View source for Rapeseed

{{Short description|Plant species grown for its oil-rich seed}}
{{Redirect|Brassica napus|another cultivar of the same species grown for its root|Rutabaga}}
{{Hatnote|Similar ''Brassica'' plants used in cooking as leafy greens, and also called ''rape'' may include [[rapini]] and [[choy sum]].}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=September 2020}}
{{Speciesbox
| name = Rapeseed
| image = Koeh-169.jpg
| genus = Brassica
| species = napus
| authority = [[Carl Linnaeus|L.]]{{Refn|group=note|''Brassica napus'' was originally described and published in ''[[Species Plantarum]]'' 2:666. 1753.{{Sfn|GRIN|2010a}} }}
}}

'''Rapeseed''' ('''''Brassica napus'' subsp. ''napus'''''), also known as '''rape''' and '''oilseed rape''' and '''canola''', is a bright-yellow flowering member of the family [[Brassicaceae]] (mustard or cabbage family), cultivated mainly for its oil-rich seed, which naturally contains appreciable amounts of mildly toxic [[erucic acid]].<ref name=fsa>Food Standards Australia New Zealand (June 2003) [http://www.foodstandards.gov.au/publications/documents/Erucic%20acid%20monograph.pdf Erucic acid in food: A Toxicological Review and Risk Assessment] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181123112106/http://www.foodstandards.gov.au/publications/documents/Erucic%20acid%20monograph.pdf |date=23 November 2018 }} Technical report series No. 21; Page 4 paragraph 1;  {{ISBN|0-642-34526-0}}</ref> The term "[[canola]]" denotes a group of rapeseed [[cultivar]]s that were bred to have very low levels of [[erucic acid]] and which are especially prized for use as human and animal food. Rapeseed is the third-largest source of [[vegetable oil]] and the second-largest source of protein meal in the world.{{Sfn|USDA|2002|p=26}}{{Sfn|Heuzé|Tran|Sauvant|Lessire|2020}}
{{TOC limit}}

== Description ==
[[File:RapeseedFields.jpg|frameless|right|alt=Fields]]
[[File:(MHNT) Brassica napus - Habit.jpg|frameless|right|alt=[[Growth habit]]]]
[[File:Brassica napus 2.jpg|frameless|right|alt=[[Blossom]]s]]
[[File:Brassica napus fruit7 (14678237321).jpg|frameless|right|alt=[[Pod (fruit)|Pod]] with [[seed]]s inside]]
[[File:Семечко рапса.jpg|thumb|Under a microscope]]
[[File:The yellow cloud.jpg|thumb|"The yellow cloud" by [[Hanno Karlhuber]]|alt="The yellow cloud" by [[Hanno Karlhuber]], depicting a flowering field]]
''Brassica napus'' grows to {{convert|100|cm|abbr=off}} in height with hairless, fleshy, [[pinnatifid]] and [[glaucous]] lower leaves{{Sfn|Martin|1965}}{{Sfn|Parnell|Curtis|Webb|2012}}{{Sfn|Webb|Parnell|Doogue|1996}} which are stalked whereas the upper leaves have no [[Petiole (botany)|petioles]].{{Sfn|Callihan|Brennan|Miller|Brown|2000|p=6}}

Rapeseed flowers are bright yellow and about {{Convert|17|mm|frac=4}} across.{{Sfn|Parnell|Curtis|Webb|2012}} They are radial and consist of four [[petals]] in a typical cross-form, alternating with four [[sepals]]. They have indeterminate [[racemose]] flowering starting at the lowest bud and growing upward in the following days. The flowers have two lateral [[stamens]] with short filaments, and four median stamens with longer filaments whose anthers split away from the flower's center upon flowering.{{Sfn|Snowdon|Lühs|Friedt|2006|p=56}}

The rapeseed pods are green and elongated [[Silique|siliquae]] during development that eventually ripen to brown. They grow on [[pedicels]] {{Convert|1 to 3|cm|in|abbr=on|frac=16}} long, and can range from {{Convert|5 to 10|cm|in|abbr=on|frac=2}} in length.{{Sfn|Callihan|Brennan|Miller|Brown|2000|p=6}} Each pod has two [[Locule|compartments]] separated by an inner central wall within which a row of seeds develops.{{Sfn|Alford|2008|pp=1–2}} The seeds are round and have a diameter of {{convert|1.5 to 3|mm|in|sp=us|abbr=on|frac=64}}. They have a reticulate surface texture,{{Sfn|Callihan|Brennan|Miller|Brown|2000|p=6}} and are black and hard at maturity.{{Sfn|Alford|2008|pp=1–2}}

