View source for Rhinoceros

{{short description|Family of mammals}}
{{redirect|Rhino|other uses|Rhinoceros (disambiguation)|and|Rhino (disambiguation)}}
{{pp-semi-vandalism|small=yes}}
{{pp-move|small=yes}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=March 2020}}
{{Automatic taxobox
| fossil_range = {{Fossil range|Eocene|Present}}
| image = Rhino_collage.png
| image_upright = 1.2
| image_caption = Rhinoceros species of different genera; from top-left, clockwise: [[white rhinoceros]] (''Ceratotherium simum''), [[Sumatran rhinoceros]] (''Dicerorhinus sumatrensis''), [[Indian rhinoceros]] (''Rhinoceros unicornis''), [[black rhinoceros]] (''Diceros bicornis'')
| taxon = Rhinocerotidae
| authority = Owen, 1845
| type_genus = ''[[Rhinoceros (genus)|Rhinoceros]]''
| type_genus_authority = [[Carl Linnaeus|Linnaeus]], 1758
| subdivision_ranks = Subfamilies, extant and subfossil genera
| subdivision = *†[[Aceratheriinae]]
*†[[Elasmotheriinae]]
**†''[[Elasmotherium]]''
*Rhinocerotinae
**''[[Ceratotherium]]''
**''[[Dicerorhinus]]''
**''[[Diceros]]''
**''[[Rhinoceros (genus)|Rhinoceros]]''
**†''[[Coelodonta]]''
**†''[[Stephanorhinus]]''
Fossil genera, see text
| range_map = Rhinocerotidae distribution map_en.png
| range_map_caption = Rhinoceros range
}}

A '''rhinoceros''' ({{IPAc-en|r|aɪ|ˈ|n|ɒ|s|ər|ə|s}} {{respell|ry|NOSS|ə|rəss}}; {{etymology|grc|''{{wikt-lang|grc|ῥινόκερως}}'' ({{grc-transl|ῥινόκερως}})|nose-horned}}; {{etymology||''{{wikt-lang|grc|ῥίς}}'' ({{grc-transl|ῥις}})|nose||''{{wikt-lang|grc|κέρας}}'' ({{grc-transl|κέρας}})|horn}};<ref>{{cite web|url=https://research.amnh.org/paleontology/perissodactyl/concepts/glossary|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211120123130/https://research.amnh.org/paleontology/perissodactyl/concepts/glossary|archive-date=20 November 2021|title=Glossary. American Museum of Natural History}}</ref> {{plural form}}: '''rhinoceros''' or '''rhinoceroses'''), commonly abbreviated to '''rhino''', is a member of any of the five [[extant taxon|extant]] species (or numerous extinct species) of [[odd-toed ungulate]]s (perissodactyls) in the [[family (biology)|family]] '''Rhinocerotidae'''; it can also refer to a member of any of the extinct species of the superfamily [[Rhinocerotoidea]]. Two of the extant species are native to [[Africa]], and three to [[South Asia|South]] and [[Southeast Asia]].

Rhinoceroses are some of the largest remaining [[megafauna]]: all weigh over half a [[tonne]] in adulthood. They have a [[herbivore|herbivorous]] diet, small brains {{cvt|400|–|600|g}} for mammals of their size, one or two horns, and a thick {{cvt|1.5|–|5|cm}}, protective skin formed from layers of [[collagen]] positioned in a [[crystal structure|lattice]] structure. They generally eat leafy material, although their ability to ferment food in their [[colon (anatomy)|hindgut]] allows them to subsist on more fibrous plant matter when necessary. Unlike other [[perissodactyl]]s, the two African species of rhinoceros lack teeth at the front of their mouths; they rely instead on their lips to pluck food.<ref name=EoM>{{cite book | editor=Macdonald, D. | author=Owen-Smith, Norman | year=1984 | title=The Encyclopedia of Mammals | publisher=Facts on File | location=New York | pages=[https://archive.org/details/encyclopediaofma00mals_0/page/490 490–495] | isbn=978-0-87196-871-5 | url-access=registration | url=https://archive.org/details/encyclopediaofma00mals_0/page/490 }}</ref>

