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{{Short description|First imperial dynasty in China (221–206 BC)}}
{{About-distinguish-text|the first imperial Chinese dynasty|the [[Qing dynasty]], the final such dynasty}}
{{Redirect|Qin Empire}}
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{{Use dmy dates|date=October 2021}}
{{Use British English|date=February 2025}}
{{Infobox country
| native_name            = {{langn|zh|秦}}
| conventional_long_name = Qin
| life_span = 221–206 BC
| era                    = [[Imperial era of Chinese history|Imperial]]
| status                 = Empire
| government_type        = [[Absolute monarchy]]
| p1                     = Zhou dynasty
| p2                     = Qin (state)
| s1                     = Eighteen Kingdoms
| s2                     = Han dynasty
| s3                     = Nanyue
| event_pre              = Founding of the {{nowrap|state of Qin}}
| date_pre               = 770 BC
| event_start            = {{nowrap|Accession of Qin Shi Huang}}
| year_start             = 221 BC
| event1                 = {{nowrap|Death of Qin Shi Huang}}
| date_event1            = 210 BC
| event2                 = {{nwr|Surrender to [[Liu Bang]]}}
| date_event2            = 207 BC
| event_end              = Destruction of Xianyang
| year_end               = 206 BC
| image_coat             = Inscription on Imperial Seal of China "受命於天 既壽永昌".svg
| symbol_type            = [[Heirloom Seal of the Realm]]
| image_map             = File:Qin dynasty territory.svg
| image_map_caption     = Territory of the Qin dynasty,{{efn-num|Per Brian Lander:
"While most maps of the Qin Empire depict the south as solidly Qin territory, in fact Qin only had administrative control over a few areas south of the Yangzi River, most notably the lowlands of the central Yangzi valley that it had conquered from Chu. Across the vast regions south of the Yangzi—most of which were hilly and densely forested—Qin controlled nothing more than a scattered network of garrisons connected by river and land routes. In retrospect, Qin's penetration of the far south was a key event in the Chinese colonization of what is now South China, but it was a minor concern of the Qin rulers."{{sfn|Lander|2021|p=158}}}} with population centres and segments of the [[Great Wall]] marked
| capital                = [[Xianyang]]
| common_languages       = [[Old Chinese]]
| currency               = ''[[Banliang]]''
| leader1                = [[Qin Shi Huang]]
| leader2                = [[Qin Er Shi]]
| year_leader1           = 221–210 BC
| year_leader2           = 210–207 BC
| title_leader           = [[List of rulers of China#Qin dynasty|Emperor]]
| deputy1                = [[Li Si]]
| year_deputy1           = 221–208 BC
| title_deputy           = [[Grand chancellor (China)|Chancellor]]
| deputy2                = [[Zhao Gao]]
| year_deputy2           = 208–207 BC
| stat_year1             = 220 BC
| stat_area1             = 2300000
| ref_area1              = {{sfn|Taagepera|1979|p=121}}
| module = {{Infobox Chinese |showflag=p |child=yes
| c = 秦
| w = {{tonesup|Chʻin2}}
| p = Qín
| bpmf = ㄑㄧㄣˊ
| mi = {{IPAc-cmn|q|in|2}}
| tp = Cín
| myr = Chín
| wuu = Zin
| y = Chèuhn
| ci = {{IPAc-yue|c|eon|4}}
| j = Ceon4
| poj = Chîn
| tl = Tsîn
| oc-bs = &ast;{{IPA|[dz]i[n]}}
}}
}}
{{History of China|BC=1}}

The '''Qin dynasty''' ({{IPAc-en|tʃ|ɪ|n}} {{respell|CHIN}}<ref>{{Cite Collins Dictionary|Qin}}</ref>) was the first [[Dynasties of China|imperial dynasty of China]]. It is named for its progenitor [[state of Qin]], a fief of the confederal [[Zhou dynasty]] ({{circa|1046}}–256&nbsp;BC). Beginning in 230&nbsp;BC, the Qin under King Ying Zheng engaged in a [[Qin's wars of unification|series of wars conquering each of the rival states]] that had previously pledged fealty to the Zhou. This culminated in 221&nbsp;BC with the successful unification of China under Qin, which then assumed an imperial prerogative{{snd}}with Ying Zheng declaring himself to be [[Qin Shi Huang]], the first [[emperor of China]], and bringing an end to the [[Warring States period]] ({{circa|475|lk=no}}–221&nbsp;BC). This state of affairs lasted until 206&nbsp;BC, when the dynasty collapsed in the years following Qin Shi Huang's death.{{sfn|Li|2013|p=6}} The Qin dynasty's 14-year existence was the shortest of any major dynasty in Chinese history, with only two emperors. However, the succeeding [[Han dynasty]] (202&nbsp;BC{{snd}}220&nbsp;AD) largely continued the military and administrative practices instituted by the Qin; as a result, the Qin have been credited as the originators of the Chinese imperial system that would endure in some form until the [[Xinhai Revolution]] in 1911.

Qin was a minor power for the first several centuries of its existence; its strength greatly increased in the 4th century&nbsp;BC, in large part owing to the administrative and military reforms of [[Shang Yang]]. They sought to create a strong, centralised state and a large army supported by a stable economy, which were developed in the Qin homeland and implemented across China following its unification. Reforms included the standardisation of currency, weights, measures, and the writing system, along with innovations in weaponry, transportation and military tactics. 

The central government sought to undercut aristocrats and landowners and administer the peasantry directly, who comprised the vast majority of the population. This enabled numerous large-scale construction projects involving the labour of hundreds of thousands of peasants and convicts{{snd}}which included the connection of walls along the northern border into what would eventually become the [[Great Wall of China]], a large national road system, and the city-sized [[Mausoleum of Qin Shi Huang]] guarded by the life-sized [[Terracotta Army]]. The state possessed an unprecedented capacity to transform the environment through the management of people and land; as a result, Qin's rise has been characterised as one of the most important events in East Asian environmental history.

When Qin Shi Huang died in 210&nbsp;BC, two of his advisors placed an heir on the throne in an attempt to exert control over the dynasty and wield state power. These advisors squabbled among themselves, resulting in both of their deaths and that of the second Qin emperor. Popular revolt broke out, and the weakened empire soon fell to [[Chu (state)|Chu]] generals [[Xiang Yu]] and [[Liu Bang]], the latter of whom founded the Han dynasty.

