View source for Ptolemy XII Auletes

{{short description|King of Egypt, 80–51 BC}}
{{good article}}
{{Use British English|date=May 2019}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=November 2018}}
{{Infobox pharaoh 
| name         = Ptolemy XII Auletes
| alt_name     = {{lang|grc-latn|Neos Dionysos Theos Philopator Philadelphos|italic=no}}
| image        = Ptolemy XII Auletes Louvre Ma3449.jpg
| caption      = Probable bust of Ptolemy XII at the [[Louvre]], [[Paris]]. The identification of Ptolemaic royal portraits is highly uncertain.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Museum |first=The J. Paul Getty |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Lm8mAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA5 |title=The J. Paul Getty Museum Journal: Volume 14|date=1986 |publisher=Getty Publications |isbn=978-0-89236-091-8 |pages=59-78}}</ref>
| role         = [[Pharaoh]] and [[Basileus|King]] of the [[Ptolemaic Kingdom]] 
| reign        = c.{{!}}80–58 BC (first reign)<br/>55–51 BC (second reign)
| predecessor  = [[Ptolemy XI]] (first reign)
[[Berenice IV]] (second reign)
| successor    = [[Cleopatra VI]]{{efn|name=same|Cleopatra V and Cleopatra VI may have been the same person.}} and Berenice&nbsp;IV (first reign)<br/>[[Cleopatra VII]] and [[Ptolemy&nbsp;XIII]] (second reign)
| horus        = ''ḥwnw-nfr bnr-mrwt ṯni-sw-nbt-rḫyt-ḥnꜤ-kꜢ.f dwꜢ.n.f-ḫnmw-šps-r-šzp-n.f-ḫꜤ(t)-m-nsw<br/> snsn.n-sḥnw-m-ḥꜤꜤw-mi-Nḏ-it.f ṯḥn-msw(t)-ḥr-nst-it.f-mi-ḥr-kꜢ-nḫt ity-psḏ-m-tꜢmri-mi-ḥpw-Ꜥnḫ rdi-n.f-ḥꜢbw-sd-ꜤšꜢw-wrw-mi-Ptḥ-tꜢṯnn-it-nṯrw''<br/>''Hununefer Benermerut Tjenisunebtrekhyethenakaf Duaenefkhnmushepesershesepenefkha'emnesu<br/> Sensenensehnuemhaawminedjetitef Tjehenmesuthernesetitefmihorkanakht Itypesedjemtamerimihapuankh Redienefhebusedashauwerumiptahtatjenenitnetjeru''<br/> The perfect youth, pleasant in his popularity, whom the Two Ladies and the common folk have elevated along with his ka,<br/> who the wonderful Khnum praises so that he receives the crown of kingship, who unites himself with the works (of his father)<br/> in joy like that which his father protects, who is shining at birth on the throne of his father like Horus,<br/> the strong bull, the lord who lights up Egypt like the living Apis, to whom many great Sed festivals will be given through Ptah-Tatenen, the father of the Gods
| nebty        = First Nebty name:'' wr-pḥti ḫntš-nḥḥ smn-hpw-mi-ḏḥwti-ꜤꜢ-ꜤꜢ''<br/>''Werpehty Khenteshneheh Semenhepumidjehutia'a''<br/>The one great of strength and foremost one of the sea forever, who has established laws like the twice-great Thoth<br/>Second Nebty name:''wr-pḥti ḫntš-nḥḥ nfr-ib wṯz-nfrw-mi-ḏḥwti-ꜤꜢ-ꜤꜢ''<br/>''Werpehty Khenteshneheh Neferib Wetjesneferumidjehutia'a''<br/>The one great of strength and foremost one of the sea forever, perfect of mind, who has raised perfection like the twice-great Thoth
| golden       = First Golden Horus name:''ꜤꜢ-ib ity nb-ḳnw-nḫt-mi-zꜢ-Ꜣst''<br/>''A'a-ib Ity Nebqenunakhtmiza'aset''<br/> The one great of mind, the sovereign, the possessor of bravery and strength like the son of Isis<br/>Second Golden Horus name:'' ꜤꜢ-ib mri-nṯrw-BꜢḳt ity-mi-rꜤ ḥḳꜢ-wꜢḏti''<br/>''A'a-ib Merynetjerubaqet Itimire Heqawadjety''<br/>The one great of mind who is beloved of the gods of Baqet, a sovereign like Ra and ruler of the two crowns
| prenomen     = First Praenomens, variants of:<br/>'' iwꜤ-n-pꜢ-nṯr-nḥm stp-n-ptḥ...'' — ''Iwa'enpanetjernehem Setepenptah...'' —  The heir of the saviour god, who is the chosen of Ptah...<br/>''...iri-mꜢꜤt-n-rꜤ sḫm-Ꜥnḫ-imn''<br/>''...Irimaatenre Sekhemankhimen''<br/>...who brings forth the order of Ra, the living image of Amun<br/>''...iri-mꜢꜤt-imn-rꜤ''<br/>''...Irimaatimenre''<br/>...who has brings forth the order of Amun-Ra<br/>Second Praenomen:'' pꜢ nṯr-mri it snt wsiri ḥwnw''<br/>''Pa Netjermery It Senet Usiri Hunu''<br/>The god who is beloved of his father and brother, the youthful Osiris
| nomen        = ''ptwlmys Ꜥnḫ-ḏt mri-ptḥ-Ꜣst''<br/>''Petulemis Ankdjet Meriptahaset''<br/> Ptolemaios, living forever, beloved of Ptah and Isis
| spouse       = [[Cleopatra V]]
| children        = {{ubl|[[Cleopatra VI]]{{efn|name=same}}|[[Berenice IV]]|[[Cleopatra VII]]|[[Arsinoe IV]]|[[Ptolemy XIII]]|[[Ptolemy XIV]]}}
| dynasty      = [[Ptolemaic dynasty]]
| father       = [[Ptolemy IX]]
| mother       = Unknown
| birth_date   = {{c.|117 BC}}
| birth_place  = [[Cyprus]]?
| death_date   = before 22 March 51 BC
| death_place  = [[Alexandria]]
|Coregency=[[Cleopatra V]] (79-69 BC)|Reign=c. 80-58 BC (first reign)<br>55-51 BC (second reign)}}
'''Ptolemy XII Neos Dionysus''' ({{langx|grc|Πτολεμαῖος Νέος Διόνυσος|Ptolemaios Neos Dionysos|Ptolemy the new [[Dionysus]]}} {{c.|117}} – 51 BC){{efn|Also '''Theos Philopator Philadelphos''', {{langx|el|Θεός Φιλοπάτωρ Φιλάδελφος}} {{lit|father-loving, sibling-loving god}}}}<ref>{{Cite web |title=Ptolemy XII Auletes {{!}} Macedonian king of Egypt {{!}} Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/biography/Ptolemy-XII-Auletes |access-date=2023-06-06 |website=www.britannica.com |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Ptolemaic Dynasty -- Ptolemy XII root |url=https://instonebrewer.com/TyndaleSites/Egypt/ptolemies/ptolemy_xii_fr.htm |access-date=2023-06-06 |website=instonebrewer.com}}</ref> was a king of the [[Ptolemaic Kingdom]] of [[Ancient Egypt|Egypt]] who ruled from 80 to 58 BC and then again from 55 BC until his death in 51 BC. He was commonly known as '''Auletes''' ({{lang|grc|Αὐλητής}}, "the Flautist"), referring to his love of playing the [[flute]] in [[Dionysia]]n festivals. A member of the [[Ptolemaic dynasty]], he was a descendant of its founder [[Ptolemy I]], a [[Ancient Macedonians|Macedonian Greek]] general and [[Government of Macedonia (ancient kingdom)#Companions, friends, councils, and assemblies|companion]] of [[Alexander the Great]].{{efn|{{harvtxt|Southern|2009|p=43}} writes about [[Ptolemy I Soter]]: "The Ptolemaic dynasty, of which Cleopatra was the last representative, was founded at the end of the fourth century BC. The Ptolemies were not of Egyptian extraction, but stemmed from Ptolemy Soter, a Macedonian Greek in the entourage of Alexander the Great."{{pb}}For additional sources that describe the Ptolemaic dynasty as "[[Ancient Macedonians|Macedonian Greek]]", please see {{harvtxt|Roller|2010|pp=15–16}}, {{harvtxt|Jones|2006|pp=xiii, 3, 279}}, {{harvtxt|Kleiner|2005|pp=9, 19, 106, 183}}, {{harvtxt|Jeffreys|1999|p=488}} and {{harvtxt|Johnson|1999|p=69}}. Alternatively, {{harvtxt|Grant|1972|p=3}} describes them as a "Macedonian, Greek-speaking" dynasty. Other sources such as {{harvtxt|Burstein|2004|p=64}} and {{harvtxt|Pfrommer|Towne-Markus|2001|p=9}} describe the Ptolemies as "Greco-Macedonian", or rather Macedonians who possessed a Greek culture, as in {{harvtxt|Pfrommer|Towne-Markus|2001|pp=9–11, 20}}.}}