Rhinoceroses are killed by poachers for [[ivory trade|their horns]], which are bought and sold on the [[black market]] for high prices, leading to most living rhinoceros species being considered endangered. The contemporary market for rhino horn is overwhelmingly driven by [[China]] and [[Vietnam]], where it is bought by wealthy consumers to use in [[traditional Chinese medicine]], among other uses. Rhino horns are made of [[keratin]], the same material as hair and [[Nail (anatomy)|fingernails]], and there is no good evidence of any health benefits.<ref>{{Cite news|title=Vietnam's Appetite For Rhino Horn Drives Poaching In Africa|language=en|work=NPR|url=https://www.npr.org/sections/parallels/2013/05/14/181587969/Vietnams-Appetite-For-Rhino-Horn-Drives-Poaching-In-Africa|access-date=2021-09-27}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |date=9 October 2003|title=What is a rhinoceros horn made of?|url=http://www.yesmag.bc.ca/Questions/rhino.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110928130701/http://www.yesmag.bc.ca/Questions/rhino.html|archive-date=28 September 2011 |access-date=23 September 2010 |work=Yesmag.bc.ca}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Cheung |first1=Hubert |last2=Mazerolle |first2=Lorraine |last3=Possingham |first3=Hugh|last4=Biggs|first4=Duan|date=2021-02-01 |title=Rhino horn use by consumers of traditional Chinese medicine in China|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/349566787 |journal=Conservation Science and Practice|volume=3|issue=5|article-number=e365 |doi=10.1111/csp2.365|doi-access=free|bibcode=2021ConSP...3E.365C |hdl=11573/1713877|hdl-access=free}}</ref> A market also exists for rhino horn dagger handles in Yemen, which was the major source of demand for rhino horn in the 1970s and 1980s.<ref name="Vigne-2018">{{Cite magazine|last1=Vigne|first1=Lucy|last2=Martin|first2=Esmond|title=Amid conflict, Yemen's demand for rhino horn daggers continues|url=http://www.rhinoresourcecenter.com/pdf_files/151/1517288890.pdf|date=January–March 2018|magazine=Swara|url-status=live|via= Rhino Resource Center |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230307041553/http://www.rhinoresourcecenter.com/pdf_files/151/1517288890.pdf |archive-date=Mar 7, 2023}}</ref>

== Taxonomy and naming ==
{{see also|List of perissodactyls}}
{{Cladogram|caption=Cladogram following a phylogenetic study<ref>Tougard, C. ''et al''. (2001) Phylogenetic relationships of the
five extant Rhinoceros species (Rhinocerotidae, Perissodactyla) based on mitochondrial cytochrome b and 12S rRNA genes.</ref>
|clades={{clade | style=font-size:75%;line-height:80%
|label1=[[Rhinocerotidae]]
|1={{clade
 |label1=
 |1={{clade
    |1=''[[White rhinoceros|Ceratotherium simum]]''
    |2=''[[Black rhinoceros|Diceros bicornis]]''
    }}
 |label2=
 |2={{clade
    |1=''[[Sumatran rhinoceros|Dicerorhinus sumatrensis]]''
    |label1=
    |label2=
    |2={{clade
        |1=[[Javan rhinoceros|''Rhinoceros sondaicus'']]
        |2=[[Indian rhinoceros|''Rhinoceros unicornis'']]
       }}
    }}
   }}
}}
}}

The word ''rhinoceros'' is derived through Latin from the {{langx|grc|ῥινόκερως}}, which is composed of {{lang|grc|[[wikt:ῥίς#Ancient Greek|ῥινο-]]}} (''rhino-'', "of the nose") and {{lang|grc|[[wikt:κέρας#Ancient Greek|κέρας]]}} ({{Transliteration|grc|keras}}, "[[horn (anatomy)|horn]]") with a horn on the nose. The name has been in use since the 14th century.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2023-08-28 |title=Definition of RHINOCEROS |url=https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/rhinoceros |access-date=2023-09-23 |website=[[Merriam-Webster|Merriam-Webster Dictionary]] |language=en}}</ref>