== History ==

=== Origin and development, 9th century – 230 BC ===
{{Main|Qin (state)}}
{{See also|Timeline of the Warring States and the Qin dynasty}}
According to the ''[[Shiji]]'' ({{circa|91&nbsp;BC}}), during the 9th century&nbsp;BC, [[Feizi]]{{snd}}said to be a descendant of the legendary political advisor [[Gao Yao (minister)|Gao Yao]]{{snd}}was granted rule over the settlement of Qin ({{lang|zh|秦邑}}; modern [[Qingshui County]], Gansu). During the rule of [[King Xiao of Zhou]], this area became known as the state of Qin. In 897&nbsp;BC, during the [[Gonghe Regency]], the area was allocated as a dependency dedicated to raising horses.{{sfn|Lewis|2007|p=17}} In the late 8th century&nbsp;BC, one of Feizi's descendants, [[Duke Zhuang of Qin]], was summoned by the Zhou to take part in a military campaign against the [[Western Rong]]; the effort was successful and Zhuang was rewarded with additional territory. In 770&nbsp;BC, Zhuang's son [[Duke Xiang of Qin|Duke Xiang]] helped escort the Zhou court under [[King Ping of Zhou|King Ping]] in their emergency evacuation from [[Fenghao]] to [[Chengzhou]] under threat from the Western Rong{{snd}}marking the divide between the [[Western Zhou|Western]] and [[Eastern Zhou]] periodisations. As a reward, Duke Xiang was sent as the leader of an expedition against the Western Rong to recapture the territory they had taken, during which he formally established the Qin as a major vassal state, incorporating Fenghao and much of the territory previously under direct Zhou control and thus expanding Qin eastward.{{sfn|Li|2006|pp=262–264, 273–276}}{{sfn|Shen|2018|p=117}}

The state of Qin began military expeditions into central China in 672&nbsp;BC. They initially refrained from making serious incursions due to the threat still posed by neighbouring tribes; by the 4th century&nbsp;BC, they had all either been subdued or conquered, setting the stage for Qin expansionism.{{sfn|Lewis|2007|pp=17–18}}

==== Warring States period, c. 475–230 BC ====
[[File:Warring States c. 250 BC.svg|thumb|upright=1.35|Territories of the [[Seven Warring States]] {{circa|250&nbsp;BC|lk=no}}, with the former capital of the Zhou royal family at [[Luoyang]] marked
{{div col|colwidth=4.2em|gap=0.5em|content={{ubl|item_style=width:4em
| {{Colorsample|#F5AB3A}} [[Qin (state)|Qin]]
| {{Colorsample|#E85BBF}} [[Zhao (state)|Zhao]]
| {{Colorsample|#83608E}} [[Yan (state)|Yan]]
| {{Colorsample|#C35356}} [[Wei (state)|Wei]]
| {{Colorsample|#44C27D}} [[Qi (state)|Qi]]
| {{Colorsample|#DFE0DF}} [[Han (Warring States)|Han]]
| {{Colorsample|#00ADBC}} [[Chu (state)|Chu]]
}}}}

]]
During the [[Warring States period]] ({{circa|475|lk=no}}–221&nbsp;BC), the Qin statesman [[Shang Yang]] introduced a series of advantageous military reforms between 361&nbsp;BC and his death in 338. He also helped to construct the Qin capital at [[Xianyang]] (near modern [[Xi'an]], Shaanxi) on the [[Wei River]] near the former Zhou capital of Fenghao{{snd}}a city which ultimately resembled the capitals of the other states.{{sfn|Lewis|2007|p=88}} The Qin maintained a military that was superior in both doctrine and practice to that of the other Warring States. Its army was large, efficient, and staffed with capable generals. Unlike many of their enemies, the Qin utilised contemporary advancements in weapons technology and transportation, the latter of which enabled greater mobility across the different types of terrain throughout China.{{sfn|Morton|1995|p=45}}

The geography of Qin's core territories{{snd}}located at the heart of a region known as the [[Guanzhong]]{{snd}}provided additional advantages, including fertile farmland, and a strategic position protected by mountains that made it a natural stronghold. The Guanzhong was in contrast with the flat, open [[Yangtze]] valley (also known as the "Guandong") to its south-east{{snd}}during this period, Xianyang was the only capital city in China that did not require walls to be built around it.{{sfn|Lander|2021|p=115}} The legacy of Qin society within the Guanzhong inspired a Han-era adage that "Guanzhong produces generals, while Guandong produces ministers."{{sfn|Lewis|2007|p=17}} The Qin's agricultural output, expanded via projects like the Wei River canal built in 246&nbsp;BC, helped sustain their large army.{{sfn|Kinney|Hardy|2005|p=10}}{{sfn|Lewis|2007|pp=18–19}}

Qin engaged in practical and ruthless warfare. From the preceding [[Spring and Autumn period]] ({{circa|770|481&nbsp;BC|lk=no}}), the prevailing philosophy had dictated war as a gentleman's activity; military commanders were instructed to respect what they perceived to be Heaven's laws in battle. For example, during a war [[Duke Xiang of Song]] was waging against Chu, he declined an opportunity to attack Chu forces that were crossing a river. After allowing them to cross and marshal their forces, he was decisively defeated in the ensuing battle. When he was admonished by his advisors for excessive courtesy to the enemy, he retorted, "The sage does not crush the feeble, nor give the order for attack until the enemy have formed their ranks."{{sfn|Morton|1995|pp=26, 45}} The Qin disregarded this military tradition, taking advantage of their enemy's weaknesses. A nobleman in the [[state of Wei]] accused Qin of being "avaricious, perverse, eager for profit, and without sincerity. It knows nothing about etiquette, proper relationships, and virtuous conduct, and if there be an opportunity for material gain, it will disregard its relatives as if they were animals."{{sfn|Bodde|1967|p=3}} This, combined with strong leadership from long-lived rulers, an openness to employ talented men from other states, and a lack of internal opposition, contributed to the Qin's strong political base.{{sfn|Kinney|Hardy|2005|p=10}}

=== Unification and expansion, 230–210 BC ===
{{Further|Qin's wars of unification}}
During the Warring States period, the [[Seven Warring States|seven major states]] vying for dominance were Qin, [[Yan (state)|Yan]], [[Zhao (state)|Zhao]], [[Qi (state)|Qi]], [[Chu (state)|Chu]], [[Han (Warring States)|Han]], and [[Wei (state)|Wei]]. The rulers of these states styled themselves as kings, as opposed to the titles of lower nobility they had previously held. However, none elevated himself to believe that he had the [[Mandate of Heaven]] as claimed by the kings of Zhou, nor that he had the right to offer sacrifices.{{sfn|Morton|1995|p=25}}

