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{{short description|Sufi devotional music from South Asia}}
{{more citations needed|date=September 2018}}
{{EngvarB|date=September 2023}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=December 2023}}
{{Sufism}}[[File:Qawalli at Ajmer Sharif dargah.jpg|thumb|Qawwali at [[Ajmer Sharif Dargah]]]]
'''Qawwali''' is a form of [[Sufi]] [[Islamic]] [[devotional song|devotional singing]] originating in [[South Asia]]. Originally performed at [[Sufi shrine]]s throughout the Indian subcontinent,<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Neubauer |first1=Eckhard |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/gmo/9781561592630.article.52787 |title=Islamic religious music |last2=Doubleday |first2=Veronica |date=2001 |publisher=Oxford University Press |series=Oxford Music Online |doi=10.1093/gmo/9781561592630.article.52787}}</ref> it is famous throughout [[Pakistan]], [[India]], [[Bangladesh]] and [[Afghanistan]] and has also gained mainstream popularity and an international audience as of the late 20th century.

While hereditary performers continue to perform Qawwali music in traditional and devotional contexts,<ref>{{Cite book |last=Qureshi |first=Regula |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/gmo/9781561592630.article.20726 |title=Pakistan, Islamic Republic of |date=2001 |publisher=Oxford University Press |series=Oxford Music Online |doi=10.1093/gmo/9781561592630.article.20726}}</ref> Qawwali has received international exposure through the work of [[Nusrat Fateh Ali Khan]], [[Aziz Mian]] and [[Sabri Brothers]] largely due to several releases on the [[Real World Records|Real World]] label, followed by live appearances at [[WOMAD]] festivals. Other famous Qawwali singers include [[Fareed Ayaz & Abu Muhammad Duo]], [[Abdullah Manzoor Niazi]], [[Rahat Fateh Ali Khan]], [[Badar Ali Khan|Badar Miandad]], [[Rizwan-Muazzam Duo]], [[Qutbi Brothers]], the late [[Amjad Sabri]], [[Qawwal Bahauddin Qutbuddin]], [[Najm Saif and Brothers]], [[Aziz Naza]], among others. Out of these [[Fareed Ayaz & Abu Muhammad Duo]], [[Abdullah Manzoor Niazi]] and [[Qawwal Bahauddin Qutbuddin]] and [[Najm Saif and Brothers]], belong to the famed '[[Qawwal Bacchon gharana|Qawwal Bachon ka Gharana]]' school of Qawwali, which was based in Delhi before 1947 and migrated to Pakistan after the [[Partition of British India]].

==Terminology==
Qawl (Arabic: قَوْل) means 'utterance (of the [[Muhammad]])'. A Qawwāl is someone who often repeats or sings a Qawl. Qawwali is the music that a Qawwāl sings.

==Origins==<!-- This section is linked from [[Sufism]] -->

The [[Delhi Sultanate]]'s [[Sufi]] saint [[Amir Khusrow]] of the [[Chisti]] [[Tariqah|order]] of [[Sufism|Sufis]] is credited with fusing the [[Persian traditional music|Persian]], [[Arabic music|Arabic]], Turkic, and [[Music of India|Indian]] traditions in the late 13th century in India to create Qawwali as we know it today.<ref name="'Aaj rang hai'- Qawwali revisited">{{cite web |url=http://twocircles.net/2013mar07/%E2%80%98aaj_rang_hai%E2%80%99_qawwali_revisited.html |title='Aaj rang hai' - Qawwali revisited |publisher=TwoCircle.net |access-date=8 March 2013 |archive-date=18 August 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180818214847/http://twocircles.net/2013mar07/%E2%80%98aaj_rang_hai%E2%80%99_qawwali_revisited.html |url-status=live}}. Retrieved 16 September 2015</ref> The word ''[[Sama (Sufism)|sama]]'' is often still used in Central Asia and Turkey to refer to forms very similar to Qawwali, and in India, Pakistan, Afghanistan and Bangladesh, the formal name used for a session of Qawwali is ''Mehfil-e-Sama''.