The family Rhinocerotidae consists of only four extant genera: ''[[Ceratotherium]]'' (white rhinoceros), ''[[Diceros]]'' (black rhinoceros), ''[[Dicerorhinus]]'' (Sumatran rhinoceros), and ''[[Rhinoceros (genus)|Rhinoceros]]'' (Indian and Javan rhinoceros). The living species fall into three categories. The two African species, the [[white rhinoceros]] and the [[black rhinoceros]], belong to the tribe Dicerotini, which originated in the middle [[Miocene]], about 14.2''&nbsp;''million years ago. The species diverged during the early [[Pliocene]] (about 5 million years ago). The main difference between black and white rhinos is the shape of their mouths – white rhinos have broad flat lips for grazing, whereas black rhinos have long pointed lips for eating foliage. There are two living Rhinocerotini species, the [[Indian rhinoceros]] and the [[Javan rhinoceros]], which diverged from one another about 10 million years ago. The [[Sumatran rhinoceros]] is the only surviving representative of the Dicerorhinini.<ref>{{cite journal|url=http://www.rhinoresourcecenter.com/pdf_files/117/1178933361.pdf|author=Rabinowitz, Alan |year=1995|title=Helping a Species Go Extinct: The''<33 six.'' Sumatran Rhino in Borneo|journal=Conservation Biology|volume=9|issue=3|pages=482–488|doi=10.1046/j.1523-1739.1995.09030482.x}}</ref>

<!-- Commenting out until determined if this is a photo of the hybrid [[File:Rhino dvur kralove.jpg|thumb|right|Rhino from Dvur Kralove nad Labem]] -->
A subspecific hybrid white rhino (''Ceratotherium s. simum'' × ''C.&nbsp;s.&nbsp;cottoni'') was bred at the [[Dvůr Králové|Dvůr Králové Zoo]] (Zoological Garden Dvur Kralove nad Labem) in the Czech Republic in 1977. [[Interspecific hybrid]]isation of black and white rhinoceroses has also been confirmed.<ref name=Robinson>{{cite journal|first=Terry J.|last=Robinson |author2=V. Trifonov |author3=I. Espie |author4=E.H. Harley|date=January 2005|title=Interspecific hybridization in rhinoceroses: Confirmation of a Black × White rhinoceros hybrid by karyotype, fluorescence in situ hybridization (FISH) and microsatellite analysis|journal=Conservation Genetics |volume=6|issue=1|pages=141–145|doi=10.1007/s10592-004-7750-9|bibcode=2005ConG....6..141R |s2cid=33993269 }}</ref>

While the black rhinoceros has 84 [[chromosome]]s (diploid number, 2N, per cell), all other rhinoceros species have 82 chromosomes. [[Chromosomal polymorphism]] might lead to varying chromosome counts. For instance, in a study there were three northern white rhinoceroses with 81 chromosomes.<ref name=houck>{{cite journal|last1=Houck|first1=ML|last2=Ryder|first2=OA|last3=Váhala|first3=J|last4=Kock|first4=RA|last5=Oosterhuis|first5=JE|title=Diploid chromosome number and chromosomal variation in the white rhinoceros (''Ceratotherium simum'')|journal=The Journal of Heredity|date=January–February 1994|volume=85|issue=1|pages=30–34|pmid=8120356}}</ref>