During the century that preceded the wars of unification, the Qin suffered several setbacks. Shang Yang was executed in 338&nbsp;BC by [[King Huiwen of Qin|King Huiwen]] due to a personal grudge harboured from his youth. There was also internal strife over the Qin succession in 307&nbsp;BC, which decentralised Qin authority somewhat. The Qin was defeated by an alliance of the other states in 295&nbsp;BC; this was soon followed by another defeat inflicted by Zhao, made possible by a majority of the Qin army already being occupied with defending against attacks by Qi. However, the aggressive {{ill|Fan Sui|zh|范雎}} became prime minister in 266&nbsp;BC; after issues with the succession were resolved, Fan pursued an expansionist policy that had its origins in [[Jin (Chinese state)|Jin]] and Qi, in which they endeavoured to conquer the other states.{{sfn|Lewis|2007|pp=38–39}}

[[File:CMOC Treasures of Ancient China exhibit - stone slab with twelve small seal characters (cropped).jpg|thumb|upright=0.8|Stone slab bearing an inscription stating that it is an auspicious moment for Qin Shi Huang to ascend to the throne, that the country is united, and that no one will be dying on the roads.{{efn-num|The inscription reads: {{lang|lzh|{{nwr|海内皆臣、}}{{nwr|歲登成熟、}}{{nwr|道毋飢人}}}}.}}]]
The Qin first attacked the Han directly to their east, and took their capital city of Xinzheng in 230&nbsp;BC. They then struck the state of Zhao to their north, who surrendered in 228&nbsp;BC, followed by the northernmost state of Yan in 226. Next, Qin launched assaults to the east and south; they took the Wei capital of Daliang (modern [[Kaifeng]]) in 225, and forced Chu to surrender in 223. They then deposed the Zhou dynasty's remnants at [[Luoyang]]; finally, they conquered Qi, taking their capital at [[Ancient Linzi|Linzi]] in 221&nbsp;BC.{{sfn|Lewis|2007|p=10}}

With the completion of Qin's conquests in 221&nbsp;BC, [[King Zheng]]{{snd}}who had acceded to the throne of Qin at age nine{{sfn|Bo|2008|pp=134–135}}{{snd}}became the effective ruler of China.{{sfn|Loewe|2007}} The subjugation of the six states was done by King Zheng who had used efficient persuasion and exemplary strategy. He solidified his position as sole ruler with the abdication of his prime minister, [[Lü Buwei]]. The states made by the emperor were assigned to officials dedicated to the task rather than place the burden on people from the royal family.{{sfn|Loewe|2007}} He then combined the titles of the earlier [[Three Sovereigns and Five Emperors]] into the new name "Shi Huangdi", meaning 'First Emperor'. The newly declared emperor ordered all weapons not in the possession of the Qin to be confiscated and melted down. The resulting metal was sufficient to build twelve large ornamental statues at the Qin's newly declared capital at [[Xianyang]].{{sfn|Morton|1995|p=47}}

==== Southward expansion, 214–206 BC ====
{{Main|Qin campaign against the Baiyue}}
In 214&nbsp;BC, Qin Shi Huang secured his boundaries to the north with a fraction (roughly 100,000 men) of his large army, and sent the majority (500,000 men) of his army to [[Qin campaign against the Baiyue|conquer the territory]] to their south, which was inhabited by the [[Baiyue]] peoples. Prior to Qin's campaigns unifying the former Zhou territories, the Baiyue had gained possession of much of [[Sichuan]] to their southwest. The Qin army was unfamiliar with the jungle terrain, and it was defeated by the southern tribes' guerrilla warfare tactics with over 100,000 men lost. However, in the defeat Qin was successful in building a canal to the south, which they used heavily for supplying and reinforcing their troops during their second attack to the south. Building on these gains, the Qin armies conquered the coastal lands surrounding [[Guangzhou]], and took the provinces of [[Fuzhou]] and [[Guilin]]. They may have struck as far south as [[Hanoi]]. After these victories in the south, Qin Shi Huang moved over 100,000 prisoners and exiles to colonise the newly conquered area. In terms of extending the boundaries of his empire, Qin Shi Huang was extremely successful in the south.{{sfn|Morton|1995|p=47}}

==== Campaign against the Xiongnu, 215 BC ====
{{Main|Qin's campaign against the Xiongnu}}
The Qin collectively referred to the peoples living on their northern border as the [[Five Barbarians]]; while sporadically subject to imperial rule, they remained free from it for the majority of the Qin's existence.{{sfn|Lewis|2007|p=129}} Prohibited from engaging in trade with local Qin peasantry, the [[Xiongnu]] inhabiting the [[Ordos Desert]] to the Qin's north-west frequently raided them instead. In retaliation, [[Qin's campaign against the Xiongnu|a military campaign]] was led by the Qin general Meng Tian. The region was conquered in 215&nbsp;BC, and agriculture was established; however, the local peasants were discontented and later revolted.{{sfn|Lewis|2007|p=5}}

=== Collapse and aftermath, 210–202 BC ===
[[File:Assassination attempt on Qin Shi Huang.jpg|thumb|upright=1.2|Rubbing of a Han-era stone relief depicting the 227&nbsp;BC assassination attempt on the future Qin&nbsp;Shi&nbsp;Huang (right) by [[Jing&nbsp;Ke]] (left). Jing is held by a court physician (background), as a soldier&nbsp;(far&nbsp;right) rushes to save the emperor, who holds an imperial [[jade disc]]. Jing's&nbsp;dagger (centre) has become stuck in a pillar.]]
In total, three assassination attempts were made on Qin Shi Huang{{snd}}one in 227&nbsp;BC by [[Jing Ke]], and the other two around 218&nbsp;BC.{{sfn|Bodde|1986|p=45}} Owing in part to these incidents, the emperor became paranoid and obsessed with immortality. While on a trip to the eastern frontiers in 210&nbsp;BC, Qin Shi Huang died in an attempt to procure an elixir of immortality from [[Taoist]] magicians, who claimed the elixir was stuck on an island guarded by a sea monster. The chief [[eunuch]], [[Zhao Gao]], and the prime minister, [[Li Si]], hid the news of his death upon their return until they were able to alter his will. It is understood that his eldest son [[Fusu]] was intended to inherit the throne; however, Li and Zhao conspired to transmit a fabricated order for Fusu to commit suicide,{{sfn|Sanft|2018|p=155}} and instead elevated the former emperor's son Huhai to the throne, taking the name of [[Qin Er Shi]].{{sfn|Bo|2008|pp=134–135}} They believed that they would be able to manipulate Huhai to their own ends, effectively allowing them to exert control over the empire. As expected, Qin Er Shi proved inept: he executed many ministers and imperial princes, continued massive building projects{{snd}}one of the most extravagant was the lacquering of the city's walls{{snd}}enlarged the army, increased taxes, and arrested messengers who delivered bad news. As a result, men from all over China revolted, attacking officials, raising armies, and declaring themselves kings of seized territories.{{sfn|Kinney|Hardy|2005|pp=13–15}}