=== Similar species ===
''B. napus'' can be distinguished from ''[[Brassica nigra|B. nigra]]'' by the upper leaves which do not clasp the stem, and from ''[[Brassica rapa|B. rapa]]'' by its smaller petals which are less than {{Convert|13|mm|abbr=on|frac=2}} across.{{Sfn |Parnell |Curtis |Webb |2012}}

== Taxonomy ==
The [[species]] ''Brassica napus'' belongs to the flowering plant family [[Brassicaceae]]. Rapeseed is a [[subspecies]] with the [[Autonym (botany)|autonym]] ''B. napus'' subsp. ''napus''.{{Sfn|GRIN|2012a}} It encompasses winter and spring oilseed, vegetable and fodder rape.{{Sfn|Snowdon|Lühs|Friedt|2006|p=54}} Siberian kale is a distinct leaf rape form [[Variety (botany)|variety]] (''B. napus'' var. ''pabularia'') which used to be common as a winter-annual vegetable.{{Sfn|GRIN|2010b}}{{Sfn|Snowdon|Lühs|Friedt|2006|p=54}} The second subspecies of ''B. napus'' is [[rutabaga|''B. napus ''subsp.'' rapifera'']] (also subsp. ''napobrassica''; the rutabaga, swede, or yellow turnip).{{Sfn|GRIN|2012b}}{{Sfn|NCBI|2013}}

''B. napus'' is a digenomic [[amphidiploid]] that occurred due to the [[interspecific hybridization]] between ''[[Brassica oleracea|B. oleracea]]'' and ''B. rapa''.{{Sfn|Downey|Rimmer|1993|p=6}} It is a self-compatible pollinating species like the other amphidiploid ''Brassica'' species.{{Sfn|Downey|Rimmer|1993|p=7}}

=== Etymology ===
The term "rape" derives from the Latin word for [[turnip]], {{lang|la|rāpa}} or {{wikt-lang|la|rāpum}}, cognate with the Greek word {{lang|grc|ῥάφη}}, {{lang|grc-Latn|rhaphe}}.{{Sfn|OED|2016}}

== Ecology ==
In Northern Ireland, ''B. napus'' and ''B. rapa'' are recorded as [[Escaped plant|escapes]] in roadside verges and waste ground.{{Sfn|Beesley|Wilde|1997|p=104}}

== Cultivation ==
[[File:Champ de colza Côte-d'Or Bourgogne avril 2014.jpg|thumb|Rapeseed field near Planay, France.]]

Crops from the genus ''[[Brassica]]'', including rapeseed, were among the earliest plants to be widely cultivated by humankind as early as 10,000 years ago. Rapeseed was being cultivated in India as early as 4000 B.C. and it spread to China and Japan 2000 years ago.{{Sfn|Snowdon|Lühs|Friedt|2006|p=54}}

Rapeseed is predominantly cultivated in its winter form in most of Europe and Asia due to the requirement of [[vernalization]] to start the process of flowering. It is sown in autumn and remains in a [[Rosette (botany)|leaf rosette]] on the soil surface during the winter. The plant grows a long vertical stem in the next spring followed by lateral branch development. It generally flowers in late spring with the process of pod development and ripening occurring over a period of 6–8 weeks until midsummer.{{Sfn|Snowdon|Lühs|Friedt|2006|p=56}}

In Europe, winter rapeseed is grown as an annual break crop in three to four-year rotations with cereals such as [[wheat]] and [[barley]], and break crops such as [[peas]] and [[beans]]. This is done to reduce the possibility of pests and diseases being carried over from one crop to another.{{Sfn|Alford|2008|p=3}} Winter rape is less susceptible to [[crop failure]] as it is more vigorous than the summer variety and can compensate for damage done by pests.{{Sfn|Alford|2008|p=4}}

[[File:Field in Kärkölä.jpg|thumb|[[Kärkölä, Päijät-Häme]], Finland|alt=Field pictured in [[Kärkölä, Päijät-Häme]], Finland]]
Spring rapeseed is cultivated in Canada, northern Europe and Australia as it is not winter-hardy and does not require vernalization. The crop is sown in spring with stem development happening immediately after [[germination]].{{Sfn|Snowdon|Lühs|Friedt|2006|p=56}}