== Anatomy ==
Rhinoceroses are among the largest living land animals, with living species ranging in average weight from {{Convert|775|kg}} in the [[Sumatran rhinoceros]], to {{Convert|2300|kg}} in the [[white rhinoceros]].<ref name="Mallet-2022">{{Cite journal |last1=Mallet |first1=Christophe |last2=Houssaye |first2=Alexandra |last3=Cornette |first3=Raphaël |last4=Billet |first4=Guillaume |date=2022-11-02 |title=Long bone shape variation in the forelimb of Rhinocerotoidea: relation with size, body mass and body proportions |url=https://academic.oup.com/zoolinnean/article/196/3/1201/6486829 |journal=Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society |language=en |volume=196 |issue=3 |pages=1201–1234 |doi=10.1093/zoolinnean/zlab095 |issn=0024-4082}}</ref> Some extinct rhinocerotids were considerably smaller and larger than living rhinoceroses, with the genus ''[[Menoceras]]'' from the Early [[Miocene]] of North America having an estimated body mass of {{Convert|313|kg}},<ref name="Mallet-2022" /> comparable to sheep,<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Mihlbachler |first=Matthew C. |date=2007-11-15 |title=Sexual Dimorphism and Mortality Bias in a Small Miocene North American Rhino, Menoceras arikarense: Insights into the Coevolution of Sexual Dimorphism and Sociality in Rhinos |url=http://link.springer.com/10.1007/s10914-007-9048-4 |journal=Journal of Mammalian Evolution |language=en |volume=14 |issue=4 |pages=217–238 |doi=10.1007/s10914-007-9048-4 |issn=1064-7554|url-access=subscription }}</ref> or a pig,<ref name="D">D.R. Prothero [https://doc.rero.ch/record/13709/files/PAL_E444.pdf "Rhinocerotidae"] C.M. Janis, K.M. Scott, L. Jacobs (Eds.), Evolution of Tertiary Mammals of North America, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge (1998), pp. 595-605</ref> while ''[[Elasmotherium|Elasmotherium sibiricum]]'' from the [[Pleistocene]] of Eurasia has an estimated body mass of approximately {{Convert|4500|kg}}.<ref name="Mallet-2022" /> The skulls of rhinoceroses are generally saddle-shaped and low, with rhinoceroses being primitively characterised by the presence of a chisel-shaped upper first [[incisor]] (I1) and a tusk-like lower second incisor (i2), with all other incisors and the [[Canine tooth|canines]] typically being lost.<ref name="D" /> Black and white rhinoceroses completely lack incisors.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Hillman-Smith |first1=A. K. K. |last2=Owen-Smith |first2=N. |last3=Anderson |first3=J. L. |last4=Hall-Martin |first4=A. J. |last5=Selaladi |first5=J. P. |date=November 1986 |title=Age estimation of the White rhinoceros ( Ceratotherium simum ) |url=https://zslpublications.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1469-7998.1986.tb03639.x |journal=Journal of Zoology |language=en |volume=210 |issue=3 |pages=355–377 |doi=10.1111/j.1469-7998.1986.tb03639.x |issn=0952-8369|url-access=subscription }}</ref> Living rhinoceroses have either one or two horns, which are formed from columns of densely packed [[corneocyte]]s originating from [[dermal papillae]]. The development and growth of rhinoceros horns is similar to that of [[Nail (anatomy)|human nails]], with both being largely made of [[keratin]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Boy |first1=S. C. |last2=Raubenheimer |first2=E.J. |last3=Marais |first3=J. |last4=Steenkamp |first4=G. |date=July 2015 |title=White rhinoceros ''Ceratotherium simum'' horn development and structure: a deceptive optical illusion |url=https://zslpublications.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/jzo.12229 |journal=Journal of Zoology |language=en |volume=296 |issue=3 |pages=161–166 |doi=10.1111/jzo.12229 |issn=0952-8369|url-access=subscription }}</ref> The horns are attached to a rugose (roughly textured) area on the surface of the skull. Horns are not a universal feature of rhinocerotids, with horns thought to be absent in many extinct rhinocerotids (such as most members of the subfamily [[Aceratheriinae]]<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |last1=Lu |first1=Xiao-Kang |last2=Deng |first2=Tao |last3=Pandolfi |first3=Luca |date=2023-02-16 |title=Reconstructing the phylogeny of the hornless rhinoceros Aceratheriinae |journal=Frontiers in Ecology and Evolution |volume=11 |article-number=1005126 |doi=10.3389/fevo.2023.1005126 |bibcode=2023FrEEv..1105126L |doi-access=free |issn=2296-701X}}</ref>).<ref name="D" /> 

