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{{short description|European cultural period of the 14th to 17th centuries}}
{{About|the European Renaissance of the 15th and 16th centuries|the earlier European Renaissance|Renaissance of the 12th century|other uses|Renaissance (disambiguation)}}{{not to be confused with|Reconnaissance}}
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{{Use dmy dates|date=April 2024}}
{{Renaissance}}

The '''Renaissance''' ({{IPAc-en|UK|r|ɪ|ˈ|n|eɪ|s|ən|s}} {{Respell|rin|AY|sənss}}, {{IPAc-en|US|ˈ|r|ɛ|n|ə|s|ɑː|n|s|audio=en-us-Renaissance.ogg}} {{Respell|REN|ə|sahnss}})<ref>{{Cite web|title=renaissance|work=[[Cambridge Advanced Learner's Dictionary|Cambridge Dictionary]]|url=https://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/english/renaissance|access-date=4 April 2024}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Wells|first=John|author-link=John C. Wells|title=Longman Pronunciation Dictionary|publisher=Pearson Longman|edition=3rd|year= 2008|isbn=978-1405881180}}</ref>{{efn|{{IPA|fr|ʁənɛsɑ̃s|lang|Renaissance fr.wav|small=no}}, meaning 'rebirth', from {{lang|fr|renaître}} 'to be born again'; {{langx|it|Rinascimento}} {{IPA|it|rinaʃʃiˈmento|}}, from {{lang|it|rinascere}}, with the same meanings.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?search=renaissance&searchmode=none |title=Online Etymology Dictionary: "Renaissance" |website=Etymonline.com |access-date=31 July 2009}}</ref>}} is a [[Periodization|period of history]] and a European [[cultural movement]] covering the 15th and 16th centuries. It marked the transition from the [[Middle Ages]] to [[modernity]] and was characterized by an effort to revive and surpass the ideas and achievements of [[classical antiquity]]. Associated with great [[social change]] in most fields and disciplines, including [[Renaissance art|art]], [[Renaissance architecture|architecture]], politics, [[Renaissance literature|literature]], [[Renaissance exploration|exploration]] and [[Science in the Renaissance|science]], the Renaissance was first centered in the [[Republic of Florence]], then spread to the [[Italian Renaissance|rest of Italy]] and later throughout Europe. The term ''rinascita'' ("rebirth") first appeared in ''[[Lives of the Artists]]'' ({{circa|1550}}) by [[Giorgio Vasari]], while the corresponding French word {{lang|fr|renaissance}} was adopted into English as the term for this period during the 1830s.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Brotton |first1=Jerry |title=The Renaissance: a very short introduction |date=2006 |publisher=Oxford Univ. Press |location=Oxford |isbn=978-0-19-280163-0 |pages=9 |edition=1. publ}}</ref>{{efn|''The [[Oxford English Dictionary]]'' cites W Dyce and C H Wilson's ''Letter to Lord Meadowbank'' (1837): "A style possessing many points of rude resemblance with the more elegant and refined character of the art of the renaissance in Italy." And the following year in ''Civil Engineer & Architect's Journal'': "Not that we consider the style of the Renaissance to be either pure or good per se." See Oxford English Dictionary, "Renaissance"}}

The Renaissance's intellectual basis was founded in its version of [[Renaissance humanism|humanism]], derived from the concept of Roman {{Lang|la|[[humanitas]]}} and the rediscovery of [[classical Greek philosophy]], such as that of [[Protagoras]], who said that "man is the measure of all things". Although the invention of [[Movable type#Europe|metal movable type]] sped the dissemination of ideas from the later 15th century, the changes of the Renaissance were not uniform across Europe: the first traces appear in Italy as early as the late 13th century, in particular with the writings of [[Dante]] and the paintings of [[Giotto]].

As a cultural movement, the Renaissance encompassed innovative flowering of [[Renaissance Latin|literary Latin]] and an explosion of [[vernacular literature]]s, beginning with the 14th-century resurgence of learning based on classical sources, which contemporaries credited to [[Petrarch]]; the development of linear perspective and other techniques of rendering a more natural reality in painting; and gradual but widespread [[History of education|educational reform]]. It saw myriad artistic developments and contributions from such [[polymath]]s as [[Leonardo da Vinci]] and [[Michelangelo]], who inspired the term "Renaissance man".<ref>{{Cite web |title=BBC Science {{!}} Learn about Leonardo da Vinci |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/science/leonardo/ |access-date=2025-10-26 |website=www.bbc.co.uk}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=BBC - History - Michelangelo |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/history/historic_figures/michelangelo.shtml |access-date=2025-10-26 |website=www.bbc.co.uk |language=en-GB}}</ref> In politics, the Renaissance contributed to the development of the customs and conventions of diplomacy, and in science to an increased reliance on observation and [[inductive reasoning]]. The period also saw revolutions in other intellectual and [[Social science|social scientific]] pursuits, as well as the introduction of modern banking and the field of accounting.<ref name="jkdiwan" />

==Period==
The Renaissance period started during the [[crisis of the Late Middle Ages]] and conventionally ends with the waning of [[humanism]], and the advents of the [[Reformation]] and [[Counter-Reformation]], and in art, the [[Baroque]] period. It had a different period and characteristics in different regions, such as the Italian Renaissance, the [[Northern Renaissance]], the [[Spanish Renaissance]], etc.

In addition to the standard periodization, proponents of a "long Renaissance" may put its beginning in the 14th century and its end in the 17th century.{{efn| "Historians of different kinds will often make some choice between a long Renaissance (say, 1300–1600), a short one (1453–1527), or somewhere in between (the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, as is commonly adopted in music histories)."<ref> ''The Cambridge History of Seventeenth-Century Music: Volume 1'', p. 4, 2005, Cambridge University Press, [https://books.google.com/books?id=mHJvKVq0vXoC&pg=PA4 Google Books].</ref> Or between [[Petrarch]] and [[Jonathan Swift]], an even longer period.<ref>See Rosalie L. Colie, quoted in Hageman, Elizabeth H., in ''Women and Literature in Britain, 1500–1700'', p. 190, 1996, ed. Helen Wilcox, Cambridge University Press, {{ISBN|978-0521467773}}, [https://books.google.com/books?id=CVgF5yTALgAC&pg=PA190 Google Books].</ref> Another source dates it from 1350 to 1620.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Renaissance Era Dates|url=https://www.encyclopedia.com/literature-and-arts/language-linguistics-and-literary-terms/literature-general/renaissance#:~:text=Historians%20also%20argue%20over%20how,it%20lasted%20until%20about%201620.|website=encyclopedia.com}}</ref> }}

The traditional view focuses more on the Renaissance's [[Early modern period|early modern]] aspects and argues that it was a break from the past, but many historians today focus more on its medieval aspects and argue that it was an extension of the Middle Ages.<ref>{{Cite book | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NCKoDQAAQBAJ&pg=PP14| title=Renaissance Humanism, from the Middle Ages to Modern Times| isbn=978-1351904391| last1=Monfasani| first1=John|year=2016|publisher=Taylor & Francis}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bdIBlQXSKi8C&pg=PA63|publisher=Reaktion Books|title=Forever Young: A Cultural History of Longevity|isbn=978-1861891549|last1=Boia|first1=Lucian|year=2004}}</ref>

=== Italian Renaissance ===
The beginnings of the period—the early Renaissance of the 15th century and the Italian [[Italian Renaissance painting#Proto-Renaissance painting|Proto-Renaissance]] from around 1250 or 1300—overlap considerably with the [[Late Middle Ages]], conventionally dated to {{circa|1350–1500}}, and the Middle Ages themselves were a long period filled with gradual changes, like the modern age; as a transitional period between both, the Renaissance has close similarities to both, especially the late and early sub-periods of either.

The Renaissance began in [[Republic of Florence|Florence]], one of the many states of [[Italy in the Middle Ages|Italy]].<ref>Burke, P., ''The European Renaissance: Centre and Peripheries'' 1998</ref> The Italian Renaissance concluded in 1527 when [[Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor|Holy Roman Emperor Charles V]] launched an [[Sack of Rome (1527)|assault on Rome]] during  the [[war of the League of Cognac]]. Nevertheless, its impact endured in the art of renowned Italian painters like [[Tintoretto]], [[Sofonisba Anguissola]], and [[Paolo Veronese]], who continued their work during the mid-to-late 16th century.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The Renaissance: At a Glance {{!}} Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/The-Renaissance-At-a-Glance-2235613 |access-date=2025-03-14 |website=www.britannica.com |language=en}}</ref> 

Various theories have been proposed to account for its origins and characteristics, focusing on a variety of factors, including Florence's social and civic peculiarities at the time: its political structure, the patronage of its dominant family, the [[House of Medici|Medici]],<ref name="strathern">Strathern, Paul ''The Medici: Godfathers of the Renaissance'' (2003)</ref> and the migration of [[Greek scholars in the Renaissance|Greek scholars]] and their texts to Italy following the [[fall of Constantinople]] to the [[Ottoman Empire]].<ref name="Britannica1">''Encyclopædia Britannica'', "Renaissance", 2008, O.Ed.</ref><ref>Harris, Michael H. ''History of Libraries in the Western World'', Scarecrow Press Incorporate, 1999, p. 69, {{ISBN|0810837242}}</ref><ref name="Norwich">Norwich, John Julius, ''A Short History of Byzantium'', 1997, Knopf, {{ISBN|0679450882}}</ref> Other major centers were [[Republic of Venice|Venice]], [[Republic of Genoa|Genoa]], [[Duchy of Milan|Milan]], [[Papal States|Rome]] during the [[Renaissance Papacy]], and [[Kingdom of Naples|Naples]]. From Italy, the Renaissance spread throughout Europe and also to American, African and Asian territories ruled by the European colonial powers of the time or where Christian missionaries were active.

The Renaissance has a long and complex [[historiography]], and in line with general skepticism of discrete periodizations, there has been much debate among historians reacting to the 19th-century glorification of the "Renaissance" and individual cultural heroes as "Renaissance men", questioning the usefulness of ''Renaissance'' as a term and as a historical delineation.<ref name = "brotton"/>

Some observers have questioned whether the Renaissance was a cultural "advance" from the Middle Ages, instead seeing it as a period of pessimism and [[nostalgia]] for [[classical antiquity]],<ref name="huizinga">[[Johan Huizinga|Huizanga, Johan]], ''[[The Waning of the Middle Ages]]'' (1919, trans. 1924)</ref> while social and economic historians, especially of the ''[[longue durée]]'', have instead focused on [[Continuity thesis|the continuity]] between the two eras,<ref name="starn">{{cite journal|author=Starn, Randolph|jstor=2650779|title= Renaissance Redux|journal=The American Historical Review|volume=103|issue=1 |year=1998|pages=122–124|doi=10.2307/2650779|issn=0002-8762 }}</ref> which are linked, as [[Panofsky]] observed, "by a thousand ties".<ref>Panofsky 1969:6.</ref>{{efn|

Some scholars have called for an end to the use of the term, which they see as a product of [[Presentism (literary and historical analysis)|presentism]] – the use of [[history]] to validate and glorify modern ideals.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Trinkaus |first1=Charles |last2=Rabil |first2=Albert |last3=Purnell |first3=Frederick |title=Renaissance Ideas and the Idea of the Renaissance |journal=Journal of the History of Ideas |date=1990 |volume=51 |issue=4 |pages=667–684 |doi=10.2307/2709652 |jstor=2709652 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/2709652 |issn=0022-5037|url-access=subscription }}</ref>  }}

The word has also been extended to other historical and cultural movements, such as the [[Carolingian Renaissance]] (8th and 9th centuries), [[Ottonian Renaissance]] (10th and 11th century), and the [[Renaissance of the 12th century]].<ref name=mur />

==Overview==
The Renaissance was a cultural movement that profoundly affected European intellectual life in the [[early modern period]]. Beginning in Italy, and spreading to the rest of Europe by the 16th century, its influence was felt in [[Renaissance art|art]], [[Renaissance architecture|architecture]], [[Renaissance philosophy|philosophy]], [[Renaissance literature|literature]], [[Renaissance music|music]], [[History of science in the Renaissance|science]], [[Renaissance technology|technology]], politics, religion, and other aspects of intellectual inquiry. Renaissance scholars employed the humanist method in study, and searched for realism and human emotion in art.<ref name="perry-humanities">Perry, M. [http://college.hmco.com/humanities/perry/humanities/1e/students/summaries/ch13.html Humanities in the Western Tradition] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090429045555/http://college.hmco.com/humanities/perry/humanities/1e/students/summaries/ch13.html |date=29 April 2009 }}, Ch. 13</ref>

[[Renaissance humanism|Renaissance humanists]] such as [[Poggio Bracciolini]] sought out in Europe's monastic libraries the Latin literary, historical, and oratorical texts of [[Classical antiquity|antiquity]], while the [[fall of Constantinople]] (1453) generated a wave of [[émigré]] [[Greek scholars in the Renaissance|Greek scholars]] bringing precious manuscripts in [[ancient Greek]], many of which had fallen into obscurity in the West. It was in their new focus on literary and historical texts that Renaissance scholars differed so markedly from the medieval scholars of the [[Renaissance of the 12th century]], who had focused on studying [[Greek language|Greek]] and [[Arabic]] works of natural sciences, philosophy, and mathematics, rather than on such cultural texts.{{citation needed|date=November 2023}}

[[File:Sandro Botticelli - Idealized Portrait of a Lady (Portrait of Simonetta Vespucci as Nymph) - Google Art Project.jpg|thumb|left|upright|''[[Portrait of a Young Woman (Botticelli, Frankfurt)|Portrait of a Young Woman]]'' ({{Circa|1480}}–85) ([[Simonetta Vespucci]]) by [[Sandro Botticelli]]]]

In the revival of [[neoplatonism]], Renaissance humanists did not reject [[Christianity]]; on the contrary, many of the Renaissance's greatest works were devoted to it, and the Church patronized many works of Renaissance art.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Kennedy |first=Lesley |date=2021-09-27 |title=How the Renaissance Challenged the Church and Influenced the Reformation |url=https://www.history.com/articles/renaissance-influence-reformation-humanism |access-date=2025-10-26 |website=HISTORY |language=en}}</ref> But a subtle shift took place in the way that intellectuals approached religion that was reflected in many other areas of cultural life.<ref name="openuni">Open University, ''[http://www.open.ac.uk/Arts/renaissance2/religion.htm Looking at the Renaissance: Religious Context in the Renaissance]'' (Retrieved 10 May 2007)</ref>{{better source needed|date=November 2023}} In addition, many Greek Christian works, including the Greek New Testament, were brought back from [[Byzantium]] to Western Europe and engaged Western scholars for the first time since late antiquity. This new engagement with Greek Christian works, and particularly the return to the original Greek of the New Testament promoted by humanists [[Lorenzo Valla]] and [[Erasmus]], helped pave the way for the [[Reformation]].{{citation needed|date=November 2023}}