Rapeseed can be cultivated on a wide variety of well-drained soils, prefers a [[pH]] between 5.5 and 8.3 and has a moderate tolerance of [[soil salinity]].{{Sfn|AgMRC|2018}} It is predominantly a [[Anemophily|wind-pollinated]] plant but shows significantly increased grain yields when [[Honey bee#Pollination|bee-pollinated]],{{Sfn|Chambó|De Oliveira|Garcia|Duarte-Júnior|2014|p=2087}} almost double the final yield{{Sfn|Bertazzini|Forlani|2016|p=2}} but the effect is cultivar dependent.{{Sfn|Lindström|Herbertsson|Rundlöf|Smith|2015|p=759}} It is currently grown with high levels of nitrogen-containing fertilisers, and the manufacture of these generates [[Nitrous oxide|N<sub>2</sub>O]]. An estimated 3–5% of nitrogen provided as fertilizer for rapeseed is converted to N<sub>2</sub>O.{{sfn|Lewis|2007}}

Rapeseed has a high demand for nutrients - in particular, its sulphur demand is the highest among all arable crops. Since the decrease of atmospheric sulphur inputs during the 1980s sulphur fertilization has become a standard measure in oilseed rape production.<ref>{{Cite journal |date=1986 |title=Schwefelversorgung im intensiven Rapsanbau |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/284624326 |journal=Raps |volume=4 |pages=86–89}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Haneklaus |first1=Silvia |last2=Messick |first2=D. L. |last3=Schnug |first3=Ewald |date=1994 |title=Schwefel und Raps |url=https://www.openagrar.de/receive/timport_mods_00027274;lang=en |journal=Raps: Die Fachzeitschrift für Spezialisten |language=en |volume=12 |issue=2 |pages=56–57 |issn=0724-4606}}</ref> Among the micronutrients, special attention in rapeseed cultivation has to be given to [[boron]],<ref>[Schnug, E. (1987) Spurennährstoffversorgung im intensiven Rapsanbau. Raps 5, 18-20]</ref> [[manganese]]<ref>[Schnug, E. und Evans, E. (1992) Symptomatologie von Manganmangel an Raps. Raps 10, 43-45]</ref> and [[molybdenum]].<ref>[Schnug, E. und Haneklaus, S. (1990) Molybdänversorgung im intensiven Rapsanbau. Raps 8, 188-191]</ref>

=== Climate change ===
{{Further|Effects of climate change on agriculture}}
The cultivatable range for rapeseed is expected to decrease due to climate change. The quality of the crop, in both yield and volume of oil, is also expected to decrease substantially.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |last1=Jaime |first1=Rafael |last2=Alcántara |first2=Julio M. |last3=Manzaneda |first3=Antonio J. |last4=Rey |first4=Pedro J. |date=2018 |title=Climate change decreases suitable areas for rapeseed cultivation in Europe but provides new opportunities for white mustard as an alternative oilseed for biofuel production |journal=[[PLOS ONE]] |volume=13 |issue=11 |article-number=e0207124 |bibcode=2018PLoSO..1307124J |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0207124 |issn=1932-6203 |pmc=6218090 |pmid=30395645 |doi-access=free}}</ref> Some researchers recommend finding alternative varieties of ''Brassica'' for cultivation.<ref name=":0" />

=== Diseases ===
The main diseases of the winter rapeseed crop are [[canker]], light leaf spot (''[[Pyrenopeziza brassicae]]''), ''[[alternaria stem rot|alternaria-]]'' and ''[[sclerotinia stem rot|sclerotinia-]]'' stem rots. Canker causes [[leaf spot]]ting, and premature [[ripening]] and weakening of the stem during the autumn-winter (fall-winter) period. A [[conazole fungicide|conazole-]] or [[triazole fungicide|triazole-]] fungicide treatment is required in late autumn (fall) and in spring against canker while broad-spectrum fungicides are used during the spring-summer period for alternaria and sclerotinia control.{{Sfn|Alford|2008|p=7}} Oilseed rape cannot be planted in close rotation with itself due to soil-borne diseases such as sclerotinia, [[verticillium wilt]] and [[clubroot]].{{Sfn|Alford|2008|p=3}}