The brains of rhinoceroses are relatively small compared to body size,<ref>van Dongen PAM. 1998 [https://paul-van-dongen.nl/wp-content/uploads/2019/07/1998-brain-size-in-vertebrates.pdf Brain size in vertebrates]. In ''The central nervous system of vertebrates'' (eds Nieuwenhuys R, ten Donkelaar HJ, Nicholson C), pp. 2099–2134. Berlin, Germany: Springer.</ref><ref name="Bhagwandin-2017">{{Cite journal |last1=Bhagwandin |first1=Adhil |last2=Haagensen |first2=Mark |last3=Manger |first3=Paul R. |date=2017-08-31 |title=The Brain of the Black (Diceros bicornis) and White (Ceratotherium simum) African Rhinoceroses: Morphology and Volumetrics from Magnetic Resonance Imaging |journal=Frontiers in Neuroanatomy |volume=11 |article-number=74 |doi=10.3389/fnana.2017.00074 |doi-access=free |issn=1662-5129 |pmc=5583206 |pmid=28912691}}</ref> around {{Convert|531|g}} in an adult black rhinoceros.<ref name="Bhagwandin-2017" /> The limb bones tend to be robust (proportionally thick and stocky). All living and the vast majority of extinct rhinoceroses have three toes on each foot.<ref name="D" /> The body is covered in an armour of thick skin made of a dense crosslinked network of [[collagen]] fibres that is stronger and stiffer than those of other mammals.<ref>{{Cite journal |date=1992-09-29 |title=The structure and mechanical design of rhinoceros dermal armour |url=https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rstb.1992.0118 |journal=Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series B: Biological Sciences |language=en |volume=337 |issue=1282 |pages=419–428 |doi=10.1098/rstb.1992.0118 |pmid=1359589 |issn=0962-8436 |last1=Shadwick |first1=R. E. |last2=Russell |first2=A. P. |last3=Lauff |first3=R. F. |url-access=subscription }}</ref> The skin exhibits prominent folding.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Endo |first1=Hideki |last2=Kobayashi |first2=Hiroshi |last3=Koyabu |first3=Daisuke |last4=Hayashida |first4=Akiko |last5=Jogahara |first5=Takamichi |last6=Taru |first6=Hajime |last7=Oishi |first7=Motoharu |last8=Itou |first8=Takuya |last9=Koie |first9=Hiroshi |last10=Sakai |first10=Takeo |date=December 2009 |title=The Morphological Basis of the Armor-Like Folded Skin of the Greater Indian Rhinoceros as a Thermoregulator |url=http://www.bioone.org/doi/abs/10.3106/041.034.0403 |journal=Mammal Study |language=en |volume=34 |issue=4 |pages=195–200 |doi=10.3106/041.034.0403 |issn=1343-4152|url-access=subscription }}</ref> The skin in living species is grey to brown in colour, and typically sparsely covered in hair or hairless as adults, with the exception of the eyelashes, ears, and the tail-brush.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Groves |first1=Colin P |last2=Leslie |first2=David M |date=2011-01-21 |title=Rhinoceros sondaicus (Perissodactyla: Rhinocerotidae) |url=https://academic.oup.com/mspecies/article-lookup/doi/10.1644/887.1 |journal=Mammalian Species |language=en |volume=43 |pages=190–208 |doi=10.1644/887.1 |issn=0076-3519|hdl=1885/52865 |hdl-access=free }}</ref> The exception is the Sumatran rhinoceros, which is often covered with a considerable amount of hair.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Succop |first=Nick |title=Dicerorhinus sumatrensis (Sumatran rhinoceros) |url=https://animaldiversity.org/accounts/Dicerorhinus_Sumatrensis/ |access-date=2024-12-26 |website=Animal Diversity Web |language=en}}</ref>

== Behaviour and ecology ==
[[File:White rhinos (female and young).webm|thumb|White rhinoceros female and juvenile]]
[[File:Group of Indian rhinos in Kaziranga National Park.jpg|thumb|A group of three Indian rhinos.]]