Well after the first artistic return to [[classicism]] had been exemplified in the sculpture of [[Nicola Pisano]], Florentine painters led by [[Masaccio]] strove to portray the human form realistically, developing techniques to render [[Perspective (graphical)|perspective]] and light more naturally. [[Political philosophy|Political philosophers]], most famously [[Niccolò Machiavelli]], sought to describe political life as it really was, that is to understand it rationally. A critical contribution to Italian Renaissance humanism, [[Giovanni Pico della Mirandola]] wrote ''De hominis dignitate'' (''[[Oration on the Dignity of Man]]'', 1486), a series of theses on philosophy, natural thought, faith, and magic defended against any opponent on the grounds of reason. In addition to studying classical Latin and Greek, Renaissance authors also began increasingly to use vernacular languages; combined with the introduction of the [[printing press]], this allowed many more people access to books, especially the Bible.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2025-10-12 |title=The Open University |url=https://fass.open.ac.uk/ |access-date=2025-10-26 |website=fass.open.ac.uk |language=en-gb}}</ref>

In all, the Renaissance can be viewed as an attempt by intellectuals to study and improve the secular and worldly, both through the revival of ideas from antiquity and through novel approaches to thought. Political philosopher [[Hans Kohn]] describes it as an age where "Men looked for new foundations"; some like [[Erasmus]] and [[Thomas More]] envisioned new reformed spiritual foundations, others, in the words of [[Machiavelli]], ''una lunga sperienza delle cose moderne ed una continua lezione delle antiche'' (a long experience with modern life and a continuous learning from antiquity).<ref>{{cite book |last1=Kohn |first1=Hans |title=The Idea of Nationalism: A Study in Its Origins and Background |date=1944 |publisher=Macmillan |location=New York}}</ref>

Sociologist [[Rodney Stark]] plays down the Renaissance in favor of the earlier innovations of the [[Italian city-states]] in the [[High Middle Ages]], which married responsive government, Christianity and the birth of [[capitalism]].<ref>Stark, Rodney, ''The Victory of Reason'', Random House, NY: 2005</ref> This analysis argues that, whereas the great European states (France and Spain) were [[Absolute monarchy|absolute monarchies]], and others were under direct Church control, the independent [[City-state|city-republics]] of Italy took over the principles of capitalism invented on monastic estates and set off a vast unprecedented [[Commercial Revolution]] that preceded and financed the Renaissance.{{citation needed|date=November 2023}}

Historian [[Leon Poliakov]] offers a critical view in his seminal study of European racist thought: ''The Aryan Myth''. According to Poliakov, the use of ethnic origin myths are first used by Renaissance humanists "in the service of a new born chauvinism".<ref>{{cite book |last1=Fernandez-Armesto |first1=Felipe |title=The Medieval Frontiers of Latin Christendom |date=2017 |publisher=Taylor & Francis |location=United Kingdom}}</ref><ref>Leon Poliakov, [https://archive.org/details/aryanmythhistory0000poli ''The Aryan Myth: A History of Racist and Nationalist Ideas in Europe''], trans. E. Howard (Basic Books, 1974), pp. 21–22, cited in Fernandez-Armesto (2017)</ref>

==Origins==
{{main|Italian Renaissance}}
[[File:Sunset over florence 1.jpg|thumb|View of [[Florence]], birthplace of the Renaissance]]

Many argue that the ideas characterizing the Renaissance had their origin in [[Florence]] at the turn of the 13th and 14th centuries, in particular with the writings of [[Dante Alighieri]] (1265–1321) and [[Petrarch]] (1304–1374), as well as the paintings of [[Giotto di Bondone]] (1267–1337). Some writers date the Renaissance quite precisely; one proposed starting point is 1401, when the rival geniuses [[Lorenzo Ghiberti]] and [[Filippo Brunelleschi]] competed for the contract to build the bronze doors for the [[Florence Baptistery|Baptistery]] of the [[Florence Cathedral]] (Ghiberti won).<ref>Walker, Paul Robert, ''The Feud that sparked the Renaissance: How Brunelleschi and Ghiberti Changed the Art World'' (New York, Perennial-Harper Collins, 2003)</ref> Others see more general competition between artists and polymaths such as Brunelleschi, Ghiberti, [[Donatello]], and [[Masaccio]] for artistic commissions as sparking the creativity of the Renaissance.

Yet it remains much debated why the Renaissance began in Italy, and why it began when it did. Accordingly, several theories have been put forward to explain its origins. Peter Rietbergen posits that various influential Proto-Renaissance movements started from roughly 1300 onwards across many regions of [[Europe]].<ref name=":02">{{Cite book |last=Rietbergen |first=P. J. A. N. |title=A Short History of the Netherlands: From Prehistory to the Present Day |publisher=Bekking |year=2000 |isbn=90-6109-440-2 |edition=4th |location=Amersfoort |pages=59 |oclc=52849131}}</ref>

===Latin and Greek phases of Renaissance humanism===
{{see also|Greek scholars in the Renaissance|Transmission of the Greek Classics}}
[[File:Salutati.jpg|thumb|upright|left|[[Coluccio Salutati]]]]

In stark contrast to the [[High Middle Ages]], when Latin scholars focused almost entirely on studying Greek and Arabic works of natural science, philosophy and mathematics,{{efn|For information on this earlier, very different approach to a different set of ancient texts (scientific texts rather than cultural texts) see [[Latin translations of the 12th century]], and [[Islamic contributions to Medieval Europe]].}} Renaissance scholars were most interested in recovering and studying Latin and Greek literary, historical, and oratorical texts. Broadly speaking, this began in the 14th century with a Latin phase, when Renaissance scholars such as [[Petrarch]], [[Coluccio Salutati]] (1331–1406), [[Niccolò de' Niccoli]] (1364–1437), and [[Poggio Bracciolini]] (1380–1459) scoured the libraries of Europe in search of works by such Latin authors as [[Cicero]], [[Lucretius]], [[Livy]], and [[Seneca the Younger|Seneca]].<ref>{{harvnb|Reynolds|Wilson|1974|pp=113–123}}</ref> By the early 15th century, the bulk of the surviving such Latin literature had been recovered; the Greek phase of Renaissance humanism was under way, as Western European scholars turned to recovering ancient Greek literary, historical, oratorical and theological texts.<ref>{{harvnb|Reynolds|Wilson|1974|pp=123, 130–137}}</ref>

Unlike with Latin texts, which had been preserved and studied in Western Europe since late antiquity, the study of ancient Greek texts was very limited in medieval Western Europe. Ancient Greek works on science, mathematics, and philosophy had been studied since the [[High Middle Ages]] in Western Europe and in the [[Islamic Golden Age]] (normally in translation), but Greek literary, oratorical and historical works (such as [[Homer]], the Greek dramatists, [[Demosthenes]] and [[Thucydides]]) were not studied in either the Latin or medieval [[Islamic world]]s; in the Middle Ages these sorts of texts were only studied by Byzantine scholars. Some argue that the [[Timurid Renaissance]] in [[Samarkand]] and [[Herat]], whose magnificence toned with Florence as the center of a cultural rebirth,<ref>{{cite book | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=71LfAfvseeYC&dq=Periods%20of%20World%20History%3A%20A%20Latin%20American%20Perspective&pg=PP1 | title=Periods of World History: A Latin American Perspective | isbn=978-0-89581-863-8 | last1=Truxillo | first1=Charles A. | date=2008 | publisher=Jain Publishing Company }}</ref><ref>{{cite book | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=CHzGvqRbV_IC&dq=%27%27The%20Empire%20of%20the%20Steppes%3A%20A%20History%20of%20Central%20Asia%27%27%2C&pg=PP1 | title=The Empire of the Steppes: A History of Central Asia | isbn=978-0-8135-1304-1 | last1=Grousset | first1=René | date=1970 | publisher=Rutgers University Press }}</ref> were linked to the [[Ottoman Empire]], whose conquests led to the migration of [[Greek scholars in the Renaissance|Greek scholars]] to Italian cities.<ref name=Britannica1/><ref>Harris, Michael H. ''History of Libraries in the Western World'', Scarecrow Press, 1999, p. 145, {{ISBN|0810837242}}.</ref> One of the greatest achievements of Renaissance scholars was to bring this entire class of Greek cultural works back into Western Europe for the first time since late antiquity.

[[Muslims|Muslim]] logicians, most notably [[Avicenna]] and [[Averroes]], had inherited Greek ideas after they had invaded and conquered [[Muslim conquest of Egypt|Egypt]] and the [[Muslim conquest of the Levant|Levant]]. Their translations and commentaries on these ideas worked their way through the Arab West into [[Al-Andalus|Iberia]] and [[Emirate of Sicily|Sicily]], which became important centers for this transmission of ideas. Between the 11th and 13th centuries, many schools dedicated to the translation of philosophical and scientific works from [[Classical Arabic]] to [[Medieval Latin]] were established in Iberia, most notably the [[Toledo School of Translators]]. This work of translation from Islamic culture, though largely unplanned and disorganized, constituted one of the greatest transmissions of ideas in history.<ref name="MP">[https://books.google.com/books?id=kKGgoNo4un0C&pg=PA261 ''Western Civilization: Ideas, Politics, and Society''], Marvin Perry, Myrna Chase, Margaret C. Jacob, James R. Jacob, 2008, pp. 261–262.</ref>

The movement to reintegrate the regular study of Greek literary, historical, oratorical, and theological texts back into the Western European curriculum is usually dated to the 1396 invitation from Coluccio Salutati to the Byzantine diplomat and scholar [[Manuel Chrysoloras]] (c. 1355–1415) to teach Greek in Florence.<ref>{{harvnb|Reynolds|Wilson|1974|pp=119, 131}}</ref> This legacy was continued by a number of expatriate Greek scholars, from [[Basilios Bessarion]] to [[Leo Allatius]].

===Social and political structures in Italy===
[[File:Italy 1494 AD.png|thumb|A political map of the [[Italian Peninsula]] c. 1494]]

The unique political structures of [[Italy]] during the [[Late Middle Ages]] have led some to theorize that its unusual social climate allowed the emergence of a rare cultural efflorescence. Italy did not exist as a [[Nation state|political entity]] in the early modern period. Instead, it was divided into smaller [[Italian city-states|city-states]] and territories: the [[Kingdom of Naples|Neapolitans]] controlled the south, the [[Republic of Florence|Florentines]] and the [[Papal States|Romans]] at the center, the [[Duchy of Milan|Milanese]] and the [[Republic of Genoa|Genoese]] to the north and west respectively, and the [[Republic of Venice|Venetians]] to the north east. 15th-century Italy was one of the most [[Urbanization|urbanized]] areas in Europe.<ref>Kirshner, Julius, ''Family and Marriage: A socio-legal perspective'', [https://books.google.com/books?id=x9grA0fWpDMC&pg=PA89 ''Italy in the Age of the Renaissance: 1300–1550''], ed. John M. Najemy (Oxford University Press, 2004) p. 89 (Retrieved 10 May 2007)</ref> Many of its cities stood among the ruins of ancient Roman buildings; it seems likely that the classical nature of the Renaissance was linked to its origin in the Roman Empire's heartland.<ref>Burckhardt, Jacob, ''The Revival of Antiquity'', [http://www.boisestate.edu/courses/hy309/docs/burckhardt/3-2.html ''The Civilization of the Renaissance in Italy''] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070407181825/http://www.boisestate.edu/courses/hy309/docs/burckhardt/3-2.html |date=7 April 2007 }} (trans. by S.G.C. Middlemore, 1878)</ref>

Historian and political philosopher [[Quentin Skinner]] points out that [[Otto of Freising]] (c. 1114–1158), a German bishop visiting north Italy during the 12th century, noticed a widespread new form of political and social organization, observing that Italy appeared to have exited from [[feudalism]] so that its society was based on merchants and commerce. Linked to this was anti-monarchical thinking, represented in the famous early Renaissance [[fresco]] cycle ''[[The Allegory of Good and Bad Government]]'' by [[Ambrogio Lorenzetti]] (painted 1338–1340), whose strong message is about the virtues of fairness, justice, republicanism and good administration. Holding both Church and [[Holy Roman Empire|Empire]] at bay, these city republics were devoted to notions of liberty. Skinner reports that there were many defences of liberty such as the [[Matteo Palmieri]] (1406–1475) celebration of Florentine genius not only in art, sculpture and architecture, but "the remarkable efflorescence of moral, social and political philosophy that occurred in Florence at the same time".<ref name="Skinner, Quentin p. 69">Skinner, Quentin, ''The Foundations of Modern Political Thought'', vol I: ''The Renaissance''; vol II: ''The Age of Reformation'', Cambridge University Press, p. 69</ref>

Even cities and states beyond central Italy, such as the Republic of Florence at this time, were also notable for their [[Maritime republics|merchant republics]], especially the Republic of Venice. Although in practice these were [[Oligarchy|oligarchical]], and bore little resemblance to a modern [[democracy]], they did have democratic features and were responsive states, with forms of participation in governance and belief in liberty.<ref name="Skinner, Quentin p. 69"/><ref>Stark, Rodney, ''The Victory of Reason'', New York, Random House, 2005</ref><ref>Martin, J. and Romano, D., ''Venice Reconsidered'', Baltimore, Johns Hopkins University, 2000</ref> The relative political freedom they afforded was conducive to academic and artistic advancement.<ref name="burckhardt-republics">Burckhardt, Jacob, ''The Republics: Venice and Florence'', ''[http://www.boisestate.edu/courses/hy309/docs/burckhardt/1-7.html The Civilization of the Renaissance in Italy] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070407035616/http://www.boisestate.edu/courses/hy309/docs/burckhardt/1-7.html |date=7 April 2007 }}'', translated by S.G.C. Middlemore, 1878.</ref> Likewise, the position of Italian cities such as Venice as great trading centres made them intellectual crossroads. [[Merchant]]s brought with them ideas from far corners of the globe, particularly the [[Levant]]. Venice was Europe's gateway to trade with the East, and a producer of [[Venetian glass|fine glass]], while Florence was a capital of textiles. The wealth such business brought to Italy meant large public and private artistic projects could be commissioned and individuals had more leisure time for study.<ref name="burckhardt-republics" />

===Black Death===
{{Main|Black Death}}
[[File:The Triumph of Death P001393.jpg|thumb|[[Pieter Brueghel the Elder|Pieter Bruegel]]'s ''[[The Triumph of Death]]'' ({{circa|1562}}) reflects the social upheaval and terror that followed the plague that devastated medieval Europe.]]

