]] about the Vatican Library and its famous manuscript, ''Historia Arcana'' by Procopius.
* Whately, Conor, ''Battles and Generals: Combat, Culture, and Didacticism in Procopius' Wars''. Leiden, 2016.
* Whitby, Michael "Procopius and the Development of Roman Defences in Upper Mesopotamia", in P. Freeman and D. Kennedy (ed.), ''[[The Defence of the Roman and Byzantine East]]'', Oxford, 1986, 717–35.

==External links==
{{wikisource|works=or}}

=== Texts of Procopius ===
* {{StandardEbooks|Standard Ebooks URL=https://standardebooks.org/ebooks/procopius}}
* {{Gutenberg author |id=4712}}
* {{Internet Archive author}}
* {{Librivox author |id=14427}}
* [http://www.documentacatholicaomnia.eu/30_20_0490-0575-_Procopius_Caesariensis.html Complete Works], Greek text (Migne [[Patrologia Graeca]]) with analytical indexes
* [http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/basis/procop-anec.html The Secret History], English translation (Atwater, 1927) at the Internet Medieval Sourcebook
* [https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Procopius/Anecdota/home.html The Secret History], English translation (Dewing, 1935) at [[LacusCurtius]]
* [https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Procopius/Buildings/home.html The Buildings], English translation (Dewing, 1935) at LacusCurtius
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20080517032948/http://soltdm.com/sources/mss/proc/proc_0.htm The Buildings, Book IV] Greek text with commentaries, index nominum, etc. at Sorin Olteanu's LTDM Project
* H. B. Dewing's Loeb edition of the works of Procopius: [https://archive.org/search.php?query=creator%3A%22Dewing%2C+H.+B.+%28Henry+Bronson%29%2C+1882-+%28Translator%29%22&sort=titleSorter vols. I–VI at the Internet Archive] (''History of the Wars'', ''Secret History'')
* [[Palestine Pilgrims' Text Society]] (1888): ''[https://archive.org/details/cu31924028534224 Of the buildings of Justinian]'' by Procopius, (ca 560 A.D)
* [https://archive.org/details/procopius00maltgoog Complete Works 1], Greek ed. by [[Karl Wilhelm Dindorf|K. W. Dindorf]], Latin trans. by [[Claude Maltret]] in ''[[Corpus Scriptorum Historiae Byzantinae]] Pars II Vol. 1'', 1833. (''Persian Wars I–II'', ''Vandal Wars I–II'')
* [https://archive.org/details/procopius01dindgoog Complete Works 2], Greek ed. by K. W. Dindorf, Latin trans. by Claude Maltret in ''Corpus Scriptorum Historiae Byzantinae Pars II Vol. 2'', 1833. (''Gothic Wars I–IV'')
* [https://books.google.com/books?id=-yEAAAAAYAAJ Complete Works 3], Greek ed. by K. W. Dindorf, Latin trans. by Claude Maltret in ''Corpus Scriptorum Historiae Byzantinae Pars II Vol. 3'', 1838. (''Secret History'', ''Buildings of Justinian'')

===Secondary material===
* {{CathEncy|wstitle=Procopius of Caesarea}}
* {{Suda}}

{{Byzantine historians}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:500s births]]
[[Category:565 deaths]]
[[Category:6th-century Byzantine historians]]
[[Category:Historians of Justinian I]]
[[Category:Secret histories]]
[[Category:Sources on Germanic paganism|De bello Gothico]]
[[Category:Vandalic War]]
[[Category:People from Caesarea Maritima]]
[[Category:People of the Roman–Sasanian Wars]]