Originally, musical instrument use in Qawwali was prohibited. The following conditions were initially placed on Qawwali:<ref name="qadiri">{{cite web |title=Is it permissible to listen to Qawwali? |last1=Hussain |first1=Zahid |website=TheSunniWay |url=https://www.thesunniway.com/articles/item/71-is-it-permissible-to-listen-to-qawwali |date=22 April 2012 |access-date=12 June 2020 |archive-date=12 June 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200612010702/https://www.thesunniway.com/articles/item/71-is-it-permissible-to-listen-to-qawwali |url-status=live}}</ref>
{{blockquote|Sima' (to listen to Qawwali) is permissible if a few conditions are met. The singer must be an adult and not a child or a female. The listener must only listen to everything in the remembrance of Allah. The words that are sung must be free from obscenity and indecency and they must not be void. Musical instruments must not be present in the gathering. If all these conditions are met, Sima' is permissible.<br /><br />Someone complained to the Sultan of the Mashaa'ikh that some of the dervishes danced in a gathering where there were musical instruments. He said, they did not do good as something impermissible cannot be condoned.
|Siyar al-Awliya<ref name="qadiri"/><ref>{{cite book |title=Siyar-ul-Auliya: History of Chishti Silsila |author=Muhammad bin Mubarak Kirmani |translator=Ghulam Ahmed Biryan |language=ur |publisher=Mushtaq Book Corner |location=Lahore}}</ref>}}

Sufi Saints such as [[Nizamuddin Auliya]], the teacher of the famous Sufi singer [[Amir Khusrow]], were quite blunt about the prohibition:
{{blockquote|Musical instruments are Haram.|Fawa'id al-Fu'aad<ref name="qadiri"/><ref>{{cite book |title=Fawa'id al-Fu'aad: Spiritual and Literal Discourses |author=Nizamuddin Auliya |translator=Z. H. Faruqi |date=31 December 1996 |isbn=9788124600429 |publisher=D.K. Print World Ltd |language=en}}</ref>}}

Eventually, however, musical instrument use found its way into Qawwali. Instruments such as the [[Pump organ|harmonium]], [[tabla]] and [[dholak]] are now common in many Qawwali parties.

== Historical practice and training ==
Traditional Qawwali practice is built upon a system of hereditary training, in which qawwals are part of the service community connected to a particular shrine. Their primary function to the shrine is to service formal activities, primarily the death anniversaries of Sufi saints (''[[Urs]]'').<ref>{{Cite book |last=Qureshi |first=Regula Burckhardt |title=Sufi Music of India and Pakistan: Sound, Context and Meaning in Qawwali |publisher=University of Chicago Press |year=1995 |location=Chicago |pages=79–102}}</ref>

Since the intention of qawwali is to act as a bridge toward the experience of Sufi mystical love and builds upon religious chants and chanted poetry, the practice is viewed as permissible in what Islamic scholar [[Lois Lamya al-Faruqi]] refers to as non-musiqa.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=al Faruqi |first=Lois Ibsen |date=Autumn–Winter 1985 |title=Music, Musicians and Muslim Law |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/833739 |journal=Asian Music |volume=17 |issue=1 |pages=3–36 |doi=10.2307/833739 |jstor=833739 |issn=0044-9202|url-access=subscription }}</ref>{{Sfn|Qureshi|1995|p=79-83}} Qawwals themselves are central figures within Qawwali ritual but are not regarded as the focus and are still regarded as part of the servant class.{{Sfn|Qureshi|1995|p=92-93}}

Qawwals are trained in two primary ways: (1) as part of a ''bradri'' or brotherhood of performers in which they learn the fundamentals of the music, and (2) within Sufic teaching circles typically reserved for the higher classes in which they learn about Sufism. The understanding of the spiritual aspects but also the form's reliance on poetry requires a level of literacy in order to fulfill the role.{{Sfn|Qureshi|1995|p=96-98}}