One theory that has been advanced is that the devastation in [[Florence]] caused by the [[Black Death]], which hit Europe between 1348 and 1350, resulted in a shift in the world view of people in 14th century Italy. [[Black Death in Italy|Italy]] was particularly badly hit by the plague, and it has been speculated that the resulting familiarity with death caused thinkers to dwell more on their lives on Earth, rather than on [[spirituality]] and the [[afterlife]].<ref>[[Barbara Tuchman]] (1978) ''A Distant Mirror'', Knopf {{ISBN|0394400267}}.</ref> It has also been argued that the Black Death prompted a new wave of piety, manifested in the [[Patron#Arts|sponsorship]] of religious works of art.<ref>[https://www.ucalgary.ca/applied_history/tutor/endmiddle/bluedot/blackdeath.html The End of Europe's Middle Ages: The Black Death] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130309162102/http://www.ucalgary.ca/applied_history/tutor/endmiddle/bluedot/blackdeath.html |date=9 March 2013 }} University of Calgary website. (Retrieved 5 April 2007)</ref> However, this does not fully explain why the Renaissance occurred specifically in Italy in the 14th century. The Black Death was a [[pandemic]] that affected all of Europe in the ways described, not only Italy. The Renaissance's emergence in Italy was most likely the result of the complex interaction of the above factors.<ref name="brotton">Brotton, J., ''The Renaissance: A Very Short Introduction'', [[Oxford University Press|OUP]], 2006 {{ISBN|0192801635}}.</ref>

The plague was carried by fleas on sailing vessels returning from the ports of Asia, spreading quickly due to lack of proper sanitation: the population of [[Kingdom of England|England]], then about 4.2 million, lost 1.4 million people to the [[bubonic plague]]. Florence's population was nearly halved in the year 1348. As a result of the decimation in the populace the value of the working class increased, and commoners came to enjoy more freedom. To answer the increased need for labor, workers traveled in search of the most favorable position economically.<ref>Netzley, Patricia D. ''Life During the Renaissance''. San Diego: Lucent Books, Inc., 1998.</ref>

The demographic decline due to the plague had economic consequences: the prices of food dropped and land values declined by 30–40% in most parts of Europe between 1350 and 1400.<ref>Hause, S. & Maltby, W. (2001). ''A History of European Society. Essentials of Western Civilization'' (Vol. 2, p. 217). Belmont, CA: Thomson Learning, Inc.</ref> Landholders faced a great loss, but for ordinary men and women it was a windfall. The survivors of the plague found not only that the prices of food were cheaper but also that lands were more abundant, and many of them inherited property from their dead relatives.

The spread of disease was significantly more rampant in areas of poverty. [[Epidemic]]s ravaged cities, particularly children. Plagues were easily spread by lice, unsanitary drinking water, armies, or by poor sanitation. Children were hit the hardest because many diseases, such as [[typhus]] and [[congenital syphilis]], target the immune system, leaving young children without a fighting chance. Children in city dwellings were more affected by the spread of disease than the children of the wealthy.<ref>"Renaissance And Reformation France" Mack P. Holt pp. 30, 39, 69, 166</ref>

The Black Death caused greater upheaval to Florence's social and political structure than later epidemics. Despite a significant number of deaths among members of the ruling classes, the government of Florence continued to function during this period. Formal meetings of elected representatives were suspended during the height of the epidemic due to the chaotic conditions in the city, but a small group of officials was appointed to conduct the affairs of the city, which ensured continuity of government.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Hatty|first1=Suzanne E.|last2=Hatty|first2=James|title=Disordered Body: Epidemic Disease and Cultural Transformation|publisher=SUNY Press|page=89|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=V0yJQXmGODgC&pg=PA89|year=1999|isbn=978-0791443651}}</ref>

===Cultural conditions in Florence===
{{See also|Florentine Renaissance art}}
[[File:Vasari-Lorenzo.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Lorenzo de' Medici]], ruler of [[Florence]] and patron of arts (portrait by [[Vasari]])]]
It has long been a matter of debate why the Renaissance began in [[Florence]], and not elsewhere in Italy. Scholars have noted several features unique to Florentine cultural life that may have caused such a cultural movement. Many have emphasized the role played by the [[House of Medici|Medici]], a banking family and later [[dynasty|ducal ruling house]], in patronizing and stimulating the arts. Some historians have postulated that Florence was the birthplace of the Renaissance as a result of luck, i.e., because "[[Great man theory|Great Men]]" were born there by chance:<ref name="burckhardt-individual">Burckhardt, Jacob, ''The Development of the Individual'', ''[http://www.boisestate.edu/courses/hy309/docs/burckhardt/2-1.html The Civilization of the Renaissance in Italy] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081003000844/http://www.boisestate.edu/courses/hy309/docs/burckhardt/2-1.html |date=3 October 2008 }}'', translated by S.G.C. Middlemore, 1878.</ref> Leonardo, Botticelli and Michelangelo were all born in [[Tuscany]]. Arguing that such chance seems improbable, other historians have contended that these "Great Men" were only able to rise to prominence because of the prevailing cultural conditions at the time.<ref>Stephens, J., ''Individualism and the cult of creative personality'', ''The Italian Renaissance'', New York, 1990 p. 121.</ref>

[[Lorenzo de' Medici]] (1449–1492) was the catalyst for an enormous amount of arts patronage, encouraging his countrymen to commission works from the leading artists of Florence, including [[Leonardo da Vinci]], [[Sandro Botticelli]], and [[Michelangelo Buonarroti]].<ref name="strathern" /> Works by [[Neri di Bicci]], Botticelli, Leonardo, and [[Filippino Lippi]] had been commissioned additionally by the Convent of San Donato in Scopeto in Florence.<ref>Guido Carocci, I dintorni di Firenze, Vol. II, ''Galletti e Cocci, Firenze'', 1907, pp. 336–337</ref>

The Renaissance was certainly underway before Lorenzo de' Medici came to power – indeed, before the Medici family itself achieved hegemony in Florentine society.

==Characteristics==
===Humanism===
{{Main|Renaissance humanism|Renaissance humanism in Northern Europe|List of Renaissance humanists}}
In some ways, [[Renaissance humanism]] was not a philosophy but a method of learning. In contrast to the medieval [[scholasticism|scholastic]] mode, which focused on resolving contradictions between authors, Renaissance humanists would study ancient texts in their original languages and appraise them through a combination of reasoning and [[empirical evidence]]. Humanist education was based on the programme of ''Studia Humanitatis'', the study of five humanities: [[poetry]], [[grammar]], [[history]], [[moral philosophy]], and [[rhetoric]]. Although historians have sometimes struggled to define humanism precisely, most have settled on "a middle of the road definition... the movement to recover, interpret, and assimilate the language, literature, learning and values of ancient Greece and Rome".<ref>Burke, P., "The spread of Italian humanism", in ''The Impact of Humanism on Western Europe'', ed. A. Goodman and A. MacKay, London, 1990, p. 2.</ref> Above all, humanists asserted "the genius of man&nbsp;... the unique and extraordinary ability of the human mind".<ref>As asserted by Gianozzo Manetti in ''On the Dignity and Excellence of Man'', cited in Clare, J., ''Italian Renaissance''.</ref>

[[File:Pico1.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Giovanni Pico della Mirandola]], writer of the famous ''[[Oration on the Dignity of Man]]'', which has been called the "Manifesto of the Renaissance"<ref>{{cite web |title=Oration on the Dignity of Man |url=http://www.wsu.edu:8080/~wldciv/world_civ_reader/world_civ_reader_1/pico.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110104024142/http://www.wsu.edu:8080/~wldciv/world_civ_reader/world_civ_reader_1/pico.html |archive-date=4 January 2011 |last1=Pico Della Mirandola |translator-first1=Richard |translator-last1=Hooker |work=Reading About the World, Volume 1 |via=World Civilizations at Washington State University }}</ref>]]

Humanist scholars shaped the intellectual landscape throughout the early modern period. Political philosophers such as Niccolò Machiavelli and [[Thomas More]] revived the ideas of Greek and Roman thinkers and applied them in critiques of contemporary government, following the Islamic steps of [[Ibn Khaldun]].<ref>{{Cite book|last=Miller |first= John H. |title=Ibn Khaldun and Machiavelli : an examination of paradigms|oclc=11117374}}</ref><ref>Religion and Political Development: Some Comparative Ideas on Ibn Khaldun and Machiavelli by Barbara Freyer Stowasser</ref> [[Pico della Mirandola]] wrote the "manifesto" of the Renaissance, the ''[[Oration on the Dignity of Man]]'', a vibrant defence of thinking.{{citation needed|date=November 2023}} [[Matteo Palmieri]] (1406–1475), another humanist, is most known for his work ''Della vita civile'' ("On Civic Life"; printed 1528), which advocated [[Classical republicanism|civic humanism]], and for his influence in refining the [[Tuscan language|Tuscan vernacular]] to the same level as Latin. Palmieri drew on Roman philosophers and theorists, especially [[Cicero]], who, like Palmieri, lived an active public life as a citizen and official, as well as a theorist and philosopher and also [[Quintilian]]. Perhaps the most succinct expression of his perspective on humanism is in a 1465 poetic work ''La città di vita'', but an earlier work, ''Della vita civile'', is more wide-ranging. Composed as a series of dialogues set in a country house in the Mugello countryside outside Florence during the plague of 1430, Palmieri expounds on the qualities of the ideal citizen. The dialogues include ideas about how children develop mentally and physically, how citizens can conduct themselves morally, how citizens and states can ensure probity in public life, and an important debate on the difference between that which is pragmatically useful and that which is honest.{{citation needed|date=November 2023}}

The humanists believed that it is important to transcend to the afterlife with a perfect mind and body, which could be attained with education. The purpose of humanism was to create a universal man whose person combined intellectual and physical excellence and who was capable of functioning honorably in virtually any situation.<ref>Hause, S. & Maltby, W. (2001). ''A History of European Society. Essentials of Western Civilization'' (Vol. 2, pp. 245–246). Belmont, CA: Thomson Learning, Inc.</ref> This ideology was referred to as the ''[[Polymath|uomo universale]]'', an ancient Greco-Roman ideal. Education during the Renaissance was mainly composed of ancient literature and history as it was thought that the classics provided moral instruction and an intensive understanding of human behavior.

===Humanism and libraries===
A unique characteristic of some Renaissance libraries is that they were open to the public. These libraries were places where ideas were exchanged and where scholarship and reading were considered both pleasurable and beneficial to the mind and soul. As freethinking was a hallmark of the age, many libraries contained a wide range of writers. Classical texts could be found alongside humanist writings. These informal associations of intellectuals profoundly influenced Renaissance culture. An essential tool of Renaissance librarianship was the catalog that listed, described, and classified a library's books.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Murray |first=Stuart |title=The Library: An Illustrated History |publisher=Skyhorse Publishing |year=2009 |pages=88}}</ref> Some of the richest "bibliophiles" built libraries as temples to books and knowledge. A number of libraries appeared as manifestations of immense wealth joined with a love of books. In some cases, cultivated library builders were also committed to offering others the opportunity to use their collections. Prominent aristocrats and princes of the Church created great libraries for the use of their courts, called "court libraries", and were housed in lavishly designed monumental buildings decorated with ornate woodwork, and the walls adorned with frescoes (Murray, Stuart A.P.).

===Art===
{{Main|Renaissance art}}

Renaissance art marks a cultural rebirth at the close of the Middle Ages and rise of the Modern world. One of the distinguishing features of Renaissance art was its development of highly realistic linear perspective. [[Giotto|Giotto di Bondone]] (1267–1337) is credited with first treating a painting as a window into space, but it was not until the demonstrations of architect [[Filippo Brunelleschi]] (1377–1446) and the subsequent writings of [[Leon Battista Alberti]] (1404–1472) that perspective was formalized as an artistic technique.<ref>Clare, John D. & Millen, Alan, ''Italian Renaissance'', London, 1994, p. 14.</ref>

[[File:Da Vinci Vitruve Luc Viatour.jpg|thumb|left|[[Leonardo da Vinci]]'s ''[[Vitruvian Man]]'' (c. 1490) demonstrates the effect writers of Antiquity had on Renaissance thinkers. Based on the specifications in [[Vitruvius]]' ''[[De architectura]]'' (1st century BC), Leonardo tried to draw the perfectly proportioned man. ([[Gallerie dell'Accademia]], [[Venice]])]]
The development of [[Perspective (graphical)|perspective]] was part of a wider trend toward [[Realism (arts)|realism]] in the arts.<ref>Stork, David G. ''[http://sirl.stanford.edu/~bob/teaching/pdf/arth202/Stork_SciAm04.pdf Optics and Realism in Renaissance Art] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070614023308/http://sirl.stanford.edu/~bob/teaching/pdf/arth202/Stork_SciAm04.pdf |date=14 June 2007 }}'' (Retrieved 10 May 2007)</ref> Painters developed other techniques, studying light, shadow, and, famously in the case of [[Leonardo da Vinci]], [[human anatomy]]. Underlying these changes in artistic method was a renewed desire to depict the beauty of nature and to unravel the axioms of [[aesthetics]], with the works of Leonardo, [[Michelangelo]] and [[Raphael]] representing artistic pinnacles that were much imitated by other artists.<ref>Vasari, Giorgio, ''Lives of the Artists'', translated by George Bull, Penguin Classics, 1965, {{ISBN|0140441646}}.</ref> Other notable artists include [[Sandro Botticelli]], working for the Medici in Florence, [[Donatello]], another Florentine, and [[Titian]] in Venice, among others.

In the [[Low Countries]], a particularly vibrant artistic culture developed. The work of [[Hugo van der Goes]] and [[Jan van Eyck]] was particularly influential on the development of painting in Italy, both technically with the introduction of [[oil paint]] and canvas, and stylistically in terms of naturalism in representation. Later, the work of [[Pieter Brueghel the Elder]] would inspire artists to depict themes of everyday life.<ref>''[http://www.wga.hu/frames-e.html?/bio/b/bruegel/pieter_e/biograph.html Peter Brueghel Biography]'', Web Gallery of Art (Retrieved 10 May 2007)</ref>

In architecture, Filippo Brunelleschi was foremost in studying the remains of ancient classical buildings. With rediscovered knowledge from the 1st-century writer [[Vitruvius]] and the flourishing discipline of mathematics, Brunelleschi formulated the Renaissance style that emulated and improved on classical forms. His major feat of engineering was building the dome of [[Florence Cathedral]].<ref>Hooker, Richard, ''[http://www.cartage.org.lb/en/themes/arts/Architec/RenaissanceArchitecture/ArchitectureandPublicSpace/ArchitectureandPublicSpace.htm Architecture and Public Space] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070522160730/http://www.cartage.org.lb/en/themes/arts/Architec/RenaissanceArchitecture/ArchitectureandPublicSpace/ArchitectureandPublicSpace.htm |date=22 May 2007 }}'' (Retrieved 10 May 2007)</ref> Another building demonstrating this style is the [[Basilica of Sant'Andrea, Mantua]], built by Alberti. The outstanding architectural work of the [[High Renaissance]] was the rebuilding of [[St. Peter's Basilica]], combining the skills of [[Bramante]], Michelangelo, Raphael, [[Antonio da Sangallo the Younger|Sangallo]] and [[Carlo Maderno|Maderno]].

During the Renaissance, architects aimed to use columns, [[pilaster]]s, and [[entablatures]] as an integrated system. The Roman orders types of columns are used: [[Tuscan order|Tuscan]] and [[Composite order|Composite]]. These can either be structural, supporting an arcade or architrave, or purely decorative, set against a wall in the form of pilasters. One of the first buildings to use pilasters as an integrated system was in the Old Sacristy (1421–1440) by Brunelleschi.<ref>{{cite book|title=Filippo Brunelleschi: The Buildings|last=Saalman|first=Howard|publisher=Zwemmer|year=1993|isbn=978-0271010670}}</ref> Arches, semi-circular or (in the [[Mannerism|Mannerist]] style) segmental, are often used in arcades, supported on piers or columns with capitals. There may be a section of entablature between the capital and the springing of the arch. Alberti was one of the first to use the arch on a monumental. Renaissance vaults do not have ribs; they are semi-circular or segmental and on a square plan, unlike the [[Gothic style|Gothic]] vault, which is frequently rectangular.