[[Transgenic rapeseed]] shows great promise for {{Visible anchor|Disease resistance|text=[[disease resistance in crops|disease resistance]]}}.<ref name="Alt-Diseases" /> [[Transexpression]] of a [[class II chitinase]] from [[barley]] (''Hordeum vulgare'') and a [[type I ribosome inactivating protein]] into ''[[Brassica juncea|B. juncea]]'' produces a large {{Visible anchor|Fungal disease resistance|text=[[fungal disease resistance in crops|fungal resistance effect]]}}.<ref name="Alt-Diseases" /> Chhikara ''et al.'', 2012<ref name="Combined-Expression">
 {{Cite journal |
 language = en|
 year = 2012|
 first4 = P.|
 first3 = O.|
 first2 = D.|
 first1 = S.|
 last4 = Jaiwal|
 last3 = Dhankher|
 last2 = Chaudhury|
 last1 = Chhikara|
 volume = 108|
 pages = 83–89|
 journal = [[Plant Cell, Tissue and Organ Culture]]|
 title = Combined expression of a barley class II chitinase and type I ribosome inactivating protein in transgenic ''Brassica juncea'' provides protection against ''Alternaria brassicae''
 |
 issue = 1|doi=10.1007/s11240-011-0015-7|
 bibcode = 2012PCTOC.108...83C|
 s2cid = 255112076}}
</ref> finds that this combination of [[transgene]]s reduces [[hypha]]l growth by 44% and [[growth inhibition|delays disease presentation]] in ''[[Alternaria brassicicola]]'' of ''juncea''.<ref name="Alt-Diseases">
 {{Cite book
 |last1 =Singh |first1 =Govind
 |last2 =Mehta |first2 =Naresh
 |last3 =Meena |first3 =Prabhu
 |title =Alternaria Diseases of Crucifers: Biology, Ecology and Disease Management
 |year =2016
 |language =en
 |edition =1st
 |location=[[Singapore]]
 |publisher =[[Springer Science+Business Media]]
 |pages =
 |doi =10.1007/978-981-10-0021-8
 |isbn=978-981-10-0021-8
 |lccn =2015958091
 |s2cid =27153886
}}</ref>

[[Blackleg (Brassica)|Blackleg]] (''Leptosphaeria maculans''/''Phoma lingam'') is a major disease.<ref name="Identification" /> Yu ''et al.'', 2005 uses [[restriction fragment length polymorphism]] analysis on two [[doubled haploid]] populations [[DHP95]] and [[DHP96]]. They find one [[Pesticide resistance|resistance gene]]s in each, ''{{Visible anchor|LepR1}}'' and ''[[LepR1]]''.<ref name="Identification">
:{{cite journal|issue=1|year=2006|publisher=[[Springer Science and Business Media LLC]]|first9=S.|first8=M.|first7=P.|first6=J.|first5=M.|first4=T.|first3=H.|first2=A.|first1=R.|last9=Rimmer|last8=Renard|last7=Salisbury|last6=Dias|last5=Balesdent|last4=Rouxel|last3=Brun|last2=Chevre|last1=Delourme|pages=41–52|journal=[[European Journal of Plant Pathology]]|title=Major Gene and Polygenic Resistance to ''Leptosphaeria maculans'' in Oilseed Rape (''Brassica napus'')|volume=114|issn=0929-1873|doi=10.1007/s10658-005-2108-9 |bibcode=2006EJPP..114...41D |s2cid=37776849 }}
:
:This review cites this research.
:
:{{cite journal|issue=5|year=2005|publisher=[[Springer Science and Business Media LLC]]|first3=S.|first2=D.|first1=F.|last3=Rimmer|last2=Lydiate|last1=Yu|volume=110|pages=969–979|journal=[[Theoretical and Applied Genetics]]|issn=0040-5752|s2cid=19910692|pmid=15798929|doi=10.1007/s00122-004-1919-y|title=Identification of two novel genes for blackleg resistance in ''Brassica napus'' }}
</ref>

=== Pests ===
Rapeseed is attacked by a wide variety of insects, {{Visible anchor|Nematode pests|text=[[nematode pests of crops|nematodes]]}}, {{Visible anchor|Slug pests|text=[[slug pests of crops|slugs]]}} as well as [[Common wood pigeon|wood pigeons]].{{Sfn|Alford|2008|p=6}} The brassica pod midge (''[[Dasineura brassicae]]''), cabbage seed weevil (''[[Ceutorhynchus assimilis]]''), cabbage stem weevil (''[[Ceutorhynchus pallidactylus]]''), cabbage stem flea beetle (''[[Psylliodes chrysocephala]]''), rape stem weevil (''[[Ceutorhynchus napi]]'') and [[pollen beetles]] are the primary insect pests that prey on the oilseed rape crop in Europe.{{Sfn|Alford|2008|p=9}} The insect pests can feed on developing pods to lay eggs inside and eat the developing seeds, bore into the plant's stem and feed on pollen, leaves and flowers. Synthetic [[pyrethroid]] insecticides are the main attack vector against insect pests though there is a large-scale use of [[prophylactic]] insecticides in many countries.{{Sfn|Alford|2008|p=7}} [[Molluscicide]] pellets are used either before or after sowing of the rapeseed crop to protect against slugs.{{Sfn|Alford|2008|p=6}}