Ptolemy XII was an [[illegitimate]] son of [[Ptolemy&nbsp;IX]] by an uncertain mother. In 116 BC, Ptolemy&nbsp;IX became co-regent with his mother, [[Cleopatra&nbsp;III]]. However, due to a civil war against his mother and his brother, [[Ptolemy&nbsp;X]], he was exiled in 107 BC. Cleopatra&nbsp;III sent her grandsons to [[Kos]] in 103 BC. They were captured by [[Mithridates&nbsp;VI of Pontus]] probably in 88 BC. After the killing of his cousin [[Ptolemy&nbsp;XI]], Ptolemy&nbsp;XII was recalled from [[Kingdom of Pontus|Pontus]] and proclaimed pharaoh, while his brother, also named [[Ptolemy of Cyprus|Ptolemy]], was installed as king of [[Ancient history of Cyprus|Cyprus]].

Ptolemy XII married his relative [[Cleopatra&nbsp;V]], who was likely one of his sisters or cousins; they had at least one child together, [[Berenice&nbsp;IV]], and Cleopatra&nbsp;V was likely also the mother of his second daughter, [[Cleopatra&nbsp;VII]]. The king's three youngest children – [[Arsinoe&nbsp;IV]], [[Ptolemy&nbsp;XIII]], and [[Ptolemy&nbsp;XIV]] – were born to an unknown mother. Ptolemy&nbsp;XII's uncle Ptolemy&nbsp;X had left Egypt to [[Ancient Rome|Rome]] in the event there were no surviving heirs, making Roman annexation of Egypt a possibility. In an effort to prevent this, Ptolemy&nbsp;XII established an alliance with Rome late into his first reign. Rome annexed Cyprus in 58 BC, causing Ptolemy of Cyprus to commit suicide.

Shortly afterwards, Ptolemy&nbsp;XII was deposed by the Egyptian people and fled to Rome, and his eldest daughter, Berenice&nbsp;IV, took the throne. With Roman funding and military assistance, Ptolemy&nbsp;XII recaptured Egypt and had Berenice&nbsp;IV killed in 55 BC.  He died the next year and was succeeded by Cleopatra&nbsp;VII and her brother Ptolemy&nbsp;XIII as joint rulers.

==Background and early life==
{{stack|float=left| clear=true|[[File:PtolemyIX-StatueHead MuseumOfFineArtsBoston.png|thumb|left|[[Ptolemy IX]]|210x210px]]}}
Ptolemy XII was the oldest son of [[Ptolemy IX]]. The identity of his mother is uncertain. Ptolemy&nbsp;IX was married twice, to his sister [[Cleopatra&nbsp;IV]] from around 119 BC until he was forced to divorce her in 115 BC, and secondly to another sister, [[Cleopatra Selene of Syria|Cleopatra Selene]], from 115 BC until he abandoned her during his flight from Alexandria in 107 BC. However, [[Cicero]] and other ancient sources refer to Ptolemy&nbsp;XII as an [[legitimacy (family law)|illegitimate]] son; [[Gnaeus Pompeius Trogus|Pompeius Trogus]] called him a "[[:wikt:nothus|nothos]]" (bastard), while [[Pausanias (geographer)|Pausanias]] wrote that Ptolemy&nbsp;IX had no legitimate sons at all.<ref>[[Cicero]] ''Agr.'' 2.42; [[Pausanias (geographer)|Pausanias]] 1.9.3</ref>{{sfn|Sullivan|1990|p= 92}} Some scholars have therefore proposed that his mother was a concubine – if so, probably an [[Hellenistic Greeks|Alexandrian Greek]].<ref name="DH">Dodson, Aidan and Hilton, Dyan. The Complete Royal Families of Ancient Egypt. Thames & Hudson. 2004. {{ISBN|0-500-05128-3}}</ref><ref>Ernle Bradford, ''Classic Biography: Cleopatra'' (Toronto: The Penguin Groups, 2000), p. 28.</ref>{{sfnp|Lefkowitz|1997|pp=44–45, 50}}{{sfnp|Schiff|2010|pp=24}}{{sfnp|Watterson|2020|pp=39-40}} It had been speculated by [[Werner Huß]] that Ptolemy&nbsp;XII's mother was an unknown woman belonging to the Egyptian elite, based upon a speculated earlier marriage between Psenptais&nbsp;II, [[high priest of Ptah]], and a certain "Berenice", once argued to possibly be a daughter of [[Ptolemy&nbsp;VIII]].{{sfn|Hölbl|2001|p=222}}{{sfn|Huß|2001|p=203}} However, the speculation of this marriage was refuted by Egyptologist Wendy Cheshire.{{sfn|Cheshire|2011|pp=20-30}}{{sfn|Lippert|2013|pp=33-48}}{{efn|{{harvtxt|Lefkowitz|1997|}} rejects the notion of an Egyptian mother for Ptolemy&nbsp;XII, with some writers speculating that would be why Cleopatra spoke Egyptian. Lefkowitz notes, however, that if Cleopatra's paternal grandmother had been Egyptian, it would have been more likely Ptolemy&nbsp;XII was the first speaker of the Egyptian language, instead of his daughter Cleopatra.}} Chris Bennett argues that Ptolemy&nbsp;XII's mother was Cleopatra&nbsp;IV and that he was considered illegitimate simply because she had never been co-regent.{{sfn|Bennett|1997|p=46}} This theory is endorsed by the historian [[Adrian Goldsworthy]].{{sfn|Goldsworthy|2011|pp=69–70}}