==Qawwali repertory==
{{Music of Pakistan|state=collapsed}}
{{Music of Bangladesh|state=collapsed}}
{{Indianmusic|state=collapsed}}Ethnomusicologist Regula Qureshi distinguishes between "old" tunes (purānī dhuneṅ, purānī bandisheṅ) and "tunes of nowadays" (ājkal kī dhuneṅ). The "old" tune repertory includes movable tunes that can be adapted to multiple poems as well as "special" (makhsūs, khās) settings of poems, which are identified by their text. Qureshi also includes "typical Qawwal tunes" (Qawwālī kī thet dhunen) in this category, referring to tunes that can be used for a variety of poems based on the music's structural features.{{Sfn|Qureshi|1995|p=19-20}}{{Islamic Culture|state=collapsed}}
The songs which constitute the qawwali repertoire are primarily in [[Farsi|Persian]], [[Urdu]], and [[Hindi]],<ref>{{cite book |title=Monograph Series, Issues 20-23 |year=1979 |publisher=Center for South and Southeast Asia Studies, University of California |page=124 |quote=Qawwali texts exist in Persian, Urdu and Hindi.}}</ref>{{Sfn|Qureshi|1995|p=84}} although [[Sufi literature|Sufi poetry]] appears in local languages as well (including [[Punjabi language|Punjabi]], [[Saraiki language|Saraiki]], and dialects of northern India like [[Braj Bhasha]] and [[Awadhi language|Awadhi]].)<ref name="The Day After-Qawwali">{{cite web |url=http://www.dayafterindia.com/dec206/silver_screen1.html |title=Bollywood Reinvents the Qawwali – With a Vengeance |publisher=The Day After: An International Illustrated Newsmagazine of India |access-date=23 February 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090126070158/http://www.dayafterindia.com/dec206/silver_screen1.html |archive-date=26 January 2009 |url-status=dead}}</ref><ref name="Daily Times-Delhi's Qawwal Bachchon ka Gharana lights up Ramadan night at T2F">{{cite news |url=http://www.dailytimes.com.pk/default.asp?page=2007%5C09%5C22%5Cstory_22-9-2007_pg12_10 |title=Delhi's Qawwal Bachchon ka Gharana lights up Ramadan night at T2F |work=Daily Times |access-date=23 February 2007 |archive-date=16 April 2013 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20130416122846/http://www.dailytimes.com.pk/default.asp?page=2007%5C09%5C22%5Cstory_22-9-2007_pg12_10 |url-status=live}}</ref> The sound of regional language qawwali can be totally different from that of mainstream qawwali, as in the case of Chhote Babu Qawwal, whose style of singing is much closer to the Bengali [[Baul]] music than to the qawwali of [[Nusrat Fateh Ali Khan]], for example.

The central themes of qawwali are love, devotion, and longing for the Divine. The Sufi poets whose texts have made up the qawwali repertory often used worldly images to convey mystic spiritual love. As such, it is not uncommon to see mentions of worldly or forbidden concepts such as romantic longing, wine, and drunkenness, which are used as metaphors for the [[Mysticism|mystic state]].<ref>{{Cite encyclopedia |title=Devotional Music |encyclopedia=The Garland Encyclopedia of World Music Online |last=Sakata |first=Hiromi Lorraine |year=1999 |editor-last=Arnold |editor-first=Alison |volume=5, South Asia: The Indian Subcontinent}}</ref> Qawwals bear the responsibility of maintaining a spiritually appropriate context for such songs, so as not to distract from the religious focus of the Qawwali occasion.{{Sfn|Qureshi|1995|p=117-118}}