{{anchor|Genetics|Breeding}}

=== Genetics and breeding ===
In 2014 an [[SNP array]] was released for ''B. napus'' by Dalton-Morgan ''et al.'',{{sfn|Hulse-Kemp|Lemm|Plieske|Ashrafi|2015|p=1188}} and another by Clarke ''et al.'', in 2016,{{sfn|Rasheed|Hao|Xia|Khan|2017|p=1050}} both of which have since become widely used in [[molecular breeding]]. In a demonstration of the importance of [[epigenetics]], Hauben ''et al.'', 2009 found that [[isogenic line]]s did ''not'' have identical energy use efficiencies in actual growing conditions, due to epigenetic differences.{{sfn|Rasheed|Hao|Xia|Khan|2017|p=1054}} [[Specific locus amplified fragment sequencing]] ([[SLAF-seq]]) was applied to ''B. napus'' by Geng ''et al.'', in 2016, revealing the genetics of the past domestication process, providing data for [[genome-wide association studies]] (GWAS), and being used to construct a [[high-density linkage map]].{{sfn|Rasheed|Hao|Xia|Khan|2017|p=1054}}

==== History of the cultivars ====
In 1973, Canadian [[Agricultural science|agricultural scientists]] launched a marketing campaign to promote [[canola]] consumption.{{Sfn|Thiyam-Holländer|Eskin|Matthäus|2013|p=4}} Seed, oil, and protein meal derived from rapeseed cultivars which are low in erucic acid and low in glucosinolates was originally registered as a trademark, in 1978, of the [[Canola Council of Canada]], as "canola".{{Sfn|Mag|1983|p=380}}{{Sfn|Roché|2015|p=5}} Canola is now a generic term for edible varieties of rapeseed, but is still officially defined in Canada as rapeseed oil that "must contain less than 2% erucic acid and less than 30 μmol of glucosinolates per gram of air-dried oil-free meal."{{Sfn|Roché|2015|p=5}}{{Sfn|CFIA|2017}}
In the 1980s decreasing atmospheric sulphur inputs to Northern European soils in connection with a less efficient internal use of sulphur in the metabolism of the newly bred low-glucosinolate varieties (00-varieties) resulted in an increased appearance of white flowering, a highly specific symptom of sulphur deficiency, in rapeseed crops<ref>[Schnug, E. and Haneklaus, S. (2005) Sulphur deficiency symptoms in oilseed rape (''Brassica Napus'' L.) – The aesthetics of starvation. Phyton 45(3), 79–95, 2005.]</ref> which during the official variety assessment procedures was wrongly attributed to a genetic inhomogeneity ("Canadian blood").<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Schnug |first1=E. |url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0065229616300854 |title=Glucosinolates – The Agricultural Story |last2=Haneklaus |first2=S. |date=2016 |publisher=Elsevier |isbn=978-0-08-100327-5 |volume=80 |pages=281–302 |language=en |doi=10.1016/bs.abr.2016.07.003}}</ref>

The anticipated damages of wild animals caused by foraging on 00-oilseed rape crops was caused by a shift of the animals diet towards increased uptake protein and sulphur containing metabolites at the expense of fibers, but not to specific features of the genetically altered 00-varieties.<ref>[Häberli, R., Wahli, T., Haneklaus, S. and Schnug, E. (1995) Field studies on clinical and pathological changes caused by double low oilseed rape in a wild roe deer (Capreola capreola) population in Switzerland. Proc. 9th Int. Rapeseed Congress 4, 1415-1417, Cambridge, UK]</ref>

Following the European Parliament's [[Transport Biofuels Directive 2003|Transport Biofuels Directive]] in 2003 promoting the use of biofuels, the cultivation of winter rapeseed increased dramatically in Europe.{{Sfn|Bertazzini|Forlani|2016|p=2}}

[[Bayer Cropscience]], in collaboration with [[BGI-Shenzhen]], China, KeyGene, the Netherlands, and the University of Queensland, Australia, announced it had sequenced the entire genome of ''B. napus'' and its constituent genomes present in ''B. rapa'' and ''B. oleracea'' in 2009. The "A" genome component of the amphidiploid rapeseed species ''B. napus'' has been sequenced by the [[Multinational Brassica Genome Project|Multinational ''Brassica'' Genome Project]].<ref>{{cite web
|title=Reference annoted genomes
|website=Multinational Brassica Genome Project
|url=https://www.brassica.info/genome/genomes.html
|publisher=[[Southern Cross University]]
|access-date=1 June 2023
|archive-date=1 June 2023
|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230601164850/https://www.brassica.info/genome/genomes.html
}}</ref>

A [[genetically modified]] variety of rapeseed was developed in 1998, engineered for [[glyphosate]] tolerance, and is considered to be the most disease- and drought-resistant canola. By 2009, 90% of the rapeseed crops planted in Canada were of this sort.{{Sfn|Beckie|Harker|Légère|Morrison|2011|p=43}}