The date of Ptolemy&nbsp;XII's birth is thus uncertain.{{sfn|Stanwick|2010|p=60}} If he was the son of Cleopatra&nbsp;IV, he was probably born around 117 BC and followed around a year later by a brother, known as [[Ptolemy of Cyprus]]. In 117 BC, Ptolemy&nbsp;IX was governor of [[Cyprus]], but in 116 BC he returned to [[Alexandria]] upon the death of his father, Ptolemy&nbsp;VIII. At this point, Ptolemy&nbsp;IX became the junior co-regent of his grandmother [[Cleopatra&nbsp;II]] and his mother, [[Cleopatra&nbsp;III]]. In 115 BC, his mother forced him to divorce Cleopatra&nbsp;IV, who fled into exile. The former Egyptian queen married the [[Seleucid]] king [[Antiochus&nbsp;IX]], but she was murdered by his half-brother and rival [[Antiochus&nbsp;VIII]] in 112 BC.<ref>Salisbury, Joyce E., ''Encyclopedia of Women in the Ancient World'' (2001), p.50: "Cleopatra&nbsp;IV had money and spirit enough to challenge this move, so she went to Cyprus...Cleopatra&nbsp;IV went with her army to Syria and offered her services to her cousin Antiochus Cyzicenus...Cleopatra&nbsp;IV married Cyzicenus to strengthen his ability to rule."</ref><ref>Lightman, Marjorie, and Lightman, Benjamin, ''A to Z of Ancient Greek and Roman Women'' (2008), p.80: "In Antioch, Cleopatra offered her support to Cyzicenus and married him. Grypus captured Antioch and Cleopatra in 112 B.C.E. ...her sister, fearing Cleopatra would seduce her husband, had Cleopatra killed"</ref><ref>Penrose, Walter Duval, ''Postcolonial Amazons: Female Masculinity and Courage in Ancient Greek and Sanskrit Literature'' (2016), p.218: "Having been expelled from the throne, Cleopatra&nbsp;IV now went to Cyprus, where she gathered an army. She may have originally hoped to use this force to march on Egypt in protest of her mother's action...instead she offered to marry the Seleucid contender for the throne, Antiochus&nbsp;IX Cyzicenus, and, using her mercenary army to help his cause, set off to become queen of Syria (Just. 39.3.3)...Grypus took Antioch in 112 BCE and [her sister] Tryphaena, Grypus' wife and Cleopatra's IV's own sister, ordered the death of Cleopatra&nbsp;IV (Just. 39.3.4-11)."</ref> Ptolemy&nbsp;IX meanwhile had been remarried to Cleopatra Selene, with whom he had a daughter, [[Berenice&nbsp;III]].{{sfn|Hölbl|2001|p=206-207}} By 109 BC, Ptolemy&nbsp;IX had begun the process of introducing Ptolemy&nbsp;XII to public life. In that year, Ptolemy&nbsp;XII served as the Priest of Alexander and Ptolemaic kings (an office which Ptolemy&nbsp;IX otherwise held himself throughout his reign) and had a festival established in his honour in [[Cyrene, Libya|Cyrene]].<ref>''[[Supplementum Epigraphicum Graecum|SEG]]'' IX.5.</ref><ref name=CBP12>{{cite web |last1=Bennett |first1=Chris |title=Ptolemy&nbsp;IX|url=http://instonebrewer.com/TyndaleSites/Egypt/ptolemies/ptolemy_ix_fr.htm|website=Egyptian Royal Genealogy |access-date=11 November 2019}}</ref> Relations between Ptolemy&nbsp;IX and his mother deteriorated. In 107 BC she forced him to flee Alexandria for Cyprus and replaced him as co-regent with his younger brother, [[Ptolemy&nbsp;X]].{{sfn|Hölbl|2001|p=206-207}} [[Justin (historian)|Justin]] mentions that Ptolemy&nbsp;IX left two sons behind when he fled Alexandria.<ref>Justin ''Epitome of the Philippic History'' 39.4</ref> Chris Bennett argues that these sons should be identified as Ptolemy&nbsp;XII and Ptolemy of Cyprus.{{sfn|Bennett|1997|p=46}}

[[File:Mithridates VI Louvre.jpg|thumb|[[Mithridates VI of Pontus]]|207x207px]]
Ptolemy&nbsp;IX made an attempt to reclaim the Ptolemaic throne in 103 BC by invading [[Judaea]]. At the start of this war, Cleopatra&nbsp;III sent her grandsons to the island of [[Kos]] along with her treasure in order to protect them.<ref>[[Josephus]], ''Antiquities of the Jews'' 13.13.1</ref>{{sfn|Whitehorne|1994|p=139}} There, Ptolemy&nbsp;XII and Ptolemy of Cyprus seem to have been captured by [[Mithridates&nbsp;VI of Pontus]] in 88 BC, at the outbreak of the [[First Mithridatic War]].<ref name=CBP12/>{{sfn|Hölbl|2001|p=211-213}} Ironically, their father had reclaimed the Egyptian throne around the same time. They were held by Mithridates as hostages until 80 BC. At some point during this period, probably in 81 or 80 BC, they were engaged to two of Mithridates' daughters, Mithridatis and Nyssa.<ref>[[Appian]], ''Mithridatica'' 16.111</ref> Meanwhile, Ptolemy&nbsp;IX died in December 81 BC and was succeeded by Berenice&nbsp;III. In April 80 BC, Ptolemy&nbsp;X's son [[Ptolemy&nbsp;XI]] was installed as Berenice&nbsp;III's husband and co-regent. He promptly murdered her and was himself killed by an angry Alexandrian mob. The Alexandrians then summoned Ptolemy&nbsp;XII to Egypt to assume the kingship; his brother, also named Ptolemy, became king of Cyprus, where he would reign until 58 BC.{{sfn|Hölbl|2001|p=222}}{{sfn|Bradford|2000|p=33}}{{sfn|Roller|2010|p=17}}

==First reign (80–58 BC)==
[[File:Flickr - archer10 (Dennis) - Egypt-14A-024.jpg|thumb|Egyptian-style statue of Ptolemy&nbsp;XII found at the Temple of the Crocodile in [[Fayoum]], Egypt|left|369x369px]]