Living rhinoceroses' gregariousness varies between species. Adult males tend to be solitary, and this is also true of female Asian rhinoceroses, though the females of African species sometimes form groups, with these groups being more common in white than black rhinoceroses. Rhinoceroses have widely varying diets ranging from strict [[Grazing (behaviour)|grazing]] (such as the white rhinoceros) to largely [[Browsing (herbivory)|browsing]] (such as the black rhinoceros) to a mixture between both (the Sumatran and Javan rhinoceros). As bulk feeders of low quality vegetation, rhinoceroses spend a majority of their time foraging.<ref name="Hutchins-2006">{{Cite journal |last1=Hutchins |first1=M. |last2=Kreger |first2=M. D. |date=July 2006 |title=Rhinoceros behaviour: implications for captive management and conservation |url=https://zslpublications.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1748-1090.2006.00150.x |journal=International Zoo Yearbook |language=en |volume=40 |issue=1 |pages=150–173 |doi=10.1111/j.1748-1090.2006.00150.x |issn=0074-9664|url-access=subscription }}</ref> Rhinoceroses are [[hindgut fermenters]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Luo |first1=Yu-heng |last2=Wright |first2=André-Denis G |last3=Li |first3=You-long |last4=Li |first4=Hua |last5=Yang |first5=Qi-hong |last6=Luo |first6=Ling-juan |last7=Yang |first7=Ming-xian |date=2013 |title=Diversity of methanogens in the hindgut of captive white rhinoceroses, Ceratotherium simum |journal=BMC Microbiology |language=en |volume=13 |issue=1 |page=207 |doi=10.1186/1471-2180-13-207 |doi-access=free |issn=1471-2180 |pmc=3846858 |pmid=24228793}}</ref>

All living rhinoceroses have a polyandrous and polygynous [[mating system]] where both males and females seek to mate with multiple individuals of the opposite sex. Male rhinoceroses guard reproductive age females until they are in full [[Estrous cycle|estrous]] though the females sometimes may drive away males until they are receptive. Male rhinoceroses taste the urine of female rhinoceroses and perform a [[flehmen response]] with the upper lip to determine their reproductive status. Adult males in the vicinity of oestrous females may become aggressive towards other males. These confrontations can range from ritualized behaviour to serious fighting that can result in significant injuries. In some species, male rhinoceroses are territorial, while in other species they are not or are only territorial depending on local environmental conditions. Females will sometimes reject males they consider undesirable, which results in them fleeing or fighting the male if cornered. During [[copulation (zoology)|copulation]], the male slides his neck up the back of the female, before using his neck as a lever to get his forelegs off the ground, before moving the front legs behind the shoulders of the female. Copulation can last several hours.<ref name="Hutchins-2006" /> Pregnancy lasts for over a year, around 460 days in the black rhinoceros and 504 days in the white rhinoceros.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Schwarzenberger |first1=Franz |last2=Hermes |first2=Robert |date=April 2023 |title=Comparative analysis of gestation in three rhinoceros species (Diceros bicornis; Ceratotherium simum; Rhinoceros unicornis) |journal=General and Comparative Endocrinology |language=en |volume=334 |article-number=114214 |doi=10.1016/j.ygcen.2023.114214|pmid=36646327 |doi-access=free }}</ref> 