===== GMO cultivars =====
{{Main|Roundup Ready Canola}}

The [[Monsanto]] company [[genetically engineered]] new cultivars of rapeseed to be resistant to the effects of its [[herbicide]], [[Roundup (herbicide)|Roundup]]. In 1998, they brought this to the Canadian market. Monsanto sought compensation from farmers found to have crops of this cultivar in their fields without paying a license fee. However, these farmers claimed that the pollen containing the ''Roundup Ready'' gene was blown into their fields and crossed with unaltered canola. Other farmers claimed that after spraying Roundup in non-canola fields to kill weeds before planting, ''Roundup Ready'' [[volunteer (botany)|volunteers]] were left behind, causing extra expense to rid their fields of the weeds.{{Sfn|Hartley|2008}}

In a closely followed legal battle, the [[Supreme Court of Canada]] found in favor of Monsanto's [[patent infringement]] claim for unlicensed growing of ''Roundup Ready'' in its 2004 ruling on ''[[Monsanto Canada Inc. v. Schmeiser]]'', but also ruled that Schmeiser was not required to pay any damages. The case garnered international controversy, as a court-sanctioned legitimization for the global patent protection of [[genetically modified crops]]. In March 2008, an [[out-of-court settlement]] between Monsanto and Schmeiser agreed that Monsanto would clean up the entire GMO-canola crop on Schmeiser's farm, at a cost of about CAN$660.{{Sfn|Hartley|2008}}

=== Production ===
{{owidslider
|start        = 2023
|list         = Template:OWID/rapeseed production#gallery
|location      = commons
|caption      =
|title        =
|language     =
|file         = [[File:rapeseed production, World, 2023 (cropped).svg|link=|thumb|upright=1.6|Rapeseed production]]
|startingView = World
}}

The [[Food and Agriculture Organization]] reports global production of {{Convert|36|e6MT|e6ST e6LT|abbr=off}} in the 2003–2004 season, and an estimated {{Convert|58.4|e6MT|e6ST e6LT|abbr=off}} in the 2010–2011 season.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.fas.usda.gov/oilseeds/circular/2011/March/oilseeds.pdf |title=Oilseeds: World Markets and Trade |access-date=17 February 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120208134100/http://www.fas.usda.gov/oilseeds/circular/2011/March/oilseeds.pdf |archive-date=8 February 2012|publisher=[[Foreign Agricultural Service]]}}</ref>

Worldwide production of rapeseed (including canola) has increased sixfold between 1975 and 2007. The production of canola and rapeseed since 1975 has opened up the edible oil market for rapeseed oil. Since 2002, production of [[biodiesel]] has been steadily increasing in EU and U.S. to {{Convert|6|e6MT|e6ST e6LT|abbr=off}} in 2006. Rapeseed oil is positioned to supply a good portion of the vegetable oils needed to produce that fuel. World production was thus expected to trend further upward between 2005 and 2015 as biodiesel content requirements in Europe go into effect.<ref>Canola, Growing Great 2016, The Canola Council of Canada, 2007, page 3, 10</ref>

{| class="wikitable sortable"
|+ Top rapeseed producers in millions of [[tonnes]]<ref name="FAOSTAT1961-2021">{{cite web |title=FAOSTAT |url=https://www.fao.org/faostat/en/#data/QCL |website=www.fao.org |access-date=23 May 2024}}</ref>
|-
! Country||1961||1971||1981||1991||2001||2011||2021
|- style="text-align:right;"
| style="text-align:left;" |{{CHN}}||0.4||1.2||4.1||7.4||11.3||13.4||14.7
|- style="text-align:right;"
| style="text-align:left;" |{{CAN}}||0.3||2.2||1.8||4.2||5.0||14.6||14.2
|- style="text-align:right;"
| style="text-align:left;" |{{IND}}||1.3||2.0||2.3||5.2||4.2||8.2||10.2
|- style="text-align:right;"
| style="text-align:left;" |{{AUS}}||<0.007||0.05||0.01||0.1||1.8||2.4||4.8
|- style="text-align:right;"
| style="text-align:left;" |{{GER}}||0.2||0.4||0.6||3.0||4.2||3.9||3.5
|- style="text-align:right;"
| style="text-align:left;" |{{FRA}}||0.1||0.7||1.0||2.3||2.9||5.4||3.3
|- style="text-align:right;"
| style="text-align:left;" |{{POL}}||0.3||0.6||0.5||1.0||1.1||1.9||3.1
|- style="text-align:right;"
| style="text-align:left;" |{{UKR}}||<0.007||<0.06||<0.03||<0.1||0.1||1.4||2.9
|- style="text-align:right;"
| style="text-align:left;" |{{RUS}}||   ||   ||   ||   ||0.1||1.0||2.8
|- style="text-align:right;"
| style="text-align:left;" |{{ROM}}||0.006||0.004||0.01||0.009||0.1||0.7||1.4
|- style="text-align:right;"
| style="text-align:left;" |{{USA}}||   ||   ||   ||0.09||0.9||0.7||1.2
|- style="text-align:right;"
| style="text-align:left;" |{{GBR}}||0.002||0.01||0.3||1.3||1.2||2.8||1.0
|- style="text-align:right;"
| style="text-align:left;" |{{CZE}}||0.07||0.1||0.3||0.7||1.0||1.0||1.0
|- style="text-align:right;"
| style="text-align:left;" |{{LIT}}||   ||   ||   ||   ||0.06||0.5||0.9
|- style="text-align:right;"
| style="text-align:left;" |{{HUN}}||0.01||0.07||0.08||0.1||0.2||0.5||0.7
|- style="text-align:right;"
| style="text-align:left;" |{{DEN}}||0.03||0.05||0.3||0.7||0.2||0.5||0.7
|- style="text-align:right;"
| style="text-align:left;" |{{BLR}}||   ||   ||   ||   ||0.09||0.4||0.7
|- style="text-align:right;"
| style="text-align:left;" |'''World Total'''||3.6||8.3||12.5||27.8||36.0||62.8||72.0
|- style="text-align:right;"
|}