Renaissance artists were not pagans, although they admired antiquity and kept some ideas and symbols of the medieval past. [[Nicola Pisano]] (c. 1220 – c. 1278) imitated classical forms by portraying scenes from the Bible. His ''Annunciation'', from the [[Pisa Baptistry]], demonstrates that classical models influenced Italian art before the Renaissance took root as a literary movement.<ref>Hause, S. & Maltby, W. (2001). ''A History of European Society. Essentials of Western Civilization'' (Vol. 2, pp. 250–251). Belmont, CA: Thomson Learning, Inc.</ref>

===Navigation and geography===
{{further|Age of Discovery}}
[[File:Cantino planisphere (1502).jpg|thumb|250px|The [[Cantino planisphere]] (1502), the earliest world map detailing [[Portuguese maritime exploration]]]]
During the Renaissance, extending from 1450 to 1650,<ref>{{cite book |last1=Woodward |first1=David |title=The History of Cartography, Volume Three: Cartography in the European Renaissance |date=2007 |publisher=University of Chicago Press |location=Chicago and London |isbn=978-0226907338}}</ref> every continent was visited and mostly mapped by Europeans, except the south polar continent now known as [[Antarctica]]. This development is depicted in the large world map ''Nova Totius Terrarum Orbis Tabula'' made by the Dutch cartographer [[Joan Blaeu]] in 1648 to commemorate the [[Peace of Westphalia]].

In 1492, [[Christopher Columbus]] sailed across the Atlantic Ocean from Spain seeking a direct route to India of the [[Delhi Sultanate]]. He accidentally stumbled upon the Americas, but believed he had reached the [[East Indies]]. The [[History of Science|science historian]] [[David Wootton]] argues that the discovery of continents that were completely unknown to the [[classical_antiquity|ancients]] had a profound impact on European intellectual life in the 16th century and was (along with the [[Printing_press#The_printing_revolution|printing press]]) one of the two key catalysts for the [[Scientific Revolution]]. <ref>"...before Columbus discovered America in 1492 there was no clear-cut and well-established idea of discovery; the idea of discovery is, as will become apparent, a precondition for the invention of science....the discovery of America disproved a central claim about the world which had been generally accepted before 1492...This was a crucial precondition for the astronomical revolution which followed." Wootton, David. ''The Invention of Science: A New History of the Scientific Revolution'' (Penguin, 2015) . xiv + 769 pp. {{ISBN|0-06-175952-X}}</ref>

Between 1519 and 1522, the [[Magellan_expedition|Magellan–Elcano expedition]] achieved the first circumnavigation of Earth in history,<ref>{{Cite web |year=2010 |title=Ferdinand Magellan |url=https://library.princeton.edu/visual_materials/maps/websites/pacific/magellan/magellan.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240315154103/https://library.princeton.edu/visual_materials/maps/websites/pacific/magellan/magellan.html |archive-date=15 March 2024 |access-date=2024-05-09 |website=library.princeton.edu |publisher=[[Princeton University Library]] |quote=}}</ref> including the first crossing of the Pacific by a European expedition, revealing the vast scale of that ocean.<ref>Redondo, J.M.G., & Martín, J.M.M. (2021). [https://www.torrossa.com/gs/resourceProxy?an=5141676&publisher=FZ1670#page=11 Making a Global Image of the World: Science, Cosmography and Navigation in Times of the First Circumnavigation of Earth, 1492–1522]. [[Spanish National Research Council]]''. Culture & History Digital Journal''. 10(2). {{ISSN|2253-797X}}</ref>

Between 1577 and 1580, [[Francis_Drake%27s_circumnavigation|Drake's Raiding Expedition]] achieved the second circumnavigation of Earth (carried out in a single expedition). Drake was also the first to complete a circumnavigation as captain while leading the expedition throughout the entire voyage.

In 1606, the Dutch navigator [[Willem Janszoon]] sailed from the East Indies in the [[Dutch East India Company]] ship [[Duyfken]] and landed in [[Australia]]. He charted about 300&nbsp;km of the west coast of [[Cape York Peninsula]] in Queensland. More than thirty Dutch expeditions followed, mapping sections of the north, west, and south coasts. In 1642–1643, [[Abel Tasman]] circumnavigated the continent, proving that it was not joined to the imagined south polar continent.

By 1650, Dutch cartographers had mapped most of the coastline of the continent, which they named [[New Holland (Australia)|New Holland]], except the east coast which was charted in 1770 by [[James Cook]].

The long-imagined south polar continent was eventually sighted in 1820. Throughout the Renaissance it had been known as [[Terra Australis]], or 'Australia' for short. However, after that name was transferred to New Holland in the nineteenth century, the new name of 'Antarctica' was bestowed on the south polar continent.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Cameron-Ash |first1=M. |title=Lying for the Admiralty: Captain Cook's Endeavour Voyage |date=2018 |publisher=Rosenberg |location=Sydney |isbn=978-0648043966 |pages=19–20}}</ref>

===Science===
{{main|Science in the Renaissance|Renaissance technology}}
{{see also|Medical Renaissance}}
[[File:Nikolaus Kopernikus.jpg|thumb|Anonymous portrait of [[Nicolaus Copernicus]] ({{circa|1580}})]]
[[File:Pacioli.jpg|thumb|''[[Portrait of Luca Pacioli]]'', father of accounting, painted by [[Jacopo de' Barbari]],{{efn|It is thought that [[Leonardo da Vinci]] may have painted the [[rhombicuboctahedron]].<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.2307/3619717 |title=The Portrait of Fra Luca Pacioli |journal=[[The Mathematical Gazette]] |volume=77 |issue=479 |page=143 |year=1993 |last1=MacKinnon |first1=Nick|jstor=3619717 |s2cid=195006163 }}</ref>}} 1495 ([[Museo di Capodimonte]])]]
Applied innovation extended to commerce. At the end of the 15th century, [[Luca Pacioli]] published the first work on [[bookkeeping]], making him the founder of [[accounting]].<ref name=jkdiwan>{{cite book |last=Diwan |first=Jaswith|title=Accounting Concepts & Theories|publisher=Morre|location=London|id=id# 94452|pages=1–2}}</ref>

The rediscovery of ancient texts and the invention of the [[printing press]] in about 1440 democratized learning and allowed a faster propagation of more widely distributed ideas. In the first period of the [[Italian Renaissance]], humanists favored the study of [[humanities]] over [[natural philosophy]] or [[applied mathematics]], and their reverence for classical sources further enshrined the [[Aristotle|Aristotelian]] and [[Ptolemy|Ptolemaic]] views of the universe. Writing around 1450, [[Nicholas of Cusa]] anticipated the [[Copernican heliocentrism|heliocentric]] worldview of [[Nicolaus Copernicus|Copernicus]], but in a philosophical fashion.

Science and art were intermingled in the early Renaissance, with polymath artists such as [[Leonardo da Vinci]] making observational drawings of anatomy and nature. Leonardo set up controlled experiments in water flow, medical dissection, and systematic study of movement and aerodynamics, and he devised principles of research method that led [[Fritjof Capra]] to classify him as the "father of modern science".{{efn|Exhaustive 2007 study by Fritjof Capra shows that Leonardo was a much greater scientist than previously thought, and not just an inventor. Leonardo was innovative in science theory and in conducting actual science practice. In Capra's detailed assessment of many surviving manuscripts, Leonardo's science in tune with holistic non-mechanistic and non-reductive approaches to science, which are becoming popular today.<ref>Capra, Fritjof, ''The Science of Leonardo; Inside the Mind of the Great Genius of the Renaissance'', New York, Doubleday, 2007.</ref>}} Other examples of Da Vinci's contribution during this period include machines designed to saw marbles and lift monoliths, and new discoveries in acoustics, botany, geology, anatomy, and mechanics.<ref>"Columbus and Vesalius – The Age of Discoverers". ''JAMA''. 2015;313(3):312. {{doi|10.1001/jama.2014.11534}}</ref>

A suitable environment had developed to question classical scientific doctrine. The [[Age of Discovery|discovery]] in 1492 of the [[New World]] by [[Christopher Columbus]] challenged the classical worldview. The works of Ptolemy (in geography) and [[Galen]] (in medicine) were found to not always match everyday observations. As the Reformation and [[Counter-Reformation]] clashed, the [[Northern Renaissance]] showed a decisive shift in focus from Aristotelean natural philosophy to chemistry and the biological sciences (botany, anatomy, and medicine).<ref>[[Allen Debus]], ''Man and Nature in the Renaissance'' (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1978).</ref> The willingness to question previously held truths and search for new answers resulted in a period of major scientific advancements.

Some view this as a "[[Scientific Revolution]]", heralding the beginning of the modern age,<ref>Butterfield, Herbert, ''The Origins of Modern Science, 1300–1800'', p. viii</ref> others as an acceleration of a continuous process stretching from the ancient world to the present day.<ref>Shapin, Steven. ''The Scientific Revolution'', Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1996, p. 1.</ref> Copernicus, in ''[[De revolutionibus orbium coelestium]]'' (''On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres''), posited that the Earth moved around the Sun. ''[[De humani corporis fabrica]]'' (''On the Workings of the Human Body'') by [[Andreas Vesalius]], gave a new confidence to the role of [[dissection]], observation, and the [[Mechanical philosophy|mechanistic]] view of anatomy.<ref name="short-science">Brotton, J., "Science and Philosophy", ''The Renaissance: A Very Short Introduction'', [[Oxford University Press]], 2006 {{ISBN|0192801635}}.</ref>

Another important development was in the ''process'' for discovery, the [[scientific method]],<ref name="short-science" /> focusing on [[Empiricism|empirical evidence]] and the importance of [[mathematics]], while discarding much of Aristotelian science. Early and influential proponents of these ideas included Copernicus, Galileo, and [[Francis Bacon]].<ref>Van Doren, Charles (1991) ''A History of Knowledge'' Ballantine, New York, [https://books.google.com/books?id=Tzmou_a0CCMC&pg=PA211 pp. 211–212], {{ISBN|0345373162}}</ref><ref>Burke, Peter (2000) ''A Social History of Knowledge: From Gutenberg to Diderot'' Polity Press, Cambridge, Massachusetts, [https://books.google.com/books?id=fbGuxIsGjwsC&pg=PA40 p. 40], {{ISBN|0745624847}}</ref> The new scientific method led to great contributions in the fields of astronomy, physics, biology, and anatomy.{{efn|[[Joseph Ben-David]] wrote:
{{blockquote|Rapid accumulation of knowledge, which has characterized the development of science since the 17th century, had never occurred before that time. The new kind of scientific activity emerged only in a few countries of Western Europe, and it was restricted to that small area for about two hundred years. (Since the 19th century, scientific knowledge has been assimilated by the rest of the world).}}}}<ref>{{Cite book | last = Hunt | first = Shelby D. | title = Controversy in marketing theory: for reason, realism, truth, and objectivity | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=07lchJbdWGgC| publisher = M.E. Sharpe | year = 2003 | page = 18 | isbn = 978-0765609328}}</ref>

===Music===
{{Main|Renaissance music}}
{{see also|Renaissance dance|List of Renaissance composers}}
From this changing society emerged a common, unifying musical language, in particular the [[polyphony|polyphonic]] style of the [[Franco-Flemish]] school. The development of [[printing press|printing]] made distribution of music possible on a wide scale. Demand for music as entertainment and as an activity for educated amateurs increased with the emergence of a bourgeois class. Dissemination of [[chanson]]s, [[motet]]s, and [[mass (music)|masses]] throughout Europe coincided with the unification of polyphonic practice into the fluid style that culminated in the second half of the sixteenth century in the work of composers such as [[Giovanni Pierluigi da Palestrina]], [[Orlande de Lassus]], [[Tomás Luis de Victoria]], and [[William Byrd]].

===Religion===
{{further|Renaissance Papacy|Reformation|Counter-Reformation}}
[[File:Pope Alexander Vi.jpg|thumb|left|upright|[[Pope Alexander VI|Alexander VI]], a [[House of Borgia|Borgia]] Pope infamous for his corruption]]
The new ideals of humanism, although more secular in some aspects, developed against a Christian backdrop, especially in the [[Northern Renaissance]]. Much, if not most, of the new art was commissioned by or in dedication to the [[Roman Catholic Church]].<ref name="openuni" /> However, the Renaissance had a profound effect on contemporary [[theology]], particularly in the way people perceived the relationship between man and God.<ref name="openuni" /> Many of the period's foremost theologians were followers of the humanist method, including [[Erasmus]], [[Huldrych Zwingli]], [[Thomas More]], [[Martin Luther]], and [[John Calvin]].

[[File:Clovio magi.jpg|thumb|''[[Adoration of the Magi]]'' and ''[[Solomon]] adored by the [[Queen of Sheba]]'' from the ''[[Farnese Hours]]'' (1546) by [[Giulio Clovio]] marks [[Italian Renaissance#Renaissance end|the end of the Italian Renaissance]] of [[illuminated manuscript]] together with the ''[[Index Librorum Prohibitorum]]''.]]

The Renaissance began in times of religious turmoil. The Late Middle Ages was a period of political intrigue surrounding the [[Papacy]], culminating in the [[Western Schism]], in which three men simultaneously claimed to be true [[Bishop]] of [[diocese of Rome|Rome]].<ref>[[Catholic Encyclopedia]], ''[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/13539a.htm Western Schism]'' (Retrieved 10 May 2007)</ref> While the schism was resolved by the [[Council of Constance]] (1414), a resulting reform movement known as [[Conciliarism]] sought to limit the power of the pope. Although the papacy eventually emerged supreme in ecclesiastical matters by the [[Fifth Council of the Lateran]] (1511), it was dogged by continued accusations of corruption, most famously in the person of [[Pope Alexander VI]], who was accused variously of [[simony]], [[nepotism]], and [[Children of the ordained|fathering children]] (most of whom were married off, presumably for the consolidation of power) while a [[Cardinal (Catholic Church)|cardinal]].<ref>''[[Catholic Encyclopedia]]'', ''[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/01289a.htm Alexander VI]'' (Retrieved 10 May 2007)</ref>

Churchmen such as Erasmus and Luther proposed reform to the Church, often based on humanist [[textual criticism]] of the [[New Testament]].<ref name="openuni" /> In October 1517, Luther published the ''[[Ninety-five Theses]]'', challenging papal authority and criticizing its perceived corruption, particularly with regard to instances of sold [[indulgence]]s.{{efn|It is sometimes thought that the Church, as an institution, formally sold indulgences at the time. This, however, was not the practice. Donations were often received, but only mandated by individuals that were condemned.}} The 95 Theses led to the [[Reformation]], a break with the Roman Catholic Church that previously claimed hegemony in [[Western Europe]]. Humanism and the Renaissance therefore played a direct role in sparking the Reformation, as well as in many other contemporaneous religious debates and conflicts.

[[Pope Paul III]] came to the papal throne (1534–1549) after the [[Sack of Rome (1527)|sack of Rome in 1527]], with uncertainties prevalent in the Catholic Church following the Reformation. Nicolaus Copernicus dedicated ''[[De revolutionibus orbium coelestium]]'' (On the Revolutions of the Celestial Spheres) to Paul III, who became the grandfather of [[Alessandro Farnese (cardinal)|Alessandro Farnese]], who had paintings by [[Titian]], [[Michelangelo]], and [[Raphael]], as well as an important collection of drawings, and who commissioned the masterpiece of [[Giulio Clovio]], arguably the last major [[illuminated manuscript]], the ''[[Farnese Hours]]''.