During this time, Li Si and Zhao Gao came into conflict with one another, which culminated in Zhao persuading Qi Er Shi to put Li on trial, where he was ultimately executed. The worsening military situation then caused the emperor to blame Zhao for the rebellion; this pivot frightened Zhao, who engineered another conspiracy to deceive Qin Er Shi into believing hostile forces had arrived at the capital. The emperor's quarters were invaded, and Qin Er Shi was forced to commit suicide for his incompetence after being cornered by Zhao's co-conspirator and son-in-law {{ill|Yan Le|zh|阎乐}}.{{sfn|Sanft|2018|pp=157–158}} [[Ziying]], a son of Fusu, ascended to the throne, and immediately executed Zhao Gao.{{sfn|Kinney|Hardy|2005|pp=13–15}} Unrest continued to spread among the people{{snd}}caused in large part by regional differences, which had persisted despite Qin's attempts to impose uniformity{{snd}}and many local officials had declared themselves kings. In this climate, Ziying attempted to cling to his throne by declaring himself as merely one king among all the others.{{sfn|Lewis|2007|pp=18–19}} He was undermined by his ineptitude, and popular revolt broke out in 209&nbsp;BC. When Chu rebels under the lieutenant [[Liu Bang]] attacked, a state in such turmoil could not hold for long. Ziying surrendered to Liu Bang upon the latter's arrival in Xianyang in 207&nbsp;BC; while initially spared by Liu, he was executed shortly thereafter by the Chu leader [[Xiang Yu]]. In 206&nbsp;BC, Xianyang was destroyed, marking what historians consider to be the end of the imperial Qin dynasty.{{sfn|Bodde|1986|p=84}}{{efn-num|Qin Shi Huang stated that the dynasty would last 10,000 generations; it lasted less than 15 years.{{sfn|Morton|1995|p=49}}}} With the former Qin territories temporarily divided into the [[Eighteen Kingdoms]],{{sfn|Leung|2018|p=163}} Liu Bang then betrayed Xiang Yu, beginning the [[Chu–Han Contention]] from which he ultimately emerged victorious atop a reunited realm{{snd}}on 28 February 202&nbsp;BC, he declared himself emperor of the newly founded [[Han dynasty]].{{sfn|Morton|1995|pp=49–50}}

== Culture and society ==
{{multiple image|perrow=2|total_width=400|caption_align=center
| align    = right
| direction = horizontal
| image1   = History of Xi'an.jpg
| caption1 = Layout of the palace's surroundings
| image2   = 阿房宫前殿遗址夯土台西侧 2023-10-01 10.jpg
| caption2 = Excavation of the western platform
| image3 = 阿房宫前殿遗址夯土台西侧 2023-10-01 11.jpg
| caption3 = A palace gate
| image4 = 
| caption4 = Objects found at the site
| footer = Remains of the [[Epang Palace]], destroyed in 206&nbsp;BC
}}
The Qin ruled over territories roughly corresponding to the extent at the time of [[Chinese culture]], as well as that of what would later be understood as the [[Han Chinese]] ethnic group.{{sfn|Lewis|2007|p=128}} On the empire's frontiers were diverse groups with cultures foreign to the Qin; even areas under the control of the Qin military remained culturally distinct.{{sfn|Lewis|2007|p=5}}

The Qin aristocracy were largely similar to the Zhou in culture and daily life, with regional variation generally considered a symbol of the lower classes{{snd}}and ultimately as contrary to the unification that the government strove to achieve.{{sfn|Lewis|2007|p=11}}

Commoners and rural villagers, who comprised more than 90% of the population,{{sfn|Lewis|2007|p=102}} rarely left the villages or farmsteads where they were born. While various other forms of employment existed depending on the region, as with other settled peoples in antiquity the overwhelming majority of people throughout Qin were engaged predominately in agriculture.{{sfn|von Falkenhausen|2022|p=16}} Other professions were hereditary; a father's employment was passed to his eldest son after he died.{{sfn|Lewis|2007|p=15}} The ''[[Lüshi Chunqiu]]'' ({{circa|239&nbsp;BC|lk=no}}){{snd}}a text named for [[Lü Buwei]], the prime minister who sponsored it{{snd}}gave examples of how, when commoners are obsessed with material wealth, instead of the idealism of a man who "makes things serve him", they were "reduced to the service of things".{{sfn|Lewis|2007|p=16}}

=== Agriculture ===
Qin agriculture was mainly based on [[cereal]] cultivation, with millet, wheat, and barley being the [[staple crop]]s that comprised most of peasants' diets. The amount of land available for use as pasture was limited, with livestock raised mostly for household use of byproducts like milk.{{sfn|Sterckx|2018|pp=306–308}} Consumption of meat was generally restricted to the wealthy.{{sfn|Sterckx|2018|p=301}} The state of Qin under Shang Yang pioneered a policy of maximising the area of land under cultivation, resulting in states clearing most of the forest in the Yellow River valley and converting it into farmland. This land was divided into household-sized allotments, and inhabitants were forcibly relocated to work them. Another emphasis of Shang Yang's agricultural policy was the use of hoes to weed the soil, which improved its ability to retain moisture and provide nutrients to crops.{{sfn|Hara|2022|pp=69–71}}

=== Religion ===
The predominant form of religious belief in China during the early imperial period focused on ''[[Shen (Chinese religion)|shen]]'' (roughly meaning 'spirits'), ''yin'' ({{zhi|t=陰|s=阴|l=shadows|first=t}}), and the realm they were understood to inhabit. Spirits were classified as one of three types: 'human dead' ({{zhi|c=人鬼|p=rénguǐ}}), 'heavenly spirits' ({{zhi|c=天神|p=tiānshén}}) such as [[Shangdi]], and 'earthly spirits' ({{zhi|c=地示|p=dìshì}}) corresponding to natural features like mountains and rivers.{{sfn|Guo|2018|p=242}} The spirit world was believed to be parallel to the earthly one: animal sacrifices were offered in order to make contact with it, and the spirits of people were thought to move there upon death. In general, ritual served two purposes: to receive blessings from the spirit realm, and to ensure the dead journeyed to and stayed there.{{sfn|Lewis|2007|p=186}}

A ritual concept introduced under the Qin that would be continued by the Han was the official touring of ritual sites across the realm by the emperor, which served to reinforce notions of the emperor as a semi-divine figure.{{sfn|Tavor|2018|p=273}}

The Qin also practised forms of divination{{snd}}including that previously used by the Shang, where bones and turtle shells were heated in order to divine knowledge of the future from the cracks that formed. Observation of astronomical and weather phenomena were also common, with comets, eclipses, and droughts commonly considered omens.{{sfn|Lewis|2007|p=181}}