On his arrival in Alexandria, in April 80 BC, Ptolemy&nbsp;XII was proclaimed king. His reign was officially dated as having begun on the death of his father in 81 BC, thereby eliding the reigns of Berenice&nbsp;III and Ptolemy&nbsp;XI. Shortly after his accession, Ptolemy&nbsp;XII married one of his relatives, [[Cleopatra&nbsp;V]].{{sfn|Hölbl|2001|pp=222-223}} Her parentage is uncertain – modern scholarship often interprets her as a sister,{{sfn|Hölbl|2001|pp=222-223}} but Christopher Bennett argues that she was a daughter of Ptolemy&nbsp;X.{{sfn|Bennett|1997|p=39}} The couple became co-regents and they were incorporated into the Ptolemaic dynastic cult together as the ''Theoi Philopatores kai Philadelphoi'' (Father-loving and Sibling-loving Gods). This title was probably meant to reinforce Ptolemy&nbsp;XII's claim to the throne in the face of claims that his parentage meant that he was an illegitimate son of Ptolemy&nbsp;IX and therefore not entitled to rule.{{sfn|Hölbl|2001|pp=222-223}}

{{multiple image
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| footer            = A likely sculpture of [[Cleopatra&nbsp;V]] (also known as [[Cleopatra&nbsp;VI]]), 1st century BC, from Lower Egypt, now in the [[Musée Saint-Raymond]]<ref>{{Cite web|title=Portrait féminin (mère de Cléopâtre ?)|url=https://saintraymond.toulouse.fr/Portrait-feminin-mere-de-Cleopatre_a629.html|access-date=29 July 2021|language=French|website=|publisher=[[Musée Saint-Raymond]]|archive-date=20 September 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150920032651/http://www.saintraymond.toulouse.fr/Portrait-feminin-mere-de-Cleopatre_a629.html|url-status=dead}}</ref>
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In 76 BC, the [[High Priest of Ptah]] in [[Memphis, Egypt|Memphis]] died and Ptolemy&nbsp;XII travelled to Memphis to appoint his fourteen-year-old son, [[Pasherienptah&nbsp;III]], as the new High Priest. In turn, Pasherienptah&nbsp;III crowned Ptolemy as [[Pharaoh]] and then went to Alexandria, where he was appointed as Ptolemy&nbsp;XII's 'prophet'. These encounters are described in detail on Pasherienptah's funerary stela, ''Stele BM 866'', and they demonstrate the extremely close and mutually reinforcing relationship that had developed between the Ptolemaic kings and the Memphite priesthood by this date.{{sfn|Hölbl|2001|pp=222-223}}

In August 69 BC, Cleopatra&nbsp;V ceases to be mentioned as co-regent. The images of her that had been carved on the main [[Pylon (architecture)|pylon]] of the [[Temple of Edfu|Temple of Horus]] at [[Edfu]] were covered over at this time. The reason for this sudden shift is unknown, but presumably she was divorced at this time.{{sfn|Hölbl|2001|pp=222-223}} Ptolemy adopted a new royal epithet ''Neos Dionysos'' (New Dionysus) at some time after this; Chris Bennett proposes that the epithet was linked to the break with Cleopatra.<ref name=CBP12/>

===Relations with Rome===
[[File:Ptolemy XII Auletes - 185.jpg|thumb|Relief of Ptolemy&nbsp;XII from the [[Temple of Kom Ombo|double temple at Kom Ombo]]|332x332px]]
[[File:Pompey the Great.jpg|thumb|[[Pompey]], Ptolemy&nbsp;XII's key ally in Rome|226x226px]]
[[File:Edfu Temple 9609.JPG|thumb|[[Temple of Edfu|Temple]], which Ptolemy&nbsp;XII decorated with figures of himself smiting the enemy|193x193px]]
When Ptolemy&nbsp;X had died in 88 BC, his will had left Egypt to Rome in the event that he had no surviving heirs. Although the Romans had not acted on this, the possibility that they might forced the following Ptolemies to adopt a careful and respectful policy towards Rome.{{sfn|Hölbl|2001|pp=223-224}}{{sfn|Siani-Davies|1997|p=307}} Ptolemy&nbsp;XII continued this pro-Roman policy in order to protect himself and secure his dynasty's fate. Egypt came under increasing Roman pressure nevertheless. In 65 BC, the [[Roman censor]], [[Marcus Licinius Crassus]] proposed that Rome annex Egypt.<ref>[[Plutarch]], ''Life of Crassus'' 13.2</ref> This proposal failed in the face of opposition from [[Quintus Lutatius Catulus]] and [[Cicero]]. In light of this crisis, however, Ptolemy&nbsp;XII began to expend significant resources on bribing Roman politicians to support his interests. In 63 BC, when [[Pompey]] was reorganising Syria and Anatolia following his victory in the [[Third Mithridatic War]], Ptolemy sought to form a relationship with Pompey by sending him a golden crown. Ptolemy also provided pay and maintenance for 8,000 cavalry to Pompey for his war with [[Judaea]]. He also asked Pompey to come to Alexandria and help to put down a revolt which had apparently broken out in Egypt; Pompey refused.<ref>[[Appian]], ''Mithridatica'' 114; [[Josephus]], ''Antiquities of the Jews'' 14.35</ref>{{sfn|Hölbl|2001|pp=223-224}}{{sfn|Bradford|2000|p=35}} 

The money required for these bribes was enormous. Initially, Ptolemy&nbsp;XII funded them by raising taxes. A strike by farmers of royal land in [[Heracleopolis Magna|Herakleopolis]] which is attested in a papyrus document from 61/60 BC has been interpreted as a sign of widespread discontent with this taxation. Increasingly, Ptolemy&nbsp;XII also had recourse to loans from Roman bankers, such as [[Gaius Rabirius Postumus]]. This gave the Romans even more leverage over his regime and meant that the fate of Egypt became an increasingly immediate issue in Roman politics.{{sfn|Hölbl|2001|pp=223-224}}

Finally, in 60 BC, Ptolemy&nbsp;XII travelled to Rome, where the [[First Triumvirate]], composed of Pompey, Crassus, and [[Julius Caesar]], had just taken power, in order to negotiate official recognition of his kingship. Ptolemy paid Pompey and Caesar six thousand [[Talent (measurement)|talents]] – an enormous sum, equivalent to the total annual revenue of Egypt.<ref>[[Suetonius]] ''Life of Julius Caesar'' 54.3</ref> In return, a formal alliance or ''foedus'' was formed. The [[Roman Senate]] recognised Ptolemy as king and Caesar passed a law that added Ptolemy to the list of friends and allies of the people of Rome (''amici et socii populi Romani'') in 59 BC.<ref>[[Caesar]] ''[[Commentarii de Bello Civili|Bellum Civile]]'' 3.107; [[Cicero]], ''Pro Rabirio Postumo'' 3; Cicero, ''Letter to Atticus'' 2.16.2</ref>{{sfn|Siani-Davies|1997|p=316}}{{sfn|Hölbl|2001|pp=225-226}} 
 
In 58 BC, the Romans [[Roman Cyprus|took control of Cyprus]], causing its ruler, Ptolemy&nbsp;XII's brother, to commit suicide.{{sfn|Roller|2010|p=22}} Ptolemy&nbsp;XII took no action in response to his brother's death and Cyprus remained a Roman province until returned to Ptolemaic control by Julius Caesar in 48 BC.{{sfn|Hölbl|2001|pp=226-227}}