Qawwali songs are classified by their content into several categories:
* A Qaul, Arabic for 'saying,' is a basic ritual song of Sufism in India, often used as an opening or closing hymn for a Qawwali occasion.{{Sfn|Qureshi|1995|p=21}} The texts contain sayings of the Prophet Muhammad (hence the form's name), and they form an obligatory part of the Qawwali occasion. The Qaul may be followed by one or more obligatory hymns that refer to the founding saint of a given Sufi lineage.{{Sfn|Qureshi|1995|p=116}}
* A [[hamd]] (حمد), Arabic for 'praise,' is a song (or poem) in praise of [[Allah]]. A hamd traditionally begins the thematic sequence of songs in a Qawwali occasion (after the obligatory hymns).{{Sfn|Qureshi|1995|p=117}}
* A [[na`at]] (نعت), Arabic for 'description,' is a song (or poem) in praise of [[Muhammad]]. The hamd is traditionally followed by a na[[na`at|`]]<nowiki/>at.
* A [[manqabat]] (plural manaqib, مناقب, which means 'characteristics') is a song in praise of either [[Imam Ali]] or one of the Sufi saints. Manaqib in praise of Ali are sung at both [[Sunni]] and [[Shi'a]] gatherings. If one is sung, it will follow right after the n<nowiki/>a[[na`at|`]]<nowiki/>at. There is usually at least one manqabat in a traditional program.
* A [[marsiya]] (مرثية), Arabic for 'lamentation for a dead person', is a lamentation over the death of much of [[Husayn ibn Ali|Imam Husayn]]'s family in the [[Battle of Karbala]].{{Sfn|Qureshi|1995|p=238}} This would typically be sung only at a [[Shi'a]] gathering.

[[File:Asif musicians 1812.jpg|250px|thumb|The ''[[Divan|diwan]]'' of the ''[[nawab wazir of Oudh|Nawab Wazir]]'' of [[Awadh|Oudh]], [[Asaf-ud-Daula|Asaf-ud-dowlah]], who sits smoking a [[hookah]] listening to musicians in [[Lucknow]], ca. 1812.]]
* A [[ghazal]] (غزل), Arabic for 'love song' and based on the poetic genre of the same name, is a song made up of thematically independent couplets in [[Persian language|Farsi]] or [[Urdu]]. The ghazal is found in the majority of qawwali songs, and has been considered an ideal form for the mystical experience because its emphasis on repetition allows a qawwal to reiterate a central theme or phrase, which can be used as a way to engage in dhikr.{{Sfn|Qureshi|1995|p=86}} To create a sense of thematic unity, ghazals often draw from conventional metaphors, imagery, and topics throughout the form, such as themes of unrequited love,<ref>{{Cite web |title=India, subcontinent of |url=https://www.oxfordmusiconline.com/grovemusic/display/10.1093/gmo/9781561592630.001.0001/omo-9781561592630-e-0000043272 |website=Grove Music Online |year=2001 |language=en |doi=10.1093/gmo/9781561592630.article.43272 |last1=Qureshi |first1=Regula |last2=Powers |first2=Harold S. |last3=Katz |first3=Jonathan |last4=Widdess |first4=Richard |last5=Geekie |first5=Gordon |last6=Dick |first6=Alastair |last7=Sen |first7=Devdan |last8=Jairazbhoy |first8=Nazir A. |last9=Manuel |first9=Peter |last10=Simon |first10=Robert |last11=Palackal |first11=Joseph J. |last12=Brar |first12=Soniya K. |last13=Kelting |first13=M. Whitney |last14=Henry |first14=Edward O. |last15=Lord |first15=Maria |last16=Arnold |first16=Alison |last17=Pinckney |first17=Warren |last18=Vatsyayan |first18=Kapila |last19=Wade |first19=Bonnie C. |last20=Kaur |first20=Inderjit N. |isbn=9781561592630}}</ref> separation from (or reunion with) the beloved, the beauty of nature, and consuming wine.<ref>{{Cite encyclopedia |title=Ghazal |encyclopedia=The SAGE International Encyclopedia of Music and Culture |last=Meddegoda |first=Chinthaka Prageeth |editor-last=Sturman |editor-first=Janet |publication-date=2019 |volume=3 |pages=1016–1018}}</ref> In the context of {{transliteration|ar|qawwali}}, these songs of yearning and intoxication use secular metaphors to poignantly express mystical concepts like the soul's longing for union with the Divine and its joy in loving the Divine. Intoxication is understood as a metaphor for attaining spiritual knowledge, or being filled with the joy of loving the Divine. In the songs of yearning, the scorned lover becomes a metaphor for the soul that has been abandoned in this world by God and longs for reunion. While ghazals take on a specifically devotional context in qawwali performance, the form exists beyond devotional music, constituting a distinct secular musical genre in Pakistan and India where the poetry's worldly themes may be taken at face value.<ref name="cassette">{{cite book |last=Manuel |first=Peter Lamarche |url=https://archive.org/details/cassetteculturep0000manu |title=Cassette culture: popular music and technology in north India |publisher=University of Chicago |year=1993 |isbn=978-0-226-50401-8 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/cassetteculturep0000manu/page/124 124] |access-date=3 April 2010 |url-access=limited}}</ref>
* A [[kafi]] is a poem in [[Punjabi language|Punjabi]], [[Saraiki language|Seraiki]] or [[Sindhi language|Sindhi]], which is in the unique style of poets such as [[Sultan Bahoo]], [[Shah Hussain]], [[Bulleh Shah]] and [[Sachal Sarmast]]. Two of the more well-known Kafis include ''Ni Main Jana Jogi De Naal'' and ''Mera Piya Ghar Aaya''.
* A '''munajaat''' (مناجاة), Arabic for a conversation in the night or a form of prayer, is a song where the singer displays his thanks to Allah through a variety of linguistic techniques. It is often sung in Persian, with Mawlana Jalāl-ad-Dīn Rumi credited as its author.