===Self-awareness===
[[File:The historian Leonardo Bruni.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Leonardo Bruni]]]]
By the 15th century, writers, artists, and architects in Italy were well aware of the transformations that were taking place and were using phrases such as ''modi antichi'' (in the antique manner) or ''alle romana et alla antica'' (in the manner of the Romans and the ancients) to describe their work. In the 1330s [[Petrarch]] referred to pre-Christian times as ''antiqua'' (ancient) and to the Christian period as ''nova'' (new).<ref name=mommsen>{{cite journal | last = Mommsen | first = Theodore E.|author-link =Theodor Ernst Mommsen |title = Petrarch's Conception of the 'Dark Ages' | journal = [[Speculum (journal)|Speculum]] | volume = 17 | issue = 2 | pages = 226–242 | year = 1942| doi = 10.2307/2856364|jstor = 2856364 | s2cid = 161360211}}</ref> From Petrarch's Italian perspective, this new period (which included his own time) was an age of national eclipse.<ref name=mommsen/> [[Leonardo Bruni]] was the first to use tripartite [[periodization]] in his ''History of the Florentine People'' (1442).<ref name="Hankins">Leonardo Bruni, James Hankins, ''History of the Florentine people'', Volume 1, Books 1–4 (2001), p. xvii.</ref> Bruni's first two periods were based on those of Petrarch, but he added a third period because he believed that Italy was no longer in a state of decline. [[Flavio Biondo]] used a similar framework in ''Decades of History from the Deterioration of the Roman Empire'' (1439–1453).

Humanist historians argued that contemporary scholarship restored direct links to the classical period, thus bypassing the Medieval period, which they then named for the first time the "Middle Ages". The term first appears in Latin in 1469 as ''media tempestas'' (middle times).<ref name="Albrow">Albrow, Martin, ''The Global Age: state and society beyond modernity'' (1997), Stanford University Press, [https://books.google.com/books?id=ZwmdxMMjOd4C&pg=PA205 p. 205] {{ISBN|0804728704}}.</ref> The term ''rinascita'' (rebirth) first appeared, however, in its broad sense in [[Giorgio Vasari]]'s ''[[Le Vite de' più eccellenti pittori, scultori, e architettori|Lives of the Artists]]'', 1550, revised 1568.<ref name="panofsky">[[Erwin Panofsky|Panofsky, Erwin]]. ''Renaissance and Renascences in Western Art'', New York: Harper and Row, 1960.</ref><ref>The Open University Guide to the Renaissance, ''[http://www.open.ac.uk/Arts/renaissance/defining.htm Defining the Renaissance] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090721070445/http://www.open.ac.uk/Arts/renaissance/defining.htm |date=21 July 2009 }}'' (Retrieved 10 May 2007)</ref> Vasari divides the age into three phases: the first phase contains [[Cimabue]], [[Giotto]], and [[Arnolfo di Cambio]]; the second phase contains [[Masaccio]], [[Filippo Brunelleschi|Brunelleschi]], and [[Donatello]]; the third centers on [[Leonardo da Vinci]] and culminates with [[Michelangelo]]. It was not just the growing awareness of classical antiquity that drove this development, according to Vasari, but also the growing desire to study and imitate nature.<ref>Sohm, Philip. ''Style in the Art Theory of Early Modern Italy'' (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2001) {{ISBN|0521780691}}.</ref>

==Spread==
In the 15th century, the Renaissance spread rapidly from its birthplace in Florence to the rest of Italy and soon to the rest of Europe. The invention of the [[printing press]] by German printer [[Johannes Gutenberg]] allowed the rapid transmission of these new ideas. As it spread, its ideas diversified and changed, being adapted to local culture. In the 20th century, scholars began to break the Renaissance into regional and national movements.

===England===
{{main|English Renaissance}}
[[File:Cobbe portrait of Shakespeare.jpg|thumb|upright|"What a piece of work is a man, how noble in reason, how infinite in faculties, in form and moving how express and admirable, in action how like an angel, in apprehension how like a god!" – from [[William Shakespeare]]'s ''[[Hamlet]]'']]
The [[Elizabethan era]] in the second half of the 16th century is usually regarded as the height of the English Renaissance. Many scholars see its beginnings in the early 16th century during the reign of [[Henry VIII]].<ref>{{Cite web |last=Foundation |first=Poetry |date=16 January 2024 |title=The English Renaissance |url=https://www.poetryfoundation.org/collections/154826/an-introduction-to-the-english-renaissance |access-date=17 January 2024 |website=Poetry Foundation |language=en}}</ref>

The English Renaissance is different from the [[Italian Renaissance]] in several ways. The dominant art forms of the English Renaissance were [[literature]] and [[music]], which had a rich flowering.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Best |first=Michael |title=Art in England: Life and Times - Internet Shakespeare Editions |url=https://internetshakespeare.uvic.ca/Library/SLT/literature/art/england.html |access-date=18 January 2024 |website=internetshakespeare.uvic.ca}}</ref> [[Visual arts]] in the English Renaissance were much less significant than in the Italian Renaissance. The English Renaissance period in art began far later than the Italian, which had moved into [[Mannerism]] by the 1530s.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Art in Renaissance England |url=https://www.oxfordbibliographies.com/display/document/obo-9780195399301/obo-9780195399301-0512.xml |access-date=18 January 2024 |website=obo |language=en}}</ref>

In literature the later part of the 16th century saw the flowering of [[Elizabethan literature]], with poetry heavily influenced by [[Italian Renaissance literature]] but [[Elizabethan theatre]] a distinctive native style. Writers include [[William Shakespeare]] (1564–1616), [[Christopher Marlowe]] (1564–1593), [[Edmund Spenser]] (1552–1599), Sir [[Thomas More]] (1478–1535), and Sir [[Philip Sidney]] (1554–1586). [[English Renaissance music]] competed with that in Europe with composers such as [[Thomas Tallis]] (1505–1585), [[John Taverner]] (1490–1545), and [[William Byrd]] (1540–1623). [[Elizabethan architecture]] produced the large [[prodigy house]]s of courtiers, and in the next century [[Inigo Jones]] (1573–1652), who introduced [[Palladian architecture]] to England.<ref>{{Cite web |title=A Brief History of Architecture in Britain |url=https://cdn.southampton.ac.uk/assets/imported/transforms/content-block/UsefulDownloads_Download/1358E11C695C4670BC764FA5CAB2EEFE/Architecture%20of%20London%20Preparatory%20Materials.pdf |publisher=[[University of Southampton]]}}</ref>

Elsewhere, Sir [[Francis Bacon]] (1561–1626) was the pioneer of modern scientific thought, and is commonly regarded as one of the founders of the [[Scientific Revolution]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=The Scientific Revolution |url=https://www.historic-uk.com/HistoryUK/HistoryofBritain/The-Scientific-Revolution/ |access-date=17 January 2024 |website=Historic UK |language=en-GB}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |last=Klein |first=Jürgen |title=Francis Bacon |date=2012 |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/win2016/entries/francis-bacon/ |editor-last=Zalta |editor-first=Edward N. |access-date=17 January 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191022212025/https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/win2016/entries/francis-bacon/ |url-status=live |edition=Winter 2016 |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University |archive-date=22 October 2019 |encyclopedia=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy}}</ref>

===France===
{{main|French Renaissance|French Renaissance architecture}}

[[File:Chateau de chambord.jpg|thumb|left|[[Château de Chambord]] (1519–1547), one of the most famous examples of [[Renaissance architecture]]]]

The word "Renaissance" is borrowed from the French language, where it means "re-birth". It was first used in the eighteenth century and was later popularized by French [[historian]] [[Jules Michelet]] (1798–1874) in his 1855 work, ''Histoire de France'' (History of France).<ref name="Michelet, Jules 1847">Michelet, Jules. ''History of France'', trans. G.H. Smith (New York: D. Appleton, 1847)</ref><ref name="Cronin2011">{{cite book|author=Vincent Cronin|title=The Florentine Renaissance|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=aU8z-Sge6WgC|year= 2011|publisher=Random House|isbn=978-1446466544}}</ref>

In 1495 the [[Italian Renaissance]] arrived in France, imported by King [[Charles VIII of France|Charles VIII]] after his invasion of Italy. A factor that promoted the spread of secularism was the inability of the Church to offer assistance against the [[Black Death]]. [[Francis I of France|Francis I]] imported Italian art and artists, including [[Leonardo da Vinci]], [[Francesco Primaticcio|Primaticcio]], [[Rosso Fiorentino]], [[Niccolò dell'Abbate]] and [[Benvenuto Cellini]] and built ornate palaces at great expense, like the [[Palace of Fontainebleau]] and the [[castle of Chambord]]. Writers such as [[François Rabelais]], [[Pierre de Ronsard]], [[Joachim du Bellay]], and [[Michel de Montaigne]], painters such as [[Jean Clouet]] and [[François Clouet]], and musicians such as [[Jean Mouton]] also borrowed from the spirit of the Renaissance. French Renaissance sculptors include [[Michel Colombe]], [[Jean Goujon]], [[Pierre Bontemps]], [[Ligier Richier]] and [[Germain Pilon]] while important architects of the time were [[Pierre Lescot]], who built the Henri II aisle of the [[Louvre Palace|Louvre]], [[Philibert de l'Orme|Philibert Delorme]] and [[Jacques I Androuet du Cerceau]].

In 1533, a fourteen-year-old [[Catherine de' Medici]] (1519–1589), born in Florence to [[Lorenzo de' Medici, Duke of Urbino]] and [[Madeleine de La Tour d'Auvergne]], married [[Henry II of France]], second son of King Francis I and Queen [[Claude of France|Claude]]. Though she became famous and infamous for her role in the [[French Wars of Religion]], she made a direct contribution in bringing arts, sciences, and music (including the origins of [[ballet]]) to the French court from her native Florence.

===Germany===
{{main|German Renaissance|Weser Renaissance}}
[[File:Maximilian I, Holy Roman Emperor.jpg|thumb|upright|''[[Portrait of Emperor Maximilian I]]'', by [[Albrecht Dürer]], 1519]]

In the second half of the 15th century, the Renaissance spirit spread to [[Germany]] and the [[Low Countries]], where the development of the printing press (ca. 1450) and Renaissance artists such as [[Albrecht Dürer]] (1471–1528) predated the influence from Italy. In the early Protestant areas of the country [[Renaissance humanism in Northern Europe|humanism]] became closely linked to the turmoil of the Reformation, and the art and writing of the [[German Renaissance]] frequently reflected this dispute.<ref>{{cite journal|jstor=560776|year=1965|title=The Religious Renaissance of the German Humanists |author=Strauss, Gerald|journal=English Historical Review|volume=80|issue=314|pages=156–157|doi=10.1093/ehr/LXXX.CCCXIV.156}}</ref> However, the [[Gothic style]] and medieval scholastic philosophy remained exclusively until the turn of the 16th century. Emperor [[Maximilian I, Holy Roman Emperor|Maximilian I]] of [[Habsburg]] (ruling 1493–1519) was the first truly Renaissance monarch of the [[Holy Roman Empire]].

===Hungary===
{{further|Renaissance architecture in Central and Eastern Europe}}
After Italy, [[Kingdom of Hungary|Hungary]] was the first European country where the Renaissance appeared.<ref>{{cite book|author1=Louis A. Waldman|author2=Péter Farbaky|author3=Louis Alexander Waldman|title=Italy & Hungary: Humanism and Art in the Early Renaissance|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=l-OKuQAACAAJ|year=2011|publisher=Villa I Tatti|isbn=978-0674063464}}</ref> The Renaissance style came directly from Italy during the [[Quattrocento]] (1400s) to Hungary first in the Central European region, thanks to the development of early Hungarian-Italian relationships — not only in dynastic connections, but also in cultural, humanistic and commercial relations{{snd}}growing in strength from the 14th century. The relationship between Hungarian and Italian Gothic styles was a second reason{{snd}}exaggerated breakthrough of walls is avoided, preferring clean and light structures. Large-scale building schemes provided ample and long term work for the artists, for example, the building of the Friss (New) [[Buda Castle|Castle in Buda]], the castles of Visegrád, [[Tata Castle|Tata]], and Várpalota. In [[Sigismund, Holy Roman Emperor|Sigismund]]'s court there were patrons such as [[Pippo Spano]], a descendant of the Scolari family of Florence, who invited Manetto Ammanatini and [[Masolino da Pannicale]] to Hungary.<ref>''Hungary'' (4th ed.) Authors: Zoltán Halász / András Balla (photo) / Zsuzsa Béres (translation) Published by Corvina, in 1998 {{ISBN|9631341291|9631347273}}</ref>

The new Italian trend combined with existing national traditions to create a particular local Renaissance art. Acceptance of Renaissance art was furthered by the continuous arrival of humanist thought in the country. Many young Hungarians studying at Italian universities came closer to the [[Florence|Florentine]] humanist center, so a direct connection with Florence evolved. The growing number of Italian traders moving to Hungary, specially to [[Buda]], helped this process. New thoughts were carried by the humanist prelates, among them [[Vitéz János]], archbishop of [[Esztergom]], one of the founders of Hungarian humanism.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.fondazione-delbianco.org/inglese/relaz00_01/mester.htm |title=the influences of the florentine renaissance in hungary |publisher=Fondazione-delbianco.org |access-date=31 July 2009 |archive-date=21 March 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090321190654/http://www.fondazione-delbianco.org/inglese/relaz00_01/mester.htm |url-status=dead }}</ref> During the long reign of Emperor Sigismund of Luxemburg the Royal Castle of Buda became probably the largest [[Gothic architecture|Gothic]] palace of the late [[Middle Ages]]. King [[Matthias Corvinus]] (r. 1458–1490) rebuilt the palace in early Renaissance style and further expanded it.<ref>History section: Miklós Horler: Budapest műemlékei I, Bp: 1955, pp. 259–307</ref><ref>Post-war reconstruction: László Gerő: A helyreállított budai vár, Bp, 1980, pp. 11–60.</ref>

After the marriage in 1476 of King Matthias to [[Beatrice of Naples]], [[Buda]] became one of the most important artistic centers of the Renaissance north of the [[Alps]].<ref name="czigany">Czigány, Lóránt, ''A History of Hungarian Literature'', "[http://mek.oszk.hu/02000/02042/html/5.html The Renaissance in Hungary]" (Retrieved 10 May 2007)</ref> The most important humanists living in Matthias' court were [[Antonio Bonfini]] and the famous Hungarian poet [[Janus Pannonius]].<ref name="czigany" /> [[András Hess]] set up a printing press in Buda in 1472. Matthias Corvinus's library, the [[Bibliotheca Corviniana]], was Europe's greatest collections of secular books: historical chronicles, philosophic and scientific works in the 15th century. His library was second only in size to the [[Vatican Library]]. (However, the Vatican Library mainly contained Bibles and religious materials.)<ref>Marcus Tanner, The Raven King: Matthias Corvinus and the Fate of his Lost Library (New Haven: Yale U.P., 2008)</ref> In 1489, Bartolomeo della Fonte of Florence wrote that Lorenzo de' Medici founded his own Greek-Latin library encouraged by the example of the Hungarian king. Corvinus's library is part of UNESCO World Heritage.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20051105150132/http://portal.unesco.org/ci/en/ev.php-URL_ID%3D15976%26URL_DO%3DDO_TOPIC%26URL_SECTION%3D201.html Documentary heritage concerning Hungary and recommended for inclusion in the Memory of the World International Register]. portal.unesco.org</ref>