==Exile in Rome (58–55 BC)==
{{further|Early life of Cleopatra}}
The bribery policy had been unpopular in Egypt for a long time, both because of its obsequiousness and because of the heavy tax burden that it entailed, but the annexation of Cyprus demonstrated its failure and enraged the people of Alexandria. The courtiers in Alexandria forced Ptolemy to step down from the throne and leave Egypt.<ref>[[Cassius Dio]] 39.12; [[Plutarch]], ''Life of Pompey'' 49.7.</ref> He was replaced by his daughter Berenice&nbsp;IV, who ruled jointly with Cleopatra Tryphaena (known to modern historians as [[Cleopatra&nbsp;VI]]), who was probably Ptolemy&nbsp;XII's former wife but may be an otherwise unattested daughter. Following Cleopatra Tryphaena's death a year later, Berenice ruled alone from 57 to 56 BC.{{sfn|Siani-Davies|1997|p=324}}{{sfn|Hölbl|2001|pp=226-227}}

[[File:Denier à l'effigie de Pompée.jpg|thumb|A [[denarius]] of Pompey minted 49–48 BC|191x191px]]
Probably taking his daughter Cleopatra&nbsp;VII with him, Ptolemy fled for the safety of Rome.{{sfn|Bradford|2000|p=37}}<ref>Roller, Duane W. (2010), ''Cleopatra: a biography'', p.22, Oxford: Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0-19-536553-5.</ref><ref>Fletcher, Joann (2008), ''Cleopatra the Great: The Woman Behind the Legend'', p.76, New York: Harper, ISBN 978-0-06-058558-7</ref><ref>[[Joann Fletcher]] expresses little doubt that Cleopatra&nbsp;VII accompanied her father, noting an ancient Greek [[primary source]] stating that Ptolemy&nbsp;XII traveled with one of his daughters; since Berenice&nbsp;IV was his ruling rival and Arsinoe IV was a toddler, Fletcher believes it must have been Cleopatra (who was later made his regent and named his successor in his will). cf Fletcher, Joann (2008), ''Cleopatra the Great: The Woman Behind the Legend'', pp=76–77, 80, 84–85, New York: Harper, ISBN 978-0-06-058558-7</ref> On the way, he stopped in [[Rhodes]] where the exiled [[Cato the Younger]] offered him advice on how to approach the Roman aristocracy, but no tangible support. In Rome, Ptolemy&nbsp;XII prosecuted his restitution but met opposition from certain members of the Senate. His old ally Pompey housed the exiled king and his daughter and argued on behalf of Ptolemy's restoration in the Senate.<ref>[[Strabo]] ''Geography'' 17.1.11; [[Cassius Dio]] 39.14.3</ref>{{sfn|Hölbl|2001|pp=226–227}} During this time, Roman creditors realized that they would not get the return on their loans to the king without his restoration.{{sfn|Siani-Davies|1997|p=323}} In 57 BC, pressure from the Roman public forced the Senate's decision to restore Ptolemy. However, Rome did not wish to invade Egypt to restore the king, since the [[Sibylline books]] stated that if an Egyptian king asked for help and Rome proceeded with military intervention, great dangers and difficulties would occur.{{sfn|Bradford|2000|pp=39–40}}

Egyptians heard rumours of Rome's possible intervention and disliked the idea of their exiled king's return. The Roman historian [[Cassius Dio]] wrote that a group of one hundred men were sent as envoys from Egypt to make their case to the Romans against Ptolemy&nbsp;XII's restoration. Ptolemy seemingly had their leader [[Dio of Alexandria]] poisoned and most of the other protesters killed before they reached Rome.{{sfn|Siani-Davies|1997|p=325}}

==Restoration and second reign (55–51 BC)==
{{further|Early life of Cleopatra|Reign of Cleopatra}}
[[File:Ptolemy xii.png|thumb|Rare [[Ancient drachma|drachma]] of Ptolemy&nbsp;XII minted at [[Paphos]], [[History of Cyprus|Cyprus]] in 53 BC,{{sfn|Svoronos|1904|loc=vol. I-II, [[iarchive:tanomismatatoukrv1v2sbor/page/302|p=302]] (n°1838), & vol. III-IV, [[iarchive:tanomismatatoukrv3v4sbor/page/n127|plate LXI]], n°22, 23.}} depicting him instead of [[Ptolemy&nbsp;I Soter|Ptolemy&nbsp;I]]|150x150px]]
[[File:Cleopatra VII, dalla via appia tra ariccia e genzano, 40-30 ac ca. 02.JPG|thumb|[[Roman portraiture|Roman bust]] of [[Cleopatra&nbsp;VII]], [[Altes Museum]], [[Antikensammlung Berlin]]|left|239x239px]]
In 55 BC, Ptolemy paid [[Aulus Gabinius]] 10,000 talents to invade Egypt and so recovered his throne. Gabinius defeated the Egyptian frontier forces, marched to Alexandria, and attacked the palace, where the palace guards surrendered without fighting.{{sfn|Bradford|2000|p=43}} The exact date of Ptolemy&nbsp;XII's restoration is unknown; the earliest possible date of restoration was 4 January 55 BC and the latest possible date was 24 June the same year. Upon regaining power, Ptolemy acted against Berenice, and along with her supporters, she was executed. Ptolemy&nbsp;XII maintained his grip on power in Alexandria with the assistance of around two thousand Roman soldiers and mercenaries, known as the [[Gabiniani]]. This arrangement enabled Rome to exert power over Ptolemy, who ruled until he fell ill in 51 BC.{{sfn|Siani-Davies|1997|p=338}} On 31 May 52 BC his daughter Cleopatra&nbsp;VII was named as his regent.{{sfn|Roller|2010|p=27}}

At the moment of Ptolemy&nbsp;XII's restoration, Roman creditors demanded the repayment of their loans, but the Alexandrian treasury could not repay the king's debt. Learning from previous mistakes, Ptolemy&nbsp;XII shifted popular resentment of tax increases from himself to a Roman, his main creditor [[Gaius Rabirius Postumus]], whom he appointed ''[[dioiketes]]'' (minister of finance), and so in charge of debt repayment. Perhaps Gabinius had also put pressure on Ptolemy&nbsp;XII to appoint Rabirius, who now had direct access to the financial resources of Egypt but exploited the land too much. The king had to imprison Rabirius to protect his life from the angry people, then allowed him to escape. Rabirius immediately left Egypt and went back to Rome at the end of 54 BC. There he was accused ''de repetundis'', but defended by [[Cicero]] and probably acquitted.<ref>Cicero.</ref>{{sfn|Huß|2001|pp=696–697}} Ptolemy also permitted a debasing of the coinage as an attempt to repay the loans. Near the end of Ptolemy's reign, the value of Egyptian coinage dropped to about fifty per cent of its value at the beginning of his first reign.{{sfn|Siani-Davies|1997|pp=332–334}}