== Government and military ==
[[File:2015-09-22-091227 - Museum der Grabanlage des Qin Shi Huangdi.jpg|thumb|upright=1.2|[[Terracotta Army]] at the Mausoleum of Qin Shi Huang museum]]
[[File:01 terracottawarriorsgroup.jpg|thumb|upright=1.2|Warriors and horse from the Terracotta Army]]
The Qin government was highly [[bureaucratic]], and was administered by a hierarchy of officials serving the emperor. The Qin put into practice the teachings of [[Han Fei]], allowing the state to administer all of its territories, including those recently conquered. All aspects of life were standardised, from measurements and language to more practical details, such as the length of chariot [[axle]]s.{{sfn|Lewis|2007|pp=53–54}}

The empire was divided into 36 [[Commandery (China)|commanderies]], which were further subdivided into more than 1000 districts.{{sfn|Lewis|2007|p=18}} The states made by the emperor were assigned to officials dedicated to the task rather than placing the burden on people from the royal family. Zheng and his advisors also introduced new laws and practices that ended [[Fengjian|aristocratic rule]] in China, fully replacing it with a centralised, bureaucratic government. A supervisory system, the [[Censorate]] was introduced to monitor and check the powers of administrators and officials at each level of government.{{sfn|Xue|Qi|2019|p=415}} The Qin instituted a permanent system of ranks and rewards, consisting of twenty ranks based on the number of enemies killed in battle or commanding victorious units. Ranks were not hereditary unless a soldier died heroically in battle, whereby the soldier's rank will be inherited by his family. Each rank was assigned a specific allotment of dwellings, slaves and land, and ranks could be used to remit judicial punishments.{{sfn|Hui|2005|p=81}}

Instances of abuse were recorded. In one example from the ''Records of Officialdom'', a commander named Hu ordered his men to attack peasants in an attempt to increase the number of "bandits" he had killed; his superiors, likely eager to inflate their records as well, allowed this.{{sfn|Chen|Wu|2007|pp=180–181}}

=== Economy ===
The Qin conception of [[political economy]] reflected the ideas of Shang Yang and [[Li Kui (legalist)|Li Kui]]: labour was identified as the realm's primary resource, and commerce was understood in general to be "inherently sterile".{{sfn|von Glahn|2022|p=182}} The merchant class that had emerged during the Warring States period was considered a direct threat to the state, due to merchants' incentives to pursue individual profits and self-aggrandisement. After unification, the imperial state targeted their wealth and political power; a 214&nbsp;BC law allowed for merchants to be impressed into the military and deported for service on the realm's frontiers. Reinforced by its distinct legal status, the merchant profession became increasingly hereditary in nature.{{sfn|von Glahn|2022|pp=175, 182–183}}

[[File:026 S-83 Qin Ban Liang, 221-208 BC, 30mm.jpg|thumb|Qin-era ''banliang'' coin, with the obverse marked {{zhc|c=半两|p=bànliǎng}}]]
During the 330s&nbsp;BC, the state of Qin began minting ''[[banliang]]'' coins, which were round, made mostly of [[bronze]], and marked to indicate a nominal weight of around {{cvt|8|g|frac=16}}{{snd}}though the actual weight varied in reality. After unification, ''banliang'' were given official status across the empire, replacing previous regional currencies like [[spade money]] and [[knife money]] to become the first standardised currency used throughout all of China.{{sfn|Kakinuma|2022|pp=132–133}} Unlike the Han, who initially continued the use of ''banliang'', the Qin did not allow additional coins to be minted by the private sector, and considered those that were to be counterfeit.{{sfn|Kakinuma|2022|p=133}}

=== Construction projects ===
Qin Shi Huang developed plans to fortify Qin's northern border, to protect against nomadic invasions. The resulting construction formed the base of what later became the [[Great Wall of China]], which joined and strengthened the walls made by feudal lords. Another project built during his rule was the [[Terracotta Army]], intended to protect the emperor after his death.{{sfn|Li|2013|pp=255–256}} The Terracotta Army was inconspicuous due to its underground location, and was not discovered until 1974.{{sfn|Morton|1995|p=49}}

=== Registration system ===
{{quote box|width=25%|align=right
|quote=<poem style="text-indent:1ic each-line">{{lang|lzh|四境之內，丈夫女子皆有名於上}}
Everywhere within the borders, let all men and women be registered by name with the government

{{lang|lzh|生者著，死者削}}
Those who are born shall be entered, and those who die, expunged</poem>|source=—''The Book of Lord Shang''{{sfn|Sanft|2014|p=127}}}}
During the 4th century&nbsp;BC, the state of Qin introduced a registration system for its population, which initially collated the names of individuals, and later began keeping track of entire households. The system, unique in its scope among Qin's contemporaries, is thought to have been established in 375&nbsp;BC. It was expanded later in the century at the direction of Shang Yang, with passages of ''[[The Book of Lord Shang]]'' referencing the system likely reflecting the words of Shang Yang himself. The oldest lists to be discovered, excavated at [[Shuihudi]] in [[Hubei]] and [[Liye Ancient City|Liye]] in [[Hunan]], date to the late 3rd century&nbsp;BC.{{sfn|Sanft|2014|pp=127–128}} Adapting a concept originally used within the military to society at-large, Qin households were organised into 'groups of five' ({{zhi|c=五|p=wǔ}}), wherein the heads of each household were made mutually responsible for reporting any wrongdoing committed by other members of the group.{{sfnm|1a1=Barbieri-Low|1a2=Yates|1y=2015|1pp=111–112|2a1=Sanft|2y=2014|2pp=127–129}} Under the orders of King Ying Zheng, the state began recording the ages of adult men in 231&nbsp;BC.{{sfn|Sanft|2014|p=129}}