Matthias started at least two major building projects.{{sfn|E. Kovács|1990|pp=177, 180–181}} The works in Buda and [[Visegrád]] began in about 1479.{{sfn|Engel|2001|p=319}} Two new wings and a [[hanging garden]] were built at the royal castle of Buda, and the palace at Visegrád was rebuilt in Renaissance style.{{sfn|Engel|2001|p=319}}{{sfn|E. Kovács|1990|pp=180–181}} Matthias appointed the Italian [[Chimenti Camicia]] and the Dalmatian [[Giovanni Dalmata]] to direct these projects.{{Sfn|Engel|2001|p=319}} Matthias commissioned the leading Italian artists of his age to embellish his palaces: for instance, the sculptor [[Benedetto da Majano]] and the painters [[Filippino Lippi]] and [[Andrea Mantegna]] worked for him.{{sfn|Kubinyi|2008|pp=171–172}} A copy of Mantegna's portrait of Matthias survived.{{sfn|Kubinyi|2008|p=172}} Matthias also hired the Italian military engineer [[Aristotele Fioravanti]] to direct the rebuilding of the forts along the southern frontier.{{sfn|E. Kovács|1990|p=181}} He had new monasteries built in [[Gothic architecture|Late Gothic]] style for the [[Franciscans]] in Kolozsvár, [[Szeged]] and Hunyad, and for the [[Order of Saint Paul the First Hermit|Paulines]] in Fejéregyháza.{{sfn|Klaniczay|1992|p=168}}{{sfn|Kubinyi|2008|p=183}} In the spring of 1485, [[Leonardo da Vinci]] travelled to [[Kingdom of Hungary (1301–1526)|Hungary]] on behalf of Sforza to meet King Matthias Corvinus, and was commissioned by him to paint a [[Madonna (art)|Madonna]].<ref>{{interlanguage link|Franz-Joachim Verspohl|de}}, ''Michelangelo Buonarroti und Leonardo Da Vinci: Republikanischer Alltag und Künstlerkonkurrenz in Florenz zwischen 1501 und 1505'' (Wallstein Verlag, 2007), p. 151.</ref>

Matthias enjoyed the company of Humanists and had lively discussions on various topics with them.{{sfn|Klaniczay|1992|p=166}} The fame of his magnanimity encouraged many scholars{{mdash}}mostly Italian{{mdash}}to settle in Buda.{{sfn|Cartledge|2011|p=67}} Antonio Bonfini, [[Pietro Ranzano]], Bartolomeo Fonzio, and [[Francesco Bandini]] spent many years in Matthias's court.{{sfn|E. Kovács|1990|p=185}}{{sfn|Klaniczay|1992|p=166}} This circle of educated men introduced the ideas of [[Neoplatonism]] to Hungary.{{sfn|Klaniczay|1992|p=167}}{{sfn|Engel|2001|p=321}} Like all intellectuals of his age, Matthias was convinced that the movements and combinations of the stars and planets exercised influence on individuals' life and on the history of nations.{{sfn|Hendrix|2013|p=59}} [[Martius Galeotti]] described him as "king and astrologer", and Antonio Bonfini said Matthias "never did anything without consulting the stars".{{sfn|Hendrix|2013|pp=63, 65}} Upon his request, the famous astronomers of the age, [[Johannes Regiomontanus]] and [[Marcin Bylica]], set up an observatory in Buda and installed it with [[astrolabe]]s and [[celestial globe]]s.{{sfn|Tanner|2009|p=99}} Regiomontanus dedicated his book on navigation that was used by [[Christopher Columbus]] to Matthias.{{sfn|Cartledge|2011|p=67}}

Other important figures of Hungarian Renaissance include [[Bálint Balassi]] (poet), [[Sebestyén Tinódi Lantos]] (poet), [[Bálint Bakfark]] (composer and lutenist), and [[Master MS]] (fresco painter).

===Low Countries===
{{main|Renaissance in the Netherlands|Dutch and Flemish Renaissance painting}}
[[File:Holbein-erasmus.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Erasmus of Rotterdam]] in 1523, as depicted by [[Hans Holbein the Younger]]]]

Culture in the Netherlands at the end of the 15th century was influenced by the Italian Renaissance through trade via [[Bruges]], which made Flanders wealthy. Its nobles commissioned artists who became known across Europe.<ref name="Heughebaert">{{cite book | last=Heughebaert | first=H. |author2=Defoort, A. |author3=Van Der Donck, R. | year=1998 | title=Artistieke opvoeding | publisher=Den Gulden Engel bvba. | location=Wommelgem, Belgium | isbn=978-9050352222}}</ref> In science, the [[Anatomy|anatomist]] [[Andreas Vesalius]] led the way; in [[cartography]], [[Gerardus Mercator]]'s map assisted explorers and navigators. In art, [[Dutch and Flemish Renaissance painting]] ranged from the strange work of [[Hieronymus Bosch]]<ref name="Janson">{{cite book | last = Janson | first = H.W. |author2=Janson, Anthony F.  | year = 1997 | title = History of Art | edition = 5th, rev. | publisher = [[Harry N. Abrams, Inc.]] | location = New York | url = http://www.abramsbooks.com | isbn = 978-0810934429}}</ref> to the everyday life depictions of [[Pieter Brueghel the Elder]].<ref name="Heughebaert"/>

Erasmus was arguably the Netherlands' best known humanist and Catholic intellectual during the Renaissance.<ref name=":02" />

===Northern Europe===
{{main|Northern Renaissance}}

The Renaissance in Northern Europe has been termed the "Northern Renaissance". While Renaissance ideas were moving north from Italy, there was a simultaneous southward spread of some areas of innovation, particularly in [[Renaissance music|music]].<ref name="musical-quarterly">{{cite journal|author=Láng, Paul Henry|jstor=738699|title=The So Called Netherlands Schools|journal=The Musical Quarterly|volume=25|issue= 1|year=1939|pages=48–59|doi=10.1093/mq/xxv.1.48}}</ref> The music of the 15th-century [[Burgundian School]] defined the beginning of the Renaissance in music, and the [[polyphony]] of the [[Franco-Flemish School|Netherlanders]], as it moved with the musicians themselves into Italy, formed the core of the first true international style in [[music]] since the standardization of [[Gregorian Chant]] in the 9th century.<ref name="musical-quarterly" /> The culmination of the Netherlandish school was in the music of the Italian [[composer]] [[Giovanni Pierluigi da Palestrina]]. At the end of the 16th century Italy again became a center of musical innovation, with the development of the polychoral style of the [[Venetian School (music)|Venetian School]], which spread northward into Germany around 1600. In [[Denmark]], the Renaissance sparked the translation of the works of [[Saxo Grammaticus]] into [[Danish Realm|Danish]] as well as [[Frederick II of Denmark|Frederick II]] and [[Christian IV of Denmark|Christian IV]] ordering the redecoration or construction of several important works of architecture, i.e. [[Kronborg]], [[Rosenborg Castle|Rosenborg]] and [[Børsen]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Renæssance i Europa og Danmark |url=https://natmus.dk/historisk-viden/danmark/renaessance-1536-1660/renaessance-i-europa-og-danmark/ |access-date=24 November 2023 |website=Nationalmuseet |language=da}}</ref> Danish astronomer [[Tycho Brahe]] greatly contributed to turn astronomy into the first [[modern science]] and also helped launch the [[Scientific Revolution]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Wootton |first=David |title=The Invention of Science: A New History of the Scientific Revolution |publisher=HarperCollins |date=2015 |isbn=978-0-06-175952-9 |edition=First U.S. |location=New York, NY |oclc=883146361}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Tycho Brahe, 1546-1601 |url=https://danmarkshistorien.dk/vis/materiale/tycho-brahe-1546-1601 |access-date=24 November 2023 |website=danmarkshistorien.dk |language=da}}</ref>

The paintings of the Italian Renaissance differed from those of the Northern Renaissance. Italian Renaissance artists were among the first to paint secular scenes, breaking away from the purely religious art of medieval painters. Northern Renaissance artists initially remained focused on religious subjects, such as the contemporary religious upheaval portrayed by [[Albrecht Dürer]]. Later, the works of [[Pieter Bruegel the Elder]] influenced artists to paint scenes of daily life rather than religious or classical themes. It was also during the Northern Renaissance that [[Flemish Primitives|Flemish]] brothers [[Hubert van Eyck|Hubert]] and [[Jan van Eyck]] perfected the [[oil painting]] technique, which enabled artists to produce strong colors on a hard surface that could survive for centuries.<ref>''[http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/optg/hd_optg.htm Painting in Oil in the Low Countries and Its Spread to Southern Europe]'', [[Metropolitan Museum of Art]] website. (Retrieved 5 April 2007)</ref> A feature of the Northern Renaissance was its use of the vernacular in place of Latin or Greek, which allowed greater freedom of expression. This movement had started in Italy with the decisive influence of [[Dante Alighieri]] on the development of vernacular languages; in fact the focus on writing in Italian has neglected a major source of Florentine ideas expressed in Latin.<ref>Celenza, Christopher (2004), ''The Lost Italian Renaissance: Humanists, Historians, and Latin's Legacy''. Baltimore, Johns Hopkins University Press</ref> The spread of the printing press technology boosted the Renaissance in Northern Europe as elsewhere, with Venice becoming a world center of printing.

===Poland===
{{main|Renaissance in Poland}}
{{multiple image
| width1            = 125
| width2            = 150
| image1            = Wawel-kaplica1.jpg
| alt1              = Sigismund Chapel
| image2            = Nagrobek Zygmunta Starego i Zygmunta Augusta.jpg
| alt2              = Tombstone
| footer            = A 16th-century Renaissance tombstone of Polish kings within the [[Sigismund Chapel]] in [[Kraków]], Poland. The golden-domed chapel was designed by [[Bartolommeo Berrecci]].
}}

The Polish Renaissance lasted from the late 15th to the late 16th century and was the [[Polish Golden Age|Golden Age]] of [[Polish culture]]. Ruled by the [[Jagiellonian dynasty]], the [[Crown of the Kingdom of Poland|Kingdom of Poland]] (from 1569 known as the [[Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth]]) actively participated in the broad European Renaissance. An early Italian humanist who came to Poland in the mid-15th century was [[Filippo Buonaccorsi]], who was employed as royal advisor and councillor. The tomb of [[John I Albert]], completed in 1505 by [[Francesco Fiorentino]], is the first example of a Renaissance composition in the country.<ref>{{cite book |last=Rundle |first=David |date=2012 |title=Humanism in fifteenth-century Europe |location=Oxford |publisher=The Society for the Study of Medieval Languages and Literature |page=143| isbn=9780907570400}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Suchodolski |first=Bogdan |date=1973 |title=Poland, the Land of Copernicus |location=Wrocław |publisher=Ossolineum, Polska Akademia Nauk PAN |page=150 |oclc=714705}}</ref> Many Italian artists subsequently came to Poland with [[Bona Sforza]] of [[Milan]], when she married King [[Sigismund I the Old|Sigismund I]] in 1518.<ref>[http://en.poland.gov.pl/Bona,Sforza,%281494,%E2%80%93,1557%29,1958.html Bona Sforza (1494–1557)] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140506203103/http://en.poland.gov.pl/Bona,Sforza,(1494,%E2%80%93,1557),1958.html |date=6 May 2014 }}. poland.gov.pl (Retrieved 4 April 2007)</ref> This was supported by temporarily strengthened monarchies in both areas, as well as by newly established universities.<ref>For example, the re-establishment of [[Jagiellonian University]] in 1364. {{Cite web |last=Waltos |first=Stanisław |date=31 October 2002 |title=The Past and the Present |url=http://www.uj.edu.pl/dispatch.jsp?item=uniwersytet/historia/historiatxt.jsp&lang=en#narodziny |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20021120144715/http://www.uj.edu.pl/dispatch.jsp?item=uniwersytet%2Fhistoria%2Fhistoriatxt.jsp&lang=en |archive-date=20 November 2002 |website=Uniwersytet Jagielloński}}</ref> 

The Renaissance was a period when the multi-national Polish state experienced a substantial period of cultural growth thanks in part to a century without major wars, aside from conflicts in the sparsely populated [[Kresy|eastern and southern borderlands]]. Architecture became more refined and decorative. [[Mannerist architecture and sculpture in Poland|Mannerism]] played an important part in shaping what is now considered to be the truly Polish architectural style – high [[Attic (architecture)|attics]] above the [[cornice]] with pinnacles and [[pilaster]]s.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.historiasztuki.com.pl/strony/002-00-14-STYLE-RENESANS.html|title=HISTORIA ARCHITEKTURY EUROPEJSKIEJ TYLKO DLA ORŁÓW - SKRÓT|website=www.historiasztuki.com.pl}}</ref> It was also the time when the first major works of [[Polish literature]] were published, particularly those of [[Mikołaj Rey]] and [[Jan Kochanowski]], and the [[Polish language]] became the ''[[lingua franca]]'' of East-Central Europe.<ref>{{cite book |last=Koyama |first=Satoshi |url=http://src-h.slav.hokudai.ac.jp/coe21/publish/no15_ses/contents.html |title=Regions in Central and Eastern Europe: Past and Present |publisher=Slavic Research Center, Hokkaido University |year=2007 |isbn=978-4-938637-43-9 |editor1-last=Hayashi |editor1-first=Tadayuki |pages=137–153 |chapter=Chapter 8: The Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth as a Political Space: Its Unity and Complexity |access-date=23 May 2019 |editor2-last=Fukuda |editor2-first=Hiroshi |chapter-url=http://src-h.slav.hokudai.ac.jp/coe21/publish/no15_ses/08_koyama.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200225015447/http://src-h.slav.hokudai.ac.jp/coe21/publish/no15_ses/contents.html |archive-date=25 February 2020 |url-status=live}}</ref> The [[Jagiellonian University]] transformed into a major institution of higher education for the region and hosted many notable scholars, chiefly [[Nicolaus Copernicus]] and [[Conrad Celtes]]. Three more academies were founded at [[University of Königsberg|Königsberg]] (1544), [[Vilnius University|Vilnius]] (1579), and [[Zamoyski Academy|Zamość]] (1594). The Reformation spread peacefully throughout the country, giving rise to the [[Nontrinitarianism|Nontrinitarian]] [[Polish Brethren]].<ref>Phillip Hewett, ''Racovia: An Early Liberal Religious Community'', Providence, Blackstone Editions, 2004, p.20-21.</ref> Living conditions improved, cities grew, and exports of agricultural products enriched the population, especially the nobility (''[[szlachta]]'') and [[Magnates of Poland and Lithuania|magnates]]. The nobles gained dominance in the new political system of [[Golden Liberty]], a counterweight to [[Monarchy|monarchical]] [[Absolutism (European history)|absolutism]].<ref>Norman Davies, God's Playground: A History of Poland in Two Volumes, Oxford University Press, 2005, {{ISBN|0-19-925339-0}}, p.262</ref>

===Portugal===
{{main|Portuguese Renaissance}}
[[File:Camões, por Fernão Gomes.jpg|thumb|left|upright|[[Luís de Camões]], and his seminal work ''[[Os Lusíadas]]'', are considered the greatest poet of the [[Portuguese language]] and the pinnacle of [[Portuguese literature]], respectively.]]
Although Italian Renaissance had a modest impact in Portuguese arts, [[Kingdom of Portugal|Portugal]] was influential in broadening the European worldview,<ref name=JCBL>{{cite web |title=Portuguese Overseas Travels and European Readers|url=https://www.brown.edu/Facilities/John_Carter_Brown_Library/Portugal/Overseas.html|work=Portugal and Renaissance Europe|publisher=The John Carter Brown Library Exhibitions, Brown University |access-date=19 July 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111112175553/http://www.brown.edu/Facilities/John_Carter_Brown_Library/Portugal/Overseas.html |archive-date= 12 November 2011 }}</ref> stimulating humanist inquiry. Renaissance arrived through the influence of wealthy Italian and Flemish merchants who invested in the profitable commerce overseas. As the pioneer headquarters of European exploration, [[Lisbon]] flourished in the late 15th century, attracting experts who made several breakthroughs in mathematics, astronomy and naval technology, including [[Pedro Nunes]], [[João de Castro]], [[Abraham Zacuto]], and [[Martin Behaim]]. Cartographers [[Pedro Reinel]], [[Lopo Homem]], [[Estêvão Gomes]], and [[Diogo Ribeiro (cartographer)|Diogo Ribeiro]] made crucial advances in mapping the world. Apothecary [[Tomé Pires]] and physicians [[Garcia de Orta]] and Cristóvão da Costa collected and published works on plants and medicines, soon translated by Flemish pioneer botanist [[Carolus Clusius]].