Ptolemy&nbsp;XII died sometime before 22 March 51 BC.{{sfn|Roller|2010|pp=53, 56}} His will stipulated that Cleopatra&nbsp;VII and her brother Ptolemy&nbsp;XIII should rule Egypt together. To safeguard his interests, he made the people of Rome executors of his will. Since the Senate was busy with its own affairs, his ally Pompey approved the will.{{sfn|Siani-Davies|1997|p=339}}

==Legacy and assessments==
{{Multiple image
| image1            = Ptolemy before Hathor, Philae.jpg
| caption1          = Ptolemy XII before [[Hathor]] and [[Philae]], at the [[Hathor Temple]], [[Dendera]], which he built in 54 BC<ref name="KAB">{{cite book |editor1-last=Bard |editor1-first=Kathryn A. |editor1-link=Kathryn A. Bard |title=Encyclopedia of the Archaeology of Ancient Egypt |date=2005 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-134-66525-9 |page=252 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=AWSGAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA252 |language=en}}</ref><ref name="whc.unesco.org">{{cite web |last1=mondial |first1=UNESCO Centre du patrimoine |title=Pharaonic temples in Upper Egypt from the Ptolemaic and Roman periods - UNESCO World Heritage Centre |url=https://whc.unesco.org/fr/listesindicatives/1824/ |website=UNESCO Centre du patrimoine mondial |language=fr}}</ref>
| image2            = Ptolemy before Isis & Osiris, Dendera Temple.jpg
| caption2          = Ptolemy XII before Isis and Osiris, at the [[Hathor Temple]], [[Dendera]]<ref name="KAB"/><ref name="whc.unesco.org"/>
| direction         = vertical
| total_width       = 260
}}

Generally, descriptions of Ptolemy&nbsp;XII portray him as weak and self-indulgent, drunk, or a lover of music.{{sfn|Bradford|2000|p=34}} According to Strabo, his practice of playing the flute earned him the ridiculing [[sobriquet]] ''Auletes'' ('flute player'):

{{Blockquote
|text=Now all of the kings after the third Ptolemy, being corrupted by luxurious living, administered the affairs of government badly, but worst of all were the fourth, seventh, and the last, Auletes, who, apart from his general licentiousness, practised the accompaniment of choruses with the flute, and upon this he prided himself so much that he would not hesitate to celebrate contests in the royal palace, and at these contests would come forward to vie with the opposing contestants.
|author=Strabo
|title=XVII, 1, 11
|source=<!-- ''Book Title'' (date) --><ref>Strabo XVII, 1, 11.</ref>
}}

According to the author Mary Siani-Davies:

{{Blockquote
|text=Throughout his long-lasting reign the principal aim of Ptolemy was to secure his hold on the Egyptian throne so as to eventually pass it to his heirs. To achieve this goal he was prepared to sacrifice much: the loss of rich Ptolemaic lands, most of his wealth and even, according to Cicero, the very dignity on which the mystique of kingship rested when he appeared before the Roman people as a mere supplicant.
|author=Mary Siani-Davies
|title="Ptolemy XII Auletes and the Romans"
|source=''Historia'' (1997){{sfn|Siani-Davies|1997|p=339}}
}}

==Marriage and issue==
Ptolemy married his sister [[Cleopatra&nbsp;V]], who was with certainty the mother of his eldest known child, [[Berenice&nbsp;IV]].{{sfn|Tyldesley|2006|p=200}} Cleopatra&nbsp;V disappears from court records a few months after the birth of Ptolemy&nbsp;XII's second known child,{{sfn|Roller|2010|pp=16, 19, 159}} and probably hers, [[Cleopatra&nbsp;VII]] in 69 BC.{{sfn|Grant|1972|p=4}}{{sfn|Preston|2009|p=22}}{{sfn|Jones|2006|p=xiii}}{{sfn|Schiff|2010|p=28}}{{sfn|Kleiner|2005|p=22}}{{sfn|Tyldesley|2006|pp=30, 235–236}}{{sfn|Meadows|2001|p=23}}{{sfn|Bennett|1997|p=60-63}} The identity of the mother of the last three of Ptolemy&nbsp;XII's children, in birth order [[Arsinoe IV]], [[Ptolemy&nbsp;XIII]], and [[Ptolemy&nbsp;XIV]], is also uncertain. One hypothesis contends that possibly they (and perhaps Cleopatra&nbsp;VII) were Ptolemy&nbsp;XII's children with a theoretical half [[Macedonia (ancient kingdom)|Macedonian]] [[Ancient Macedonians|Greek]], half Egyptian woman belonging to a priestly family from [[Memphis, Egypt|Memphis]] in northern Egypt,{{sfn|Roller|2010|pp=16, 19, 159}} but this is only speculation.{{sfn|Goldsworthy|2011|pp=127, 128}}

The philosopher [[Porphyry (philosopher)|Porphyry]] (c. 234 – c. 305 AD) wrote of Ptolemy&nbsp;XII's daughter [[Cleopatra&nbsp;VI]], who reigned alongside her sister Berenice&nbsp;IV.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.attalus.org/translate/eusebius1.html#167 |title=Eusebius: Chronicle p. 167, accessed online |access-date=31 December 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101212084230/http://attalus.org/translate/eusebius1.html#167 |archive-date=12 December 2010 |url-status=live |df=dmy-all }}</ref> The Greek historian [[Strabo]] (c. 63 BC – c. AD 24) stated that the king had only three daughters of whom the eldest has been referred to as Berenice&nbsp;IV.<ref>[https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Strabo/17A2*.html#1.11 Strabo, Geography, Book XVII, pp. 45–47, accessed online]</ref> This suggests that the Cleopatra Tryphaena mentioned by Porphyry may not have been Ptolemy&nbsp;XII's daughter, but his wife. Many experts now identify Cleopatra&nbsp;VI with Cleopatra&nbsp;V.{{sfn|Tyldesley|2006|p=200}}