== Uses ==
[[File:Rapeseed, roasted.jpg|thumb|Roasted canola|alt=Roasted [[canola]] seeds]]

Rapeseed is grown for the production of edible vegetable oils, animal feed, and [[biodiesel]]. Rapeseed was the third-leading source of vegetable oil in the world in 2000, after [[soybean]] and [[palm oil]].{{Sfn|USDA|2002|p=26}} It is the world's second-leading source of [[protein]] meal after soybean.{{Sfn|Heuzé|Tran|Sauvant|Lessire|2020}}

=== Vegetable oil ===
{{main|Rapeseed oil}}

Rapeseed oil is one of the oldest known vegetable oils, but historically was used in limited quantities due to high levels of [[erucic acid]], which is damaging to [[cardiac muscle]] of animals, and glucosinolates, which made it less nutritious in animal feed.{{Sfn|O'Brien|2008|p=37}} Rapeseed oil can contain up to 54% erucic acid.{{Sfn|Sahasrabudhe|1977|p=323}} Food-grade oil derived from rapeseed cultivars, known as canola oil or low-erucic-acid rapeseed oil (LEAR oil), has been [[generally recognized as safe]] by the [[United States Food and Drug Administration]].{{Sfn|USFDA|2010}} Canola oil is limited by government regulation to a maximum of 2% erucic acid by weight in the US{{Sfn|USFDA|2010}} and 2% in the EU,<ref>{{Cite web |title=Regulation (EC) No 1881/2006 as regards maximum levels of erucic acid and hydrocyanic acid in certain foodstuffs |url=https://eur-lex.europa.eu/eli/reg/2019/1870/corrigendum/2019-11-19/oj |access-date=2021-04-21 |website=eur-lex.europa.eu |language=en}}</ref> with special regulations for infant food. These low levels of erucic acid are not believed to cause harm in human [[infants]].{{Sfn|USFDA|2010}}{{Sfn|EC|1980}}

=== Animal feed ===
Processing of rapeseed for oil production produces rapeseed meal as a byproduct. The byproduct is a high-protein animal feed, competitive with soybean. Rapeseed is an excellent [[silage]] crop (fermented and stored in air-tight conditions for later use as a winterfeed). The feed is employed mostly for [[cattle]] feeding, but is also used for [[pig]]s and [[poultry]].{{Sfn|Heuzé|Tran|Sauvant|Lessire|2020}} However, the high levels of [[glucosinolates]], sinapine, and phytic acid in the seed cake of rapeseed cause detrimental health effects to animals, reduce digestibility of certain nutrients, reduce palatability, and contribute to eutrophication of waterways.{{Sfn|Potts|Rakow|Males|1999}}<ref>{{cite journal |last1=zum Felde |first1=Thomas |last2=Strack |first2=Dieter |last3=Becker |first3=Heiko |last4=Baumert |first4=A |title=Genetic variation for sinapate ester content in winter rapeseed (Brassica napus L.) and development of NIRS calibration equations |journal=Plant Breeding |date=February 2007 |volume=126 |issue=3 |pages=291–296 |doi=10.1111/j.1439-0523.2007.01342.x |bibcode=2007PBree.126..291Z |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/230096646 |access-date=5 June 2024}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Gupta |first1=Raj Kishor |last2=Gangoliya |first2=Shivraj Singh |last3=Singh |first3=Nand Kumar |title=Reduction of phytic acid and enhancement of bioavailable micronutrients in food grains |journal=J Food Sci Technol |date=February 2015 |volume=52 |issue=2 |pages=676–684 |doi=10.1007/s13197-013-0978-y |pmid=25694676 |pmc=4325021 }}</ref> In China, rapeseed meal is mostly used as a soil fertilizer rather than for animal feed.{{Sfn|Bonjean|Dequidt|Sang|Limagrain|2016|p=6}}