==Composition of a Qawwali party==
A group of qawwali musicians, called a ''party'' (or '''Humnawa''' in [[Urdu]]), typically consists of eight or nine men including a lead singer, one or two side singers, one or two [[Pump organ|harmonium]]s (which may be played by the lead singer, side singer or someone else), and percussion. If there is only one percussionist, he plays the [[tabla]] and [[dholak]], usually the tabla with the dominant hand and the dholak with the other one (i.e. a left-handed percussionist would play the tabla with his left hand). Often there will be two percussionists, in which case one might play the tabla and the other the dholak. There is also a chorus of four or five men who repeat key verses, and who aid percussion by hand-clapping.

The performers sit cross-legged on the ground in two rows — the lead singer, side singers and harmonium players in the front row, and the chorus and percussionists in the back row.

Before the fairly recent introduction of the harmonium, qawwalis were usually accompanied by the [[sarangi]]. The sarangi had to be retuned between songs; the harmonium didn't, and was soon preferred.

Women used to be excluded from traditional Muslim music, since they are traditionally prohibited from singing in the presence of men.  These traditions have changed, however, as is evident by the popularity (and acceptance) of female singers such as [[Abida Parveen]].  However, qawwali has remained a predominantly male business and there are still not many mainstream female qawwals.

==Musical structure of Qawwali==
The longest recorded commercially released qawwali runs slightly over 115 minutes (Hashr Ke Roz Yeh Poochhunga by [[Aziz Mian|Aziz Mian Qawwal]]). The qawwali maestro [[Nusrat Fateh Ali Khan]] has at least two songs that are more than 60 minutes long.

Qawwalis tend to begin gently and build steadily to a very high energy level in order to induce hypnotic states both among the musicians and within the audience. Almost all Qawwalis are based on a [[Raga]] from the [[Hindustani classical music]] tradition. Songs are usually arranged as follows:

# They start with an instrumental prelude where the main melody is played on the harmonium, accompanied by the tabla, and which may include improvised variations of the melody.
# Then comes the [[alap]], a long tonal improvised melody during which the singers intone different long notes, in the raga of the song to be played.
# The lead singer begins to sing some preamble verses which are typically not part of the main song, although thematically related to it. These are sung unrhythmically, improvised following the raga, and accompanied only by the harmonium. After the lead singer sings a verse, one of the side singers will repeat the verse, perhaps with his own improvisation. A few or many verses will be sung in this way, leading into the main song.
# As the main song begins, the tabla, dholak and clapping begin. All members join in the singing of the verses that constitute the refrain. The lyrics of the main verses are never improvised; in fact, these are often traditional songs sung by many groups, especially within the same lineage. However, the tunes are subtly improvised within the framework of the main melody. As the song proceeds, the lead singer or one of the side singers may break out into an alap. [[Nusrat Fateh Ali Khan]] also popularised the interjection of [[swara|sargam]] singing at this point. The song usually builds in tempo and passion, with each singer trying to outdo the other in terms of vocal acrobatics. Some singers may do long periods of sargam improvisation, especially alternating improvisations with a student singer. The songs usually end suddenly.