{| class="wikitable"
|-
!Name!!Image!!Birth!!Death!!Notes
|-
|[[Berenice IV]]|| || 79-75 BC || early 55 BC|| Queen of Egypt (June 58 BC – early 55 BC)<ref name=CBB4>{{cite web |last1=Bennett |first1=Chris |title=Berenice&nbsp;IV|url=http://instonebrewer.com/TyndaleSites/Egypt/ptolemies/berenice_iii_fr.htm|website=Egyptian Royal Genealogy |access-date=23 November 2019}}</ref>
|-
|[[Cleopatra VII]]||[[File:Bust_of_Cleopatra_VII_-_Altes_Museum_-_Berlin_-_Germany_2017.jpg|90px]]||December 70 BC or January 69 BC||12 August 30 BC|| Queen of Egypt (51 - 30 BC)<ref name=CBC7>{{cite web |last1=Bennett |first1=Chris |title=Cleopatra&nbsp;VII|url=http://instonebrewer.com/TyndaleSites/Egypt/ptolemies/cleopatra_vii_fr.htm|website=Egyptian Royal Genealogy |access-date=23 November 2019}}</ref>
|-
|[[Arsinoe IV]]|| ||63-61 BC?|| 41 BC||Queen of Cyprus in 48 BC, claimed queenship of Egypt from late 48 BC until expelled by [[Julius Caesar]] in early 47 BC<ref name=CBA4>{{cite web |last1=Bennett |first1=Chris |title=Arsinoe IV|url=http://instonebrewer.com/TyndaleSites/Egypt/ptolemies/arsinoe_iv_fr.htm|website=Egyptian Royal Genealogy |access-date=23 November 2019}}</ref>
|-
|[[Ptolemy XIII]]|| ||62-61 BC||13 January 47 BC||Co-regent with Cleopatra&nbsp;VII (51 – 47 BC)<ref name=CBP13>{{cite web |last1=Bennett |first1=Chris |title=Ptolemy&nbsp;XIII|url=http://instonebrewer.com/TyndaleSites/Egypt/ptolemies/ptolemy_xiii_fr.htm|website=Egyptian Royal Genealogy |access-date=23 November 2019}}</ref>
|-
|[[Ptolemy XIV]]||[[File:Ptolemy&nbsp;XIV.jpg|90px]]||60-59 BC ||June–September 44 BC||Co-regent with Cleopatra&nbsp;VII (47 – 44 BC)<ref name=CBP14>{{cite web |last1=Bennett |first1=Chris |title=Ptolemy&nbsp;XIV|url=http://instonebrewer.com/TyndaleSites/Egypt/ptolemies/ptolemy_xiv_fr.htm|website=Egyptian Royal Genealogy |access-date=23 November 2019}}</ref>
|}

==Notes==
{{notelist|30em}} 

==References==
{{reflist|20em}}

== Bibliography ==

===Primary sources===
{{refbegin|30em}}
* [[Cassius Dio]], ''Roman history''  [http://www.gutenberg.org/cache/epub/11607/pg11607-images.html 39.12 – 39.14, 39.55 – 39.58]
* {{cite book |last1=Cicero |first1=Marcus Tullius |author-link1=Cicero |date=2018 |orig-year=54 BC |title=pro Rabirio Postumo |trans-title=In Defense of Gaius Rabirius Postumus |url=http://perseus.uchicago.edu/perseus-cgi/citequery3.pl?dbname=LatinAugust2012&query=Cic.%20Rab.%20Post.&getid=1 |series=Latin Texts & Translations |language=en |access-date=16 May 2019 |archive-date=27 September 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200927002430/http://perseus.uchicago.edu/perseus-cgi/citequery3.pl?dbname=LatinAugust2012&query=Cic.%20Rab.%20Post.&getid=1 |url-status=dead }} {{free access}}
* [[Strabo]], ''[[Geographica]]'' [https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0239%3Abook%3D12%3Achapter%3D3%3Asection%3D34 12.3.34] and [https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0239%3Abook%3D17%3Achapter%3D1%3Asection%3D12 17.1.11]
{{refend}}