=== Biodiesel ===
Rapeseed oil is used as diesel fuel, either as [[biodiesel]], straight in heated fuel systems, or blended with petroleum distillates for powering motor vehicles. Biodiesel may be used in pure form in newer engines without engine damage and is frequently combined with fossil-fuel [[Diesel fuel|diesel]] in ratios varying from 2% to 20% biodiesel. Owing to the costs of growing, crushing, and refining rapeseed biodiesel, rapeseed-derived biodiesel from new oil costs more to produce than standard diesel fuel, so diesel fuels are commonly made from the used oil. Rapeseed oil is the preferred oil stock for biodiesel production in most of Europe, accounting for about 80% of the feedstock,{{citation needed|date=April 2020}} partly because rapeseed produces more oil per unit of land area compared to other oil sources, such as soybeans, but primarily because canola oil has a significantly lower [[Gel point (petroleum)|gel point]] than most other vegetable oils.

Because of anticipated changes to climate, a 2018 study predicted that rapeseed would become an unreliable source of oil for biofuels.<ref name=":0" />

=== Other ===
Rapeseed is also used as a [[cover crop]] in the US during the winter as it prevents [[soil erosion]], produces large amounts of [[biomass]], suppresses weeds and can improve soil [[tilth]] with its root system. Some cultivars of rapeseed are also used as annual forage and are ready for grazing livestock 80 to 90 days after planting.{{Sfn|AgMRC|2018}}

Rapeseed has a high [[Melliferous flower|melliferous]] potential (produces substances that can be collected by insects) and is a main forage crop for [[honeybees]].{{Sfn|Bertazzini|Forlani|2016|p=2}} Monofloral rapeseed honey has a whitish or milky yellow color, peppery taste and, due to its fast crystallization time, a soft-solid texture. It crystallizes within 3 to 4 weeks and can ferment over time if stored improperly.{{Sfn|Lixandru|2017}} The low fructose-to-glucose ratio in [[Monofloral honey|monofloral rapeseed honey]] causes it to quickly granulate in the [[honeycomb]], forcing beekeepers to extract the honey within 24 hours of it being capped.{{Sfn|Bertazzini|Forlani|2016|p=2}}

As a [[Lubricant#Biolubricant|biolubricant]], rapeseed has possible uses for bio-medical applications (e.g., lubricants for artificial joints) and the use of personal lubricant for sexual purposes.{{Sfn|Salimon|Salih|Yousif|2010|p=522}} Biolubricant containing 70% or more canola/rapeseed oil has replaced petroleum-based chainsaw oil in Austria although it is typically more expensive.{{Sfn|Garrett|1998}}

Rapeseed has been researched as a means of containing [[radionuclide]]s that contaminated the soil after the [[Chernobyl disaster]]{{Sfn|Smith|2004}}{{Sfn|Walker|2010}} as it has a rate of uptake up to three times more than other grains, and only about 3 to 6% of the radionuclides go into the oilseeds.{{Sfn|Smith|2004}}

Rapeseed meal can be incorporated into the [[soil]] as a [[biofumigant]].<ref name="Recent-Advances">
{{Cite book |last=Reddy |first=Parvatha |title=Recent Advances in Crop Protection |publisher=[[Springer Science+Business Media]] |year=2013 |isbn=978-81-322-0723-8 |language=en |doi=10.1007/978-81-322-0723-8 |lccn=2012948035 |s2cid=13212055}}</ref> It suppresses such [[fungal crop pathogen]]s as ''[[Rhizoctonia solani]]'' and ''[[Pratylenchus penetr]]''.<ref name="Recent-Advances" />{{RP|page=39}}

== See also ==
* [[Triangle of U]]

== Explanatory notes ==
{{Reflist|group=note}}

== References ==
=== Citations ===
{{Reflist|20em}}

=== General and cited references ===
{{refbegin|30em|indent=yes}}
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{{refend}}

== External links ==
* {{Commons category-inline|Brassica napus}}
* {{Commons category-inline|Rapeseed oil}}

{{Cantonese cuisine}}
{{Brassica}}
{{Bioenergy}}
{{Taxonbar|from=Q177932}}
{{Authority control}}

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