=== Writing reform ===
[[File:Qin (Chinese characters).svg|thumb|upright=0.6|"Qin" in [[seal&nbsp;script]]&nbsp;(top) and [[regular&nbsp;script]]&nbsp;(bottom) Chinese characters]]
The Zhou inherited the [[writing system]] of [[Chinese characters]] used by the preceding [[Shang dynasty]] ({{circa|1600|1056&nbsp;BC|lk=no}}) and first attested in [[oracle bone inscriptions]] {{circa|1250&nbsp;BC|lk=no}}. Writing was adopted throughout the Zhou cultural sphere during the first half of the 1st millennium&nbsp;BC, with the shapes and forms of characters in the script gradually evolving over time. With the Warring States period, distinct regional writing styles began to diverge from one another;{{sfn|Qiu|1988|pp=70–71}} compared to that of other Zhou states, the script used in Qin generally changed the least during this time.{{sfn|Qiu|1988|p=78}} The standard writing style in the state of Qin was consolidated under Qin Shi Huang into what is known as ''[[small seal script]]''.{{sfn|Qiu|1988|p=100}} While the ''[[Book of Han]]'' (111&nbsp;AD) states that Li Si distributed detailed instructions for writing in small seal script to scribes in 221&nbsp;BC, these instructions have been lost. However, many contemporary inscriptions on monuments meant to demonstrate small seal character forms have survived.{{sfn|Bökset|2006|pp=17, 19}} While the regional divergences across China were reduced considerably, the use of [[variant characters]] remained frequent among Qin scribes; the traditional idea of a strict standardisation of small seal script appears to be a later notion introduced by the Han.{{sfnm|Galambos|2004|1pp=181–182|Bökset|2006|2pp=18–19}}

=== Penal policy ===
Qin law was articulated alongside [[Li (Confucianism)|ritual practice]].{{sfn|Cheng|2008|p=208}} Writing itself was seen as part of  ritual in Ancient China, with [[Confucius]] and [[Laozi]] portrayed as sages, ritual masters and archivists. The [[Shiji]] presents writing and ritual as still being connected during the Qin dynasty. The First Emperor erected stone [[stele]] invoking divine protection,{{sfn|Kern|2005|p=8}} which proclaim the establishment of the government, referring to the First Emperor as a sage.{{sfn|Creel|1982|p=82}} Their inscription was supervised by the court, influencing the Han and later dynasties. The [[Tang dynasty]] established a requirement for court approval of stele as a safeguard.{{sfn|Kern|2005|p=8,277}}

Qin law was primarily administrative.{{sfnm|1a1=Hulsewé|1y=1986|1p=539|2a1=Bodde|2y=1986|2p=60}} Like most ancient societies, the early imperial Chinese state did not have separate structures of administration and jurisprudence.{{sfn|Hulsewé|1986|p=528}} Qin penal practice included concepts such as intent, defendant rights, judicial procedure, requests for retrials, and the distinction between [[common law|common]] and [[statutory law]].{{sfn|Goldin|2005|pp=5–6}} Comparative model manuals guided penal legal procedures based on real-life situations, with publicly named wrongs linked to punishments.{{sfnm|1a1=Wilkinson|1y=2015|1p=307|2a1=Cheng|2y=2008|2p=208}} 

[[Shang Yang]]'s code likely drew on [[Li Kui (legalist)|Li Kui]]'s ''[[Canon of Laws]]'', which considered dealing with thieves and robbers the most urgent legal matter of its time. The Qin dynasty's penal code similarly focuses primarily on theft, though there were certain statutes dealing specifically with infanticide and other unsanctioned harm against children.{{sfnm|1a1=Wang|1y=2024|1p=588}} However, almost all of the ''[[Book of Lord Shang]]'' was likely composed before Qin unification.{{sfn|Pines|2017b|p=36}} Qin law diverged significantly from the time of Shang Yang,{{sfn|Korolkov|2024|p=201-202}} and earlier ideas espoused in the ''Book of Lord Shang''.{{sfn|Wilkinson|2015|p=307 23.2.1}}

Anti-Confucianistic statements in the ''Book of Lord Shang'' are isolated to a few early chapters.{{sfn|Pines|2024|p=29}} While retaining Shang Yang's reforms, the Qin abandoned his anti-Confucianism, his strict, harsh penal policy, and ultimately his heavy emphasis on agriculture. After Shang Yang, the [[Lushi Chunqiu]] attests [[King Huiwen of Qin]] as having pardoned the death penalty in a case involving murder, based on Confucianistic ethics.{{sfn|Pines|2023}}{{sfnm|1a1=Jiang|1y=2021|1p=213|2a1=Hsiao|2y=1979|2p=470}} While emphasizing law and order, the [[Shiji]]'s Qin Shi Huang praises himself as a "sage ruler of benevolence and righteousness&nbsp;... who cares for and pities the common people".{{sfn|Watson|1962|p=174}} Still including mutilating punishments, Qin law would generally considered harsh by modern standards, though they were "not extraordinarily severe for their time".{{sfnm|1a1=Goldin|1y=2005|1p=5|2a1=Bodde|2y=1986|2p=56}} With tattooing already considered a heavy mutilating punishment, tattooing was the most common heavy mutilating punishment.{{sfnm|1a1=Bodde|1y=1986|1p=50|2a1=Hulsewé|2y=1986|2p=533-543}} 

Targeting unsanctioned punishment, the extremes of Qin law are directed more against ministerial abuse.{{sfnm|1a1=Pines|1y=2017b|1p=231|2a1=Hansen|2y=1992|2pp=347, 350, 357–359, 369}} Showing up in cattle companies, the Qin dynasty did not completely eliminate group responsibility established by Shang Yang,{{sfn|Bodde|1986|p=51}} but does not emphasize it either. Mutilating group punishment was directed against more extreme cases of group robbery by policing officials themselves.{{sfn|Bodde|1986|p=50}} Smaller administrative crimes only received fines or reprimands,{{sfn|Bodde|1986|p=51}} while petty theft committed by individual commoners was punished with a month's labour service.{{sfn|Bodde|1986|p=51}} Recovered Qin legal practice only mentioned cases of nose cutting or foot a few times. Infrequent capital punishment targeted taboos of incest or temple destruction.{{sfnm|1a1=Bodde|1y=1986|1p=50|2a1=Hulsewé|2y=1986|2p=533}}

The Qin dynasty instead took to using convict labour. This aimed to avoid agricultural instability that using [[corvée]] for labour would have caused, with farmers only otherwise available for a month at a time during off-seasons.{{sfn|Korolkov|2024|p=212}} Using paid labour wasn't entirely feasible because the travel expenses of deploying and accommodating even convict labour were already "potentially ruinous."{{sfn|Korolkov|2024|p=210}} While hard labour became the most common heavy criminal punishment, the Qin then often tried to pardon it into lesser punishments.{{sfn|Hulsewé|1986|p=50,533-535}} Though the projects were well planned, the lives of those finally so sentenced were not viewed as valuable as peasants, so that many still died from hard labour.{{sfn|Korolkov|2024|p=201}} However, only a minority were sent to build the great wall at the border. Those sentenced to hard labour generally performed public works inside the country, mainly in road and canal construction.{{sfn|Hulsewé|1986|p=50,533}}