===Secondary sources===
{{refbegin|30em}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Bennett |first1=Christopher J. |date=1997 |title=Cleopatra&nbsp;V Tryphæna and the Genealogy of the Later Ptolemies |journal= Ancient Society |volume= 28 |pages=39–66 |doi= 10.2143/AS.28.0.630068 |issn=0066-1619 |jstor=44079777 }} {{registration required |nolink=1}}
* {{cite book |last=Bradford |first= Ernle Dusgate Selby |date=2000 |title=Cleopatra |url=https://archive.org/details/cleopatra00brad/page/n1 |location=London |publisher=Penguin Books |isbn=978-0141390147 |author-link=Ernle Bradford }} {{registration required |nolink=1}}
* {{cite book |last=Burstein |first=Stanley M. |author-link=Stanley M. Burstein |title=The Reign of Cleopatra |location=Westport, Connecticut |publisher=Greenwood Press |year=2004 |url=https://archive.org/stream/ReignOfCleopatra/Reign%20of%20cleopatra_djvu.txt |isbn=978-0-313-32527-4 }}
* {{Citation |last=Cheshire |first=Wendy |title=The Phantom Sister of Ptolemy Alexander |journal=Enchoria |volume=32 |year=2011 |pages=120–130}}.
* {{cite book |last=Goldsworthy |first=Adrian Keith |title=Antony and Cleopatra |location=London |publisher=Phoenix |year=2011 |isbn=978-0-300-16534-0 |author-link=Adrian Goldsworthy}}
* {{cite book |last= Grant |first= Michael |date=1972 |title=Cleopatra |url= https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.524570/page/n1 |location=Edison, NJ |publisher=Barnes and Noble Books |isbn=978-0880297257 |author-link=Michael Grant (classicist) }} {{free access}}
* {{cite book |last1=Hölbl |first1=Günther |title=A History of the Ptolemaic Empire |date=2001 |publisher=Routledge |location=London & New York |isbn=0415201454 |pages=222–230}}
* {{cite journal |last=Huß |first=Werner |title=Ägypten in hellenistischer Zeit 332–30 v. Chr. (Egypt in Hellenistic times 332–30 BC) |journal=The Journal of Egyptian Archaeology |publisher=Egypt Exploration Society|location=Munich |year=2001 |issn=0307-5133 |author-link=Werner Huß}} (in German)
* {{cite book |last=Jeffreys |first=David |chapter=Memphis |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=AWSGAgAAQBAJ |pages=488–490 |title=Encyclopedia of the Archaeology of Ancient Egypt |year=1999 |publisher=Routledge |location=London |editor-last=Bard |editor-first=Kathryn A. |editor-link=Kathryn A. Bard |isbn=978-0-415-18589-9 |access-date=2 November 2018}}
* {{cite book |last=Johnson |first=Janet H. |chapter=Late and Ptolemaic periods, overview |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=AWSGAgAAQBAJ |pages=66–72 |title=Encyclopedia of the Archaeology of Ancient Egypt |year=1999 |publisher=Routledge |location=London |editor-last=Bard |editor-first=Kathryn A. |isbn=978-0-415-18589-9 |access-date=2 November 2018}}
* {{cite book |last=Jones |first=Prudence J. |date=2006 |title=Cleopatra: a sourcebook |url=https://archive.org/details/cleopatrasourceb0000jone |url-access=registration |location=Norman, Oklahoma |publisher=University of Oklahoma Press |isbn=9780806137414 }}
* {{cite book |last=Kleiner |first=Diana E. E. |date=2005 |title=Cleopatra and Rome |url=https://archive.org/details/cleopatrarome00dian |location=Cambridge, MA |publisher=Belknap Press of Harvard University Press |isbn=9780674019058 }} {{registration required |nolink=1}}
* {{cite book |last=Lefkowitz |first=Mary R. |title=Not out of Africa: How Afrocentrism became an Excuse to Teach Myth as History |url=https://archive.org/details/notoutofafricaho00lefk_1 |location=New York |publisher=Basic Books |year=1997 |isbn=978-0-465-09838-5 |author-link=Mary Lefkowitz}} {{registration required |nolink=1}}
* {{cite journal |last=Lippert |first=Sandra |title=What's New in Demotic Studies? An Overview of the Publications 2010-2013 |journal=The Journal of Juristic Papyrology |volume=43 |year=2013 |url=https://www.taubenschlagfoundation.pl/wp-content/uploads/2018/04/JJP43_full.pdf |pages=33–48}}
* {{cite book |last=Mahaffy |first=John Pentland |title=A History of Egypt under the Ptolemaic Dynasty |url=https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.88831/page/n8 |volume=IV |location=New York |publisher=Charles Scribner's Sons |year=1899 |author-link=John Pentland Mahaffy }} {{free access}}
* {{Citation |last1=Meadows |first1=Andrew |editor-surname1=Walker |editor-given1=Susan |editor-surname2=Higgs |editor-given2=Peter |title=Cleopatra of Egypt: from History to Myth |location=Princeton, NJ |chapter=Sins of the fathers; the inheritance of Cleopatra, last queen of Egypt |publisher=British Museum Press) |year=2001 |pages=14–31 |isbn=978-0714119434}}
* {{cite web |last1=Pfrommer |first1=Michael |last2=Towne-Markus |first2=Elana |title=Greek Gold from Hellenistic Egypt |year=2001 |publisher=Getty |series=Getty Museum Studies on Art |location=Los Angeles |isbn=978-0-89236-633-0 |url=http://www.getty.edu/publications/virtuallibrary/0892366338.html |access-date=22 June 2018 |archive-date=22 June 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180622041533/http://www.getty.edu/publications/virtuallibrary/0892366338.html |url-status=live}}
* {{cite book |last=Preston |first=Diana |date=2009 |title=Cleopatra and Antony |url=https://archive.org/details/cleopatraantonyp00pres_0 |location=New York |publisher=Walker & Company |isbn=978-0802710598 |author-link=Diana Preston }}
* {{cite book |last=Roller |first=Duane W. |date=2010 |title=Cleopatra: a Biography |url=https://archive.org/details/cleopatrabiograp00roll_0 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-195-36553-5 }} {{registration required |nolink=1}}
* {{cite book |last=Schiff |first=Stacy |title=Cleopatra: A Life |location=New York |publisher=Back Bay Books |year=2010 |isbn=978-0-316-12180-4 |author-link=Stacy Schiff }}
* {{cite journal |last=Siani-Davies |first=Mary |title=Ptolemy&nbsp;XII Auletes and the Romans |journal=Historia |volume=46 |issue=3 |pages=306–340 |year=1997 |jstor=4436474 }} {{registration required |nolink=1}}
* {{cite book |last=Southern |first=Patricia |author-link=Pat Southern |title=Antony and Cleopatra: The Doomed Love Affair That United Ancient Rome and Egypt |year=2009 |orig-date=2007 |publisher=Amberley |location=Stroud, Gloucestershire |isbn=978-1-84868-324-2 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=aQaLPAAIzzkC |access-date=22 April 2018}}
* {{cite book |last=Stanwick |first=Paul Edmund |title=Portraits of the Ptolemies: Greek Kings as Egyptian Pharaohs |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qllfAgAAQBAJ |publisher=University of Texas Press |isbn= 9780292777729 |year=2010 }}
* {{cite book |last=Sullivan |first=Richard |year= 1990 |title=Near Eastern Royalty and Rome, 100–30 BC |publisher=University of Toronto Press |isbn=978-0-802-02682-8 |series=Phoenix: Supplementary Volume |volume=24}}
* {{cite book |last=Svoronos |first=Ioannis |title=Ta nomismata tou kratous ton Ptolemaion |url=https://archive.org/search.php?query=Ta%20nomismata%20tou%20kratous%20ton%20Ptolemaion |volume=1 & 2, and 3 & 4 |publisher=Weidmannsche Buchhandlung|location=Athens |year=1904 |oclc=54869298 |author-link=Ioannis Svoronos}} (in Greek and German) {{free access}}
* {{cite book |last=Tyldesley |first=Joyce |date=2006 |title=Chronicle of the Queens of Egypt |url=https://archive.org/details/chronicleofqueen00tyld |location=London |publisher=Thames & Hudson |isbn=9780500051450 |author-link=Joyce Tyldesley }}
* {{cite book |last=Watterson |first=Barbara |title=Cleopatra: Fact and Fiction |publisher=Amberley Publishing |year=2020 |isbn=978-1-445-66965-6}}
* {{cite book |last=Whitehorne |first=John |title=Cleopatras |publisher=Routledge |year=1994 |isbn=978-0-415-05806-3 }}
{{refend}}

== External links ==
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20080511211402/http://www.tyndale.cam.ac.uk/Egypt/ptolemies/ptolemy_xii.htm Ptolemy&nbsp;XII] by Christopher Bennett (part of his [http://www.instonebrewer.com/TyndaleSites/Egypt/index.htm ''Egyptian Royal Genealogy''])
*[https://www.britannica.com/biography/Ptolemy-XII-Auletes Ptolemy&nbsp;XII Auletes] from the online ''[[Encyclopædia Britannica]]''
*[https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Strabo/home.html Strabo ''The Geography''] in English translation, ed. H.&nbsp;L.&nbsp;Jones (1924), at LacusCurtius (Bill Thayer's Web Site)
*[https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Cassius_Dio/home.html Cassius Dio ''Roman History''] in English translation by Cary (1914–1927), at LacusCurtius (Bill Thayer's Web Site)
*[https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Gazetteer/Places/Africa/Egypt/_Texts/BEVHOP/12*.html The House of Ptolemy, Chapter&nbsp;XII] by [[Edwyn Bevan|E.&nbsp;R.&nbsp;Bevan]] (Bill Thayer's Web Site)
*[http://virtualreligion.net/iho/ptolemy_12.html Ptolemy&nbsp;XII Auletes (ca. 112 - 51 BCE)] entry in historical sourcebook by Mahlon H. Smith

{{s-start}}
{{s-hou|[[Ptolemaic dynasty]]||c. 117 BC||51 BC}}
{{s-reg}}
{{s-bef|before=[[Ptolemy XI]]}}
{{s-ttl|title=[[List of Pharaohs#Ptolemaic Dynasty|Pharaoh of Egypt]]|years=80–58 BC
|regent1='''[[Cleopatra&nbsp;V]]'''}}
{{s-aft|after=[[Cleopatra&nbsp;VI]]|after2=[[Berenice IV]]}}
{{s-bef|before=Berenice IV}}
{{s-ttl|title=[[List of Pharaohs#Ptolemaic Dynasty|Pharaoh of Egypt]]|years=55–51 BC
|regent1='''[[Cleopatra VII]]'''}}
{{s-aft|after=[[Ptolemy XIII]]|after2=Cleopatra VII}}
{{s-end}}

{{Hellenistic rulers}}
{{Pharaohs}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:2nd-century BC births]]
[[Category:51 BC deaths]]
[[Category:2nd-century BC Egyptian people]]
[[Category:1st-century BC pharaohs]]
[[Category:Cleopatra]]
[[Category:Ancient Greek flautists]]
[[Category:Hellenistic Cyprus]]
[[Category:Pharaohs of the Ptolemaic dynasty]]
[[Category:1st-century BC musicians]]
[[Category:Filicides]]