In architecture, the huge profits of the [[spice trade]] financed a sumptuous composite style in the first decades of the 16th century, the [[Manueline]], incorporating maritime elements.<ref>{{cite book | editor-last=Bergin | editor-first=Thomas G. | editor-link=Thomas G. Bergin | editor2-last=Speake | editor2-first=Jennifer | editor2-link=Jennifer Speake |title=Encyclopedia of the Renaissance and the Reformation|year=2004|publisher=Infobase Publishing|isbn=978-0816054510|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VOb4hIp7EE8C&pg=PP1}}</ref> The primary painters were [[Nuno Gonçalves]], [[Gregório Lopes]], and [[Vasco Fernandes (artist)|Vasco Fernandes]]. In music, [[Pedro de Escobar]] and [[Duarte Lobo]] produced four songbooks, including the [[Cancioneiro de Elvas]].
[[File:TomarConvent-Cloisters1.jpg|thumb|right|The renaissance cloister at the [[Convent of Christ (Tomar)|Convent of Christ]] in [[Tomar, Portugal|Tomar]]]]
In literature, [[Luís de Camões]] inscribed the Portuguese feats overseas in the epic poem ''[[Os Lusíadas]]''. [[Sá de Miranda]] introduced Italian forms of verse and [[Bernardim Ribeiro]] developed [[Pastoral#Pastoral romances|pastoral romance]], while plays by [[Gil Vicente]] fused it with popular culture, reporting the changing times. [[Travel literature]] especially flourished: [[João de Barros]], [[Fernão Lopes de Castanheda]], [[António Galvão]], [[Gaspar Correia]], [[Duarte Barbosa]], and [[Fernão Mendes Pinto]], among others, described new lands and were translated and spread with the new printing press.<ref name="JCBL"/> After joining the Portuguese exploration of Brazil in 1500, [[Amerigo Vespucci]] coined the term [[New World]],<ref name=Bergin>{{cite book|last1=Bergin|last2=Speake |first2=Jennifer |first1=Thomas G.|title=Encyclopedia of the Renaissance and the Reformation|year=2004|publisher=Infobase Publishing|isbn=978-0816054510|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VOb4hIp7EE8C&pg=PP490|page=490}}</ref> in his letters to [[Lorenzo di Pierfrancesco de' Medici]].

The intense international exchange produced several cosmopolitan humanist scholars, including [[Francisco de Holanda]], [[André de Resende]], and [[Damião de Góis]], a friend of Erasmus who wrote with rare independence on the reign of King [[Manuel I of Portugal|Manuel I]]. [[Diogo de Gouveia]] and [[André de Gouveia]] made relevant teaching reforms via France. Foreign news and products in the Portuguese [[Factory (trading post)|factory]] in [[Antwerp]] attracted the interest of [[Thomas More]]<ref name=Bietenholz>{{cite book |last1=Bietenholz |first1=Peter G. |last2=Deutscher |first2=Thomas Brian |title=Contemporaries of Erasmus: a biographical register of the Renaissance and Reformation, Volumes 1–3 |year=2003 |publisher=University of Toronto Press|isbn=978-0802085771|page=22|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hruQ386SfFcC&pg=RA1-PA22}}</ref> and [[Albrecht Dürer]] to the wider world.<ref>{{cite book | last=Lach | first=Donald Frederick | year=1994 | title=Asia in the making of Europe: A century of wonder. The literary arts. The scholarly disciplines | publisher=University of Chicago Press | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hhE3sPY78s0C&pg=PA6 | access-date=15 July 2011| isbn=978-0226467337}}</ref> There, profits and know-how helped nurture the [[Dutch Renaissance]] and [[Dutch Golden Age|Golden Age]], especially after the arrival of the wealthy cultured Jewish community [[Persecution of Jews and Muslims by Manuel I of Portugal|expelled from Portugal]].

===Spain===
{{main|Spanish Renaissance}}
{{see also|Spanish Renaissance architecture}}
[[File:Monasterio de El Escorial en Madrid.jpg|thumb|right|The [[El Escorial|Royal Monastery of San Lorenzo del Escorial]], by [[Juan de Herrera]] and [[Juan Bautista de Toledo]]]]

The Renaissance arrived in the Iberian peninsula through the Mediterranean possessions of the [[Crown of Aragon]] and the city of [[Valencia (city in Spain)|Valencia]]. Many early Spanish Renaissance writers come from the Crown of Aragon, including [[Ausiàs March]] and [[Joanot Martorell]]. In the [[Crown of Castile]], the early Renaissance was heavily influenced by the Italian humanism, starting with writers and poets such as [[Íñigo López de Mendoza, marqués de Santillana]], who introduced the new Italian poetry to Spain in the early 15th century. Other writers, such as [[Jorge Manrique]], [[Fernando de Rojas]], [[Juan del Encina]], [[Juan Boscán Almogáver]], and [[Garcilaso de la Vega (poet)|Garcilaso de la Vega]], kept a close resemblance to the Italian canon. [[Miguel de Cervantes]]'s [[masterpiece]] ''[[Don Quixote]]'' is credited as the first Western novel. Renaissance humanism flourished in the early 16th century, with influential writers such as philosopher [[Juan Luis Vives]], grammarian [[Antonio de Nebrija]] and natural historian [[Pedro Mexía|Pedro de Mexía]]. The poet and philosopher [[Luisa de Medrano]], celebrated among her Renaissance contemporaries as one of the ''puellae doctae'' ("learned girls"), was the first female professor in Europe at the [[University of Salamanca]].

Later Spanish Renaissance tended toward religious themes and mysticism, with poets such as [[Luis de León]], [[Teresa of Ávila]], and [[John of the Cross]], and treated issues related to the exploration of the [[New World]], with chroniclers and writers such as [[Inca Garcilaso de la Vega]] and [[Bartolomé de las Casas]], giving rise to a body of work, now known as [[Spanish Renaissance literature]]. The late Renaissance in Spain produced political and religious authors such as [[Tomás Fernández de Medrano]] and artists such as [[El Greco]] and composers such as [[Tomás Luis de Victoria]] and [[Antonio de Cabezón]].

=== Further countries ===
* [[Renaissance in Croatia]]
* [[Renaissance in Scotland]]

==Historiography==

===Conception===
[[File:Vite.jpg|thumb|A cover of the ''Lives of the Artists'' by [[Giorgio Vasari]]]]

The Italian artist and critic [[Giorgio Vasari]] (1511–1574) first used the term ''rinascita'' in his book ''[[Lives of the Most Excellent Painters, Sculptors, and Architects|The Lives of the Artists]]'' (published 1550). In the book Vasari attempted to define what he described as a break with the barbarities of [[Gothic art]]: the arts (he held) had fallen into decay with the collapse of the [[Roman Empire]] and only the [[Tuscany|Tuscan]] artists, beginning with [[Cimabue]] (1240–1301) and [[Giotto]] (1267–1337) began to reverse this decline in the arts. Vasari saw ancient art as central to the rebirth of Italian art.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.open.ac.uk/Arts/renaissance2/defining.htm |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081218135235/http://www.open.ac.uk/Arts/renaissance2/defining.htm |archive-date=2008-12-18 |title=Defining the Renaissance, Open University |publisher=Open.ac.uk |access-date=31 July 2009}}</ref>

However, only in the 19th century did the French word {{lang|fr|renaissance}} achieve popularity in describing the self-conscious cultural movement based on revival of Roman models that began in the late 13th century. French [[historian]] [[Jules Michelet]] (1798–1874) defined "The Renaissance" in his 1855 work ''Histoire de France'' as an entire historical period, whereas previously it had been used in a more limited sense.<ref name=mur>Murray, P. and Murray, L. (1963) ''The Art of the Renaissance''. London: [[Thames & Hudson]] (World of Art), p. 9. {{ISBN|978-0500200087}}. "...in 1855 we find, for the first time, the word 'Renaissance' used – by the French historian Michelet – as an adjective to describe a whole period of history and not confined to the rebirth of Latin letters or a classically inspired style in the arts."</ref> For Michelet, the Renaissance was more a development in science than in art and culture. He asserted that it spanned the period from [[Christopher Columbus|Columbus]] to [[Copernicus]] to [[Galileo]]; that is, from the end of the 15th century to the middle of the 17th century.<ref name="Michelet, Jules 1847"/> Moreover, Michelet distinguished between what he called, "the bizarre and monstrous" quality of the Middle Ages and the [[democracy|democratic]] values that he, as a vocal [[Republicanism|Republican]], chose to see in its character.<ref name="brotton" /> A French nationalist, Michelet also sought to claim the Renaissance as a French movement.<ref name="brotton" />

The [[Switzerland|Swiss]] historian [[Jacob Burckhardt]] (1818–1897) in his ''[[The Civilization of the Renaissance in Italy]]'' (1860), by contrast, defined the Renaissance as the period between [[Giotto]] and [[Michelangelo]] in Italy, that is, the 14th to mid-16th centuries. He saw in the Renaissance the emergence of the modern spirit of [[individualism|individuality]], which the Middle Ages had stifled.<ref>Burckhardt, Jacob. ''[http://www.boisestate.edu/courses/hy309/docs/burckhardt/burckhardt.html The Civilization of the Renaissance in Italy] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080921145058/http://www.boisestate.edu/courses/hy309/docs/burckhardt/burckhardt.html |date=21 September 2008 }}'' (trans. S.G.C. Middlemore, London, 1878)</ref> His book was widely read and became influential in the development of the modern interpretation of the [[Italian Renaissance]].<ref>Gay, Peter, ''Style in History'', New York: Basic Books, 1974.</ref>

More recently, some historians have been much less keen to define the Renaissance as a historical age, or even as a coherent cultural movement. The historian Randolph Starn, of the [[University of California Berkeley]], stated in 1998:

{{blockquote|Rather than a period with definitive beginnings and endings and consistent content in between, the Renaissance can be (and occasionally has been) seen as a movement of practices and ideas to which specific groups and identifiable persons variously responded in different times and places. It would be in this sense a network of diverse, sometimes converging, sometimes conflicting cultures, not a single, time-bound culture.<ref name="starn" />
}}

===Debates about progress===
{{see also|Continuity thesis}}
There is debate about the extent to which the Renaissance improved on the culture of the Middle Ages. Both Michelet and Burckhardt were keen to describe the progress made in the Renaissance toward the [[modern age]]. Burckhardt likened the change to a veil being removed from man's eyes, allowing him to see clearly.<ref name="burckhardt-individual" />

{{blockquote|In the Middle Ages both sides of human consciousness – that which was turned within as that which was turned without – lay dreaming or half awake beneath a common veil. The veil was woven of faith, illusion, and childish prepossession, through which the world and history were seen clad in strange hues.<ref>{{cite web |last=Burckhardt |first=Jacob |author-link=Jacob Burckhardt |url=http://www.boisestate.edu/courses/hy309/docs/burckhardt/2-1.html |title=The Civilization of the Renaissance in Italy |access-date=August 31, 2008 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081003000844/http://www.boisestate.edu/courses/hy309/docs/burckhardt/2-1.html |archive-date=October 3, 2008 |df=mdy-all }}</ref>|Jacob Burckhardt|''The Civilization of the Renaissance in Italy''}}

[[File:La masacre de San Bartolomé, por François Dubois.jpg|thumb|left|Painting of the [[St. Bartholomew's Day Massacre]], an event in the [[French Wars of Religion]], by [[François Dubois]]]]
On the other hand, many historians now point out that most of the negative social factors popularly associated with the medieval period{{snd}}poverty, warfare, religious and political persecution, for example{{snd}}seem to have worsened in this era, which saw the rise of Machiavellian politics, the [[French Wars of Religion|Wars of Religion]], the corrupt [[House of Borgia|Borgia]] [[List of popes from the Borgia family|Popes]], and the intensified [[witch-hunt]]s of the 16th century. Many people who lived during the Renaissance did not view it as the "[[golden age]]" imagined by certain 19th-century authors, but were concerned by these social maladies.<ref>[[Girolamo Savonarola]]'s popularity is a prime example of the manifestation of such concerns. Other examples include [[Philip II of Spain]]'s censorship of Florentine paintings, noted by Edward L. Goldberg, "Spanish Values and Tuscan Painting", ''Renaissance Quarterly'' (1998) p. 914</ref> Significantly, though, the artists, writers, and patrons involved in the cultural movements in question believed they were living in a new era that was a clean break from the Middle Ages.<ref name="panofsky" /> Some [[Historical materialism|Marxist historians]] prefer to describe the Renaissance in material terms, holding the view that the changes in art, literature, and philosophy were part of a general economic trend from [[feudalism]] toward [[capitalism]], resulting in a [[bourgeois]] class with leisure time to devote to the arts.<ref>[http://www.hull.ac.uk/renforum/v2no2/siar.htm Renaissance Forum] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120614012823/http://www.hull.ac.uk/renforum/v2no2/siar.htm |date=14 June 2012 }} at [[Hull University]], Autumn 1997 (Retrieved 10 May 2007)</ref>