Punishment often went unenforced. Criminals were sometimes given amnesties, only incurring punishment upon [[recidivism]], and were often pardoned in exchange for fines, labour, or a demotion in aristocratic rank, even for capital offences. While ''The Book of Lord Shang'' recommended harsh punishment, it also "laments" insufficient population for its territories, and the Qin attempted to limit emigration out of the country. Rather than physically punish criminals, they were frequently resettled in frontier colonies. Those sentenced to hard labour were sometimes sent to join frontier defences if given amnesty. Men in the colonies sentenced to death were then recruited for expeditionary armies.{{sfnm|1a1=Pines|1y=2014|1pp=21, 213|2a1=Hulsewé|2y=1986|2pp=533–535}}

The Han-era writer [[Dong Zhongshu]] (179–104&nbsp;BC) considered Qin officials and taxes severe, but did not characterise punishments as such; in fact, Dong criticised the Qin system for its inability to punish criminals;{{sfn|Loewe|2011|pp=93–94}} though exile as a heavy punishment in China dates to at least the Spring and Autumn period.{{sfn|Lewis|1999|p=19}}

== Legacy ==
The Qin, despite existing for only 14 years, are credited with inaugurating the Chinese imperial system, which would persist in some form throughout Chinese history until it was ultimately overthrown by the [[Xinhai Revolution]] in 1911.{{sfn|Sanft|2018|p=159}}

During the 2nd and 1st centuries&nbsp;BC, Han dynasty scholars began portraying the Qin as a monolithic, [[Legalism (Chinese philosophy)|legalist]] tyranny, often invoked as an example of bad governance in contemporary debates about imperial policy.{{sfnm|1a1=Xiong|1a2=Hammond|1y=2019|1p=7|2a1=Pines|2y=2014|2p=231}} In particular, purges in 213 and 212&nbsp;BC collectively known as the [[burning of books and burying of scholars]] are frequently cited to this end; however, the earliest account of these events is contained in the ''Shiji'' ({{circa|91&nbsp;BC|lk=no}}), and its veracity is disputed by some modern scholars.{{sfnm|Korolkov|2022|1p=11|Sanft|2019|2p=21}} The Qin were deliberately contrasted with what was characterised as the virtuous rule of the Han.{{sfnm|Sanft|2019|1p=21|Pines|2014|2pp=231–232}} However, the Han essentially inherited the administrative state built by the Qin, including the household registration system.{{sfn|Sanft|2014|p=127}} Owing to this continuity, medieval and modern historians have often grouped the Qin and Han together,{{sfn|Korolkov|2022|p=170}} with the establishment of the Han treated "mainly as a change in ruling houses rather than a system or method of rule".{{sfn|Sanft|2018|p=159}}

=== Etymology of ''China'' ===
{{Asia in 210 BCE|right|Qin alongside the other major polities of Asia in 221&nbsp;BC, with the capital Xianyang marked with a red dot<ref>{{Multiref2 | {{Cite book |last1=Coatsworth |first1=John |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=w5vlBgAAQBAJ&pg=PA138 |title=Global Connections |volume=1, To 1500: Politics, Exchange, and Social Life in World History |last2=Cole |first2=Juan |last3=Hanagan |first3=Michael P. |last4=Perdue |first4=Peter C. |last5=Tilly |first5=Charles |last6=Tilly |first6=Louise |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2015 |isbn=978-1-316-29777-3 |page=138 |doi=10.1017/CBO9781139047913 |via=Google Books |ref=none}} | {{Cite book |title=Atlas of World History |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2007 |isbn=978-0-19-521921-0 |editor-last=O'Brien |editor-first=Patrick Karl |editor1-link=Patrick K. O'Brien |edition=concise |page=51 |editor-last2=Humphries |editor-first2=Christian |editor-last3=King |editor-first3=Jannet |editor-last4=Kopp |editor-first4=Petra |editor-last5=Leyton |editor-first5=Martha |editor-last6=Widdows |editor-first6=Richard |display-editors=1 |ol=3671170M |orig-year=2002 |ref=none}} | {{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KPBIEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA406 |title=European Handbook of Central Asian Studies |publisher=Ibidem |year=2021 |isbn=978-3-8382-1518-1 |editor-last=Van den Bosch |editor-first=Jeroen |page=403 |editor-last2=Fauve |editor-first2=Adrien |editor-last3=De Cordier |editor-first3=B. J. |via=Google Books |ref=none}} }}</ref>|{{Annotation|0|0|[[File:Continental Asia date mask.png|300px]]}}{{location map~ |Continental Asia |lat=34.3299|N |long=108.7088|E |label=<!-- [[Xi'an]]-->|position=bottom|label_size=50|mark=Basic red dot.png|marksize=4}}|Map of the Qin Empire in 221 BCE.png}}
''Qin'' is the likeliest origin for the modern name ''China'' and its equivalents in many European languages. The term likely first appeared in the [[Indo-Aryan languages]], attested in [[Sanskrit]] as both {{tlit|sa|Cina}} and {{tlit|sa|Sina}}, and subsequently entered Greek as {{tlit|grc|Thinai}} or {{tlit|grc|Sinai}}. From there it entered the vernacular languages of Europe, e.g. as ''China'' in English and {{lang|fr|Chine}} in French. This etymology is questioned by some scholars, who suggest that {{tlit|sa|Sina}} appears in Sanskrit centuries before the Qin dynasty's founding. Other hypothesised origins include the Zhou-era [[Jin (Chinese state)|state of Jin]] that existed prior to the 4th century&nbsp;BC,{{sfn|Keay|2009|p=98}} and ''Jing'' ({{zhi|c=荆}}), another name for the state of Chu.<ref>{{harvnb|Wade|2009|p=19}}: "This thesis also helps explain the existence of Cīna in the Indic ''Laws of Manu'' and the ''Mahabharata'', likely dating well before Qin Shihuangdi".</ref>

== Sovereigns ==
{{See also|Qin (state)#Rulers}}
[[File:BronzePlaque-EdictOfSecondEmperor-Qin-ROM-May8-08.png|thumb|An edict in bronze from the reign of Qin Er Shi]]

{| class="wikitable"
! scope="col" | {{numero}} !! scope="col" | [[Posthumous name]] !! scope="col" | Personal name !! scope="col" | Reign
|-
! scope="row" | 1
| [[Shi Huangdi]]
| Zheng ({{lang|zh|政}})
| 221–210&nbsp;BC
|-
! scope="row" | 2
| [[Er Shi Huangdi]]
|  Huhai ({{lang|zh|胡亥}}) || 210–207&nbsp;BC
|-
! scope="row" | 3
| data-sort-value="" style="background: var(--background-color-interactive, #ececec); color: var(--color-base, inherit); vertical-align: middle; text-align: center; " class="table-na" | —
| [[Ziying]] ({{lang|zh|子嬰}})
| 207&nbsp;BC
|}