The singing style of qawwali is different from Western singing styles in many ways. For example, in words beginning with an "m", Western singers are apt to stress the vowel following the "m" rather than the "m" itself, whereas in qawwali, the "m" will usually be held, producing a muted tone.{{Citation needed|date=February 2024}} Also in qawwali, there is no distinction between what is known as the [[chest voice]] and the [[head voice]] (the different areas that sound will resonate in depending on the frequency sung). Rather, qawwals sing very loudly and forcefully, which allows them to extend their chest voice to much higher frequencies than those used in Western singing, even though this usually causes a more noisy or strained sound than what would be acceptable in the West.

== Notable Qawwals of the past 70 years ==
* [[Aziz Mian]]
* [[Badar Ali Khan]], (also known as Badar Miandad)
* [[Qawwal Bahauddin|Bahauddin Qutbuddin]]
* [[Fateh Ali Khan (Qawwali Singer)|Fateh Ali Khan]]
* [[Prabha Bharti]]
* [[Habib Painter]]
* [[Iqbal Hussain Khan Bandanawazi]]
* [[Munshi Raziuddin]]
* [[Nusrat Fateh Ali Khan]]
* [[Sabri Brothers]]
* [[Wadali Brothers]]
* [[Warsi Brothers]]
* [[Qutbi Brothers]]

==Current and recent Qawwals==
* [[Ateeq Hussain Khan]]
* [[Abdullah Manzoor Niazi]]
* [[Faiz Ali Faiz]]
* [[Fareed Ayaz]]
* [[Dhruv Sangari]]
* [[Rahat Fateh Ali Khan]]
* [[Sukhawat Ali Khan]]
* [[Rizwan-Muazzam|Rizwan Muazzam]]
* [[Waheed and Naveed Chishti]]
* [[Warsi Brothers]]
* [[Qutbi Brothers]]
* [[Tahir Faridi Qawwal]]
* [[Aminah Chishti Qawwal]]<ref>{{Cite news |date=4 December 2013 |title=First woman tabla player breaks social barriers |url=http://tribune.com.pk/story/641214/spirit-of-sufism-first-woman-tabla-player-breaks-social-barriers |access-date=23 March 2021 |work=The Express Tribune |language=en |archive-date=24 July 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210724130826/https://tribune.com.pk/story/641214/spirit-of-sufism-first-woman-tabla-player-breaks-social-barriers |url-status=live}}</ref>
* [[Amjad Sabri]]
* [[Abida Parveen]]
* [[Sanam Marvi]]
* [[Nooran Sisters]]
* [[Abi Sampa]]
* [[Saami Brothers]]<ref>https://www.kaufmanmusiccenter.org/mch/event/saami-brothers-khayal/</ref>

==See also==
* [[Filmi qawwali]]
* [[Islamic music]]
* [[Music of Bangladesh]]
* [[Music of India]]
* [[Music of Pakistan]]
* [[Religious ecstasy]]
* [[Sama (Sufism)]]
* [[Sufi music]]
* [[Urban Qawwali]]

==References==

{{reflist}}

==External links==
* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xUaENOQQpIw A Qawwali being performed by Ustad Nusrat Fateh Ali Khan in the 1990s]
* [https://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/p005xm48 BBC Radio 3 Audio (45 minutes): The Nizamuddin shrine in Delhi.] Accessed 25 November 2010.
* [https://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/p005xm4c BBC Radio 3 Audio (45 minutes): A mahfil Sufi gathering in Karachi.] Accessed 25 November 2010.
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20050328085959/http://www.osa.co.uk/qawwali_history.html ''Origin and History of the Qawwali''], [[Adam Nayyar]], Lok Virsa Research Centre, [[Islamabad]]. 1988.

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