[[Johan Huizinga]] (1872–1945) acknowledged the existence of the Renaissance but questioned whether it was a positive change. In his book ''[[The Autumn of the Middle Ages]]'', he argued that the Renaissance was a period of decline from the [[High Middle Ages]], destroying much that was important.<ref name="huizinga" /> The [[Medieval Latin]] language, for instance, had evolved greatly from the classical period and was still a living language used in the church and elsewhere. The Renaissance obsession with classical purity halted its further evolution and saw [[Neo-Latin|Latin]] revert to its classical form. This view is however somewhat contested by [[Neo-Latin studies|recent studies]]. Robert S. Lopez has contended that it was a period of deep [[economic recession]].<ref>{{cite journal|author1=Lopez, Robert S. |author2=Miskimin, Harry A. |name-list-style=amp |title=The Economic Depression of the Renaissance|journal=Economic History Review|jstor=2591885|volume= 14 |year=1962|pages=408–426|doi=10.1111/j.1468-0289.1962.tb00059.x|issue=3}}</ref> Meanwhile, [[George Sarton]] and [[Lynn Thorndike]] have both argued that [[Science|scientific]] progress was perhaps less original than has traditionally been supposed.<ref>{{cite journal|author-link=Lynn Thorndike|author=Thorndike, Lynn|year=1943|title=Some Remarks on the Question of the Originality of the Renaissance|pages=49–74|journal=Journal of the History of Ideas|jstor=2707236|volume= 4|issue=1|doi=10.2307/2707236|last2=Johnson|first2=F.R.|last3=Kristeller|first3=P. O.|last4=Lockwood|first4=D.P.|last5=Thorndike|first5=L.}}</ref> Finally, [[Joan Kelly]] argued that the Renaissance led to greater gender dichotomy, lessening the agency women had had during the Middle Ages.<ref>Kelly-Gadol, Joan. "Did Women Have a Renaissance?" ''Becoming Visible: Women in European History''. Edited by Renate Bridenthal and Claudia Koonz. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1977.</ref>

Some historians have begun to consider the word ''Renaissance'' to be unnecessarily loaded, implying an unambiguously positive rebirth from the supposedly more primitive "[[Dark Ages (historiography)|Dark Ages]]", the Middle Ages. Most political and economic historians now prefer to use the term "[[Early Modern Europe|early modern]]" for this period (and a considerable period afterwards), a designation intended to highlight the period as a transitional one between the Middle Ages and the modern era.<ref>[[Stephen Greenblatt]] ''Renaissance Self-Fashioning: From More to Shakespeare'', [[University of Chicago Press]], 1980.</ref> Others such as Roger Osborne have come to consider the Italian Renaissance as a repository of the myths and ideals of western history in general, and instead of rebirth of ancient ideas as a period of great innovation.<ref>{{cite book|author=Osborne, Roger |title=Civilization: a new history of the Western world|url=https://archive.org/details/00book2095698803|url-access=registration |access-date=10 December 2011|year= 2006|publisher=Pegasus Books|isbn=978-1933648194|pages=[https://archive.org/details/00book2095698803/page/180 180]–}}</ref>

The [[Art history|art historian]] [[Erwin Panofsky]] observed of this resistance to the concept of "Renaissance":

<blockquote>It is perhaps no accident that the factuality of the [[Italian Renaissance]] has been most vigorously questioned by those who are not obliged to take a professional interest in the aesthetic aspects of civilization – historians of economic and social developments, political and religious situations, and, most particularly, natural science – but only exceptionally by students of literature and hardly ever by historians of Art.<ref>Panofsky, ''Renaissance and Renascences in Western Art'' 1969:38; Panofsky's chapter "'Renaissance – self-definition or self-deception?" succinctly introduces the historiographical debate, with copious footnotes to the literature.</ref></blockquote>

==Other Renaissances==
The term ''Renaissance'' has also been used to define periods outside of the 15th and 16th centuries in the earlier [[Medieval renaissances|Medieval period]]. [[Charles H. Haskins]] (1870–1937), for example, made a case for a [[Renaissance of the 12th century]].<ref>Haskins, Charles Homer, ''The Renaissance of the Twelfth Century'', Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1927 {{ISBN|0674760751}}.</ref> Other historians have argued for a [[Carolingian Renaissance]] in the 8th and 9th centuries, [[Ottonian Renaissance]] in the 10th century and for the [[Timurid Renaissance]] of the 14th century. The [[Islamic Golden Age]] has been also sometimes termed with the Islamic Renaissance.<ref>Hubert, Jean, ''L'Empire carolingien'' (English: ''The Carolingian Renaissance'', translated by James Emmons, New York: G. Braziller, 1970).</ref> The [[Macedonian Renaissance]] is a term used for a period in the Roman Empire in the 9th-11th centuries CE.

Other periods of cultural rebirth in [[Modern era|Modern times]] have also been termed "renaissances", such as the [[Bengal Renaissance]], [[Tamil Renaissance]], [[Nepal Bhasa renaissance]], [[al-Nahda]] or the [[Harlem Renaissance]]. The term can also be used in cinema. In animation, the [[Disney Renaissance]] is a period that spanned the years from 1989 to 1999 which saw the studio return to the level of quality not witnessed since their [[Disney Golden Age|Golden Age of Animation]]. The [[San Francisco Renaissance]] was a vibrant period of exploratory poetry and fiction writing in [[San Francisco]] in the mid-20th century.

==See also==
{{Portal|Society|Arts}}
* [[Index of Renaissance articles]]
* [[Outline of the Renaissance]]
* [[List of Renaissance figures]]
* [[List of Renaissance structures]]
* [[Roman Renaissance]]
* [[Venetian Renaissance]]

==References==
=== Explanatory notes ===
{{notelist|30em}}

=== Citations ===
{{Reflist}}

=== General sources ===
{{Refbegin|30em}}
* [[Jacob Burckhardt|Burckhardt, Jacob]], ''The Civilization of the Renaissance in Italy'' (1860), a famous classic; [https://www.amazon.com/dp/1426400934 excerpt and text search 2007 edition]; also [https://books.google.com/books?id=kLkNAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA1 complete text online].
* {{cite book |last=Cartledge |first=Bryan |author-link=Bryan Cartledge |year=2011|title=The Will to Survive: A History of Hungary |publisher=C. Hurst & Co. |isbn=978-1849041126 }}
* {{cite book |last=E. Kovács |first=Péter |year=1990  |title=Matthias Corvinus |publisher=Officina Nova |isbn=9637835490 |language=hu}}
* {{cite book |last=Engel |first=Pál |year=2001|title=The Realm of St Stephen: A History of Medieval Hungary, 895–1526 |publisher= I.B. Tauris Publishers |isbn=1860640613}}
* {{cite journal |last=Hendrix |first=Scott E. |year=2013 |title=Astrological forecasting and the Turkish menace in the Renaissance Balkans |url=http://www.anthroserbia.org/Content/PDF/Articles/9fedd563ae93475ebb3cb94cd9bdf75e.pdf |journal=Anthropology |publisher=Universitatis Miskolciensis |volume=13 |issue=2 |pages=57–72 |issn=1452-7243 |archive-date=4 July 2022 |access-date=18 March 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220704092501/http://www.anthroserbia.org/Content/PDF/Articles/9fedd563ae93475ebb3cb94cd9bdf75e.pdf |url-status=dead }}
* {{cite book |last=Klaniczay |first=Tibor |editor1-last=Porter |editor1-first=Roy |editor2-last=Teich |editor2-first=Mikuláš |title=The Renaissance in National Context |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=1992 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/renaissanceinnat0000unse/page/164 164–179] |chapter=The age of Matthias Corvinus |isbn=0521369703 |chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/renaissanceinnat0000unse/page/164 }}
* {{cite book |last=Kubinyi |first=András |year=2008 |title=Matthias Rex |publisher= Balassi Kiadó |isbn=978-9635067671}}
* {{cite book |last1=Reynolds |first1=L. D. |last2=Wilson |first2=Nigel |title=Scribes and Scholars: A Guide to the Transmission of Greek and Latin Literature |date=1974 |publisher=Clarendon Press |location=Oxford |isbn=978-0199686339|ol=OL26919731M}}
* {{cite book |last=Tanner |first=Marcus |year=2009 |title=The Raven King: Matthias Corvinus and the Fate of his Lost Library |publisher=Yale University Press |isbn=978-0300158281}}
{{Refend}}

==Further reading==
{{Refbegin|30em}}
* [[Vincent Cronin|Cronin, Vincent]] (1969), ''The Flowering of the Renaissance'', {{ISBN|0712698841}}
* Cronin, Vincent (1992), ''The Renaissance'', {{ISBN|0002154110}}
* Campbell, Gordon. ''The Oxford Dictionary of the Renaissance''. (2003). 862 pp. online at [[OUP]]
* Davis, Robert C. and Beth Lindsmith. ''Renaissance People: Lives that Shaped the Modern Age''. (2011). {{ISBN|978-1606060780}}
* Ergang, Robert (1967), ''The Renaissance'', {{ISBN|0442023197}}
* Ferguson, Wallace K. (1962), [''Europe in Transition, 1300–1500''], {{ISBN|0049400088}}
* Fisher, Celia. ''Flowers of the Renaissance''. (2011). {{ISBN|978-1606060629}}
* Fletcher, Stella. ''The Longman Companion to Renaissance Europe, 1390–1530''. (2000). 347 pp.
* Grendler, Paul F., ed. ''The Renaissance: An Encyclopedia for Students''. (2003). 970 pp.
* Hale, John. ''The Civilization of Europe in the Renaissance''. (1994). 648 pp.; a magistral survey, heavily illustrated; [https://www.amazon.com/dp/0684803526 excerpt and text search]
* Hall, Bert S. ''Weapons and Warfare in Renaissance Europe: Gunpowder, Technology, and Tactics'' (2001); [https://www.amazon.com/dp/0801869943 excerpt and text search]
* Hattaway, Michael, ed. ''A Companion to English Renaissance Literature and Culture''. (2000). 747 pp.
* Jensen, De Lamar (1992), ''Renaissance Europe'', {{ISBN|0395889472}}
* Johnson, Paul. ''The Renaissance: A Short History''. (2000). 197 pp. [https://www.amazon.com/dp/B0002NKDU2 excerpt and text search]; also [https://archive.org/details/renaissance00paul online free]
* Keene, Bryan C. ''Gardens of the Renaissance''. (2013). {{ISBN|978-1606061435}}
* [[Margaret L. King|King, Margaret L.]] ''Women of the Renaissance'' (1991) [https://www.amazon.com/dp/0226436187 excerpt and text search]
* Kristeller, Paul Oskar, and Michael Mooney. ''Renaissance Thought and its Sources'' (1979); [https://www.amazon.com/dp/0231045131 excerpt and text search]
* Nauert, Charles G. ''Historical Dictionary of the Renaissance''. (2004). 541 pp.
* Patrick, James A., ed. ''Renaissance and Reformation'' (5 vol 2007), 1584 pages; comprehensive encyclopedia
* Plumb, J.H. ''The Italian Renaissance'' (2001); [https://www.amazon.com/dp/0618127380 excerpt and text search]
* Paoletti, John T. and Gary M. Radke. ''Art in Renaissance Italy'' (4th ed. 2011)
* Potter, G.R. ed. ''The New Cambridge Modern History: Volume 1: The Renaissance, 1493–1520'' (1957) [https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/the-new-cambridge-modern-history/1F3A455FF6D62052CBCFF0DBFD109803 online]; major essays by multiple scholars. Summarizes the viewpoint of the 1950s.
* Robin, Diana; Larsen, Anne R.; and Levin, Carole, eds. ''Encyclopedia of Women in the Renaissance: Italy, France, and England'' (2007) 459 pp.
* [[A. L. Rowse|Rowse, A.L.]] ''The Elizabethan Renaissance: The Life of the Society'' (2000); [https://www.amazon.com/dp/156663315X excerpt and text search]
* Ruggiero, Guido. ''The Renaissance in Italy: A Social and Cultural History of the Rinascimento'' (Cambridge University Press, 2015). 648 pp. [https://www.h-net.org/reviews/showrev.php?id=43204 online review]
* Rundle, David, ed. ''The Hutchinson Encyclopedia of the Renaissance''. (1999). 434 pp.; numerous brief articles [https://www.questia.com/read/95888138?title=The%20Hutchinson%20Encyclopedia%20of%20the%20Renaissance online edition]
* Turner, Richard N. ''Renaissance Florence'' (2005); [https://www.amazon.com/dp/0131344013/ excerpt and text search]
* Ward, A. [http://www.uni-mannheim.de/mateo/camenaref/cmh/cmh.html ''The Cambridge Modern History''. Vol 1: The Renaissance (1902)]; older essays by scholars; emphasis on politics
{{Refend}}

===Historiography===
{{Refbegin|30em}}
* Bouwsma, William J. "The Renaissance and the drama of Western history." ''American Historical Review'' (1979): 1–15. [https://www.jstor.org/stable/1855657 in JSTOR]
* Caferro, William. ''Contesting the Renaissance'' (2010); [https://www.amazon.com/Contesting-Renaissance-William-Caferro/dp/1405123702/  excerpt and text search]
* Ferguson, Wallace K. "The Interpretation of the Renaissance: Suggestions for a Synthesis." ''Journal of the History of Ideas'' (1951): 483–495. online in JSTOR
* Ferguson, Wallace K. "Recent trends in the economic historiography of the Renaissance." ''Studies in the Renaissance'' (1960): 7–26.
* Ferguson, Wallace Klippert. ''The Renaissance in historical thought'' (AMS Press, 1981)
* Grendler, Paul F. "The Future of Sixteenth Century Studies: Renaissance and Reformation Scholarship in the Next Forty Years", ''Sixteenth Century Journal'' Spring 2009, Vol. 40 Issue 1, pp.&nbsp;182+
* Murray, Stuart A.P. The Library: An Illustrated History. American Library Association, Chicago, 2012.
* Ruggiero, Guido, ed. ''A Companion to the Worlds of the Renaissance''. (2002). 561 pp.
* Starn, Randolph. "A Postmodern Renaissance?" ''Renaissance Quarterly'' 2007 60(1): 1–24 [http://muse.jhu.edu/journals/ren/summary/v060/60.1starn.html in Project MUSE]
* Summit, Jennifer. "Renaissance Humanism and the Future of the Humanities". ''Literature Compass'' (2012) 9#10 pp: 665–678.
* Trivellato, Francesca. "Renaissance Italy and the Muslim Mediterranean in Recent Historical Work", ''Journal of Modern History'' (March 2010), 82#1 pp: 127–155.
* Woolfson, Jonathan, ed. ''Palgrave advances in Renaissance historiography'' (Palgrave Macmillan, 2005)
{{Refend}}

===Primary sources===
{{Refbegin}}
* Bartlett, Kenneth, ed. ''The Civilization of the Italian Renaissance: A Sourcebook'' (2nd ed., 2011)
* Ross, James Bruce, and Mary M. McLaughlin, eds. ''The Portable Renaissance Reader'' (1977); [https://www.amazon.com/dp/0140150617 excerpt and text search]
{{Refend}}

==External links==
{{commons category|Renaissance}}
{{Wikisource|The Civilization of the Renaissance in Italy}}
{{wikiquote}}
{{wiktionary|Renaissance}}
* [https://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/p00546tq "The Renaissance"] episode of ''[[In Our Time (radio series)|In Our Time]]'', a [[BBC Radio 4]] discussion with Francis Ames-Lewis, Peter Burke and Evelyn Welch (8 June 2000).
* {{cite EB1911 |wstitle=Renaissance, The |volume=23 |pages=83–93 |first=John Addington |last=Symonds |short=1}}
* [https://iep.utm.edu/renaissa/ Renaissance Philosophy] entry in the ''[[Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy]]''
* [http://www.rensoc.org.uk/ Official website] of the [[Society for Renaissance Studies]]

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