=== Imperial family tree ===
{{Qin dynasty family tree}}

== Notes ==
{{Notelist-num}}

== References ==
=== Citations ===
{{Reflist}}

=== Works cited ===
{{Refbegin|25em}}
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** {{Harvc |last=von Glahn |first=Richard |in1=Ma |in2=von Glahn |year=2022 |c=Economic philosophy and political economy |pages=166–202}}
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* {{Cite book |title=Birth of an Empire: The State of Qin Revisited |publisher=University of California Press |year=2014 |isbn=978-0-520-28974-1 |editor-last=Pines |editor-first=Yuri |series=New Perspectives on Chinese Culture and Society |volume=5 |location=Berkeley |ref={{sfnref|Pines|2014}} |editor-last2=Shelach-Lavi |editor-first2=Gideon |editor-link2=Gideon Shelach-Lavi |editor-last3=Falkenhausen |editor-first3=Lothar von |editor-last4=Yates |editor-first4=Robin D. S. |editor-link4=Robin D. S. Yates |editor-link=Yuri Pines |url=https://escholarship.org/uc/item/4h74v49p |via=eScholarship |postscript={{free access}}.}}
* {{cite book |last=Pines |first=Yuri |date=2017b |title=The Book of Lord Shang: Apologetics of State Power in Early China. Abridged Edition |publisher=Columbia University Press |isbn=978-0-231-55038-3 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Fop-DwAAQBAJ}}
* {{Cite encyclopedia |title=Legalism in Chinese Philosophy |encyclopedia=[[Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy]] |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/sum2023/entries/chinese-legalism/ |last=Pines |first=Yuri |date=Summer 2023 |editor-last=Zalta |editor-first=Edward N. |editor-link=Edward N. Zalta |author-mask=3 |editor-first2=Uri |editor-last2=Nodelman}}
* {{cite book |last=Pines |first=Yuri |title=Dao Companion to China's fa Tradition |date=2024 |publisher=Springer |location=Hebrew University of Jerusalem |isbn=9783031536304 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Ww8aEQAAQBAJ}}
** {{Harvc |last=Korolkov |first=Maxim |year=2024 |pages=201-230 |c=Rule by Impersonal Standards in the Early Empires: Ideas and Realities |in=Pines |url=https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-53630-4_8}}
** {{Harvc |last=Wang |first=Pei |year=2024 |pages=575-594 |c=Chapter 20 Laozi, Huang-Lao and the fa Tradition: Thinking Through the Term xingming 刑名 |in=Pines}}
* {{Cite book |last=Qiu |first=Xigui |author-link=Qiu Xigui |title=Chinese Writing |publisher=Society for the Study of Early China, University of California |year=2000 |isbn=978-1-55729-071-7 |series=Early China Special Monograph Series |volume=4 |location=Berkeley |translator-last=Mattos |translator-first=Gilbert L. |ref={{sfnref|Qiu|1988}} |orig-date=1988 |translator-last2=Norman |translator-first2=Jerry}}
* {{Cite book |last=Sanft |first=Charles |title=Communication and Cooperation in Early Imperial China: Publicizing the Qin Dynasty |publisher=State University of New York Press |year=2014 |isbn=978-1-4384-5037-7 |location=Albany |orig-date=2013}}
* {{Cite journal |last=Taagepera |first=Rein |author-link=Rein Taagepera |year=1979 |title=Size and Duration of Empires: Growth-Decline Curves, 600 B.C. to 600 A.D. |journal=Social Science History |volume=3 |issue=3/4 |page=121 |doi=10.2307/1170959 |jstor=1170959}}
* {{Cite Cambridge History of China <!-- Citation bot no! -->|volume=1 |ref={{sfnref|Cambridge History of China|1986}} |doi=10.1017/CHOL9780521243278 }}
** {{Harvc |last=Bodde |first=Derk |author-link=Derk Bodde |year=1986 |c=The state and empire of Chʻin |in=''Cambridge History of China'' |pages=20–102}}
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* {{Cite journal |last=Wade |first=Geoff |date=May 2009 |title=The Polity of Yelang (夜郎) and the Origin of the Name 'China' |url=http://www.sino-platonic.org/complete/spp188_yelang_china.pdf |url-status=live |journal=[[Sino-Platonic Papers]] |volume=188 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110930070227/http://www.sino-platonic.org/complete/spp188_yelang_china.pdf |archive-date=30 September 2011 |access-date=4 October 2011}}
* {{Cite book |editor-last=Wilkinson |editor-first=Endymion |title=Chinese History A New Manual |publisher=Harvard |year=2015 |isbn=978-0-674-08846-7}}
* {{Cite book |editor-last=Xiong |editor-first=Victor Cunrui |editor-last2=Hammond |editor-first2=Kenneth James |title=The Routledge Handbook of Imperial Chinese History |publisher=Routledge |year=2019 |isbn=978-1-138-84728-6}}
** {{Harvc |last=Sanft |first=Charles |in1=Xiong |in2=Hammond |year=2019 |c=The Qin dynasty (221–206 BCE) |pages=12–24}}
* {{Cite book |last=Watson |first=Burton |author-link=Burton Watson |date=1962 |title=Early Chinese Literature |publisher=[[Columbia University Press]] |isbn=978-0-231-08671-4}}
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* {{Cite book |editor-last=Kern |editor-first=Michael |date=2005 |title=Text and Ritual in Early China |publisher=University of Washington Press |isbn=9780295987873}}
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{{Refend}}

== Further reading ==
{{Refbegin}}
* {{Cite book |editor-last=Ivanhoe |editor-first=Philip J. |editor-link=Philip J. Ivanhoe |editor-last2=Van Norden |editor-first2=Bryan W. |title=Readings in Classical Chinese Philosophy |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5PL9hSUiVEoC |publisher=Hackett |year=2005 |isbn=978-0-87220-780-6 |via=Google Books}}
* {{Cite book |last=Pines |first=Yuri |author-link=Yuri Pines |title=Envisioning Eternal Empire |location=Honolulu |publisher=University of Hawaiʻi Press |year=2009 |isbn=978-0-8248-3275-9}}
* {{Cite book |last=Pines |first=Yuri |chapter=Confucius' Elitism: The Concepts of ''junzi'' and ''xiaoren'' Revisited |title=A Concise Companion to Confucius |publisher=Wiley-Blackwell |year=2017 |isbn=978-1-118-78387-0 |editor-last=Goldin |editor-first=Paul R. |series=Blackwell Companions to Philosophy |volume=65 |pages=164–184 |doi=10.1002/9781118783863.ch8 |author-mask=3}}
{{Refend}}

== External links ==
* {{Commons category-inline}}

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{{Empires}}
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