The female generally gives birth in a secluded area and becomes aggressive towards other rhinoceroses for a while after giving birth. Calves typically stand up within 30 minutes of birth and begin to suck on their mother's teats within two hours of birth. The mother generally has a strong bond with her most recently born calf. The calf generally remains close to its mother the majority of the time, although at least in some species they are sometimes left considerable distances away. Up until they are around three years old, juvenile rhinoceroses are vulnerable to predation. Mothers are vigorously protective of their calves against potential predators. Juvenile one-horned rhinoceroses are rejected by their mothers around the time of the birth of her next calf.<ref name="Hutchins-2006" /> There is generally a gap of several years between females giving birth again after having her previous calf, though the gap can be as short as a year and a half.<ref name="Muntifering-2023">{{Cite journal |last1=Muntifering |first1=Jeff R. |last2=Guerier |first2=Abigail |last3=Beytell |first3=Piet |last4=Stratford |first4=Ken |date=September 2023 |title=Population parameters, performance and insights into factors influencing the reproduction of the black rhinoceros Diceros bicornis in Namibia |journal=Oryx |language=en |volume=57 |issue=5 |pages=659–669 |doi=10.1017/S0030605322001065 |issn=0030-6053 |doi-access=free}}</ref> Rhinoceroses become [[sexual maturity|sexually mature]] at around five to eight years of age, generally around a year later in males than in females in black and Sumatran rhinoceroses,<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Roth |first1=Terri L. |last2=Reinhart |first2=Paul R. |last3=Romo |first3=John S. |last4=Candra |first4=Dedi |last5=Suhaery |first5=Andriansyah |last6=Stoops |first6=Monica A. |date=September 2013 |title=Sexual maturation in the Sumatran rhinoceros (Dicerorhinus sumatrensis): Sumatran Rhino Sexual Maturation |url=http://doi.wiley.com/10.1002/zoo.21089 |journal=Zoo Biology |language=en |volume=32 |issue=5 |pages=549–555 |doi=10.1002/zoo.21089|pmid=23897764 |url-access=subscription }}</ref><ref name="Muntifering-2023" /> though male white rhinoceroses become socio-sexually mature at around 12 years of age, four years after females start giving birth.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Cinková |first1=Ivana |last2=Policht |first2=Richard |date=January 2015 |title=Discrimination of familiarity and sex from chemical cues in the dung by wild southern white rhinoceros |url=http://link.springer.com/10.1007/s10071-014-0810-8 |journal=Animal Cognition |language=en |volume=18 |issue=1 |pages=385–392 |doi=10.1007/s10071-014-0810-8 |pmid=25273823 |issn=1435-9448|url-access=subscription }}</ref>

== Extant species ==
{{multiple image
| align             = right
| direction         = vertical
| header            = The five [[Extant taxon|extant]] species
| width             = 200
| image1            = Waterberg Nashorn2.jpg
| alt1              = 
| caption1          = The [[white rhinoceros]] is actually grey.
| image2            = Ostafrikanisches Spitzmaulnashorn.JPG
| alt2              = 
| caption2          = The [[black rhinoceros]] has a beak shaped lip and is similar in color to the white rhinoceros.
| image3            = One horned Rhino.jpg
| alt3              = 
| caption3          = The [[Indian rhinoceros]] has a single horn.
| image4            = Java-1934.jpg
| alt4              = 
| caption4          = Smaller in size than the Indian rhinoceros, the [[Javan rhinoceros]] also has a single horn.
| image5            = Sumatran Rhino 2.jpg
| alt5              = 
| caption5          = The [[Sumatran rhinoceros]] is the smallest of the rhino species.
}}

=== White ===
{{main|White rhinoceros}}
There are two [[subspecies]] of white rhinoceros: the [[southern white rhinoceros]] (''Ceratotherium simum simum'') and the [[northern white rhinoceros]] (''Ceratotherium simum cottoni''). As of 2013, the southern subspecies has a wild population of 20,405—making them the most abundant rhino subspecies in the world. The northern subspecies is critically endangered, with all that is known to remain being two captive females. There is no conclusive explanation of the name "white rhinoceros". A popular idea that "white" is a distortion of either the [[Afrikaans]] word ''{{Lang|af|wyd}}'' or the [[Dutch word]] {{Lang|nl|wijd}} (or its other possible spellings {{Lang|nl|whyde}}, {{Lang|nl|weit}}, etc.,), meaning "wide" and referring to the rhino's square lips, is not supported by linguistic studies.<ref name="skinner">{{cite book|author1=Skinner, John D.  |author2=Chimimba, Christian T.  |title=The Mammals of the Southern African Subregion|year=2005|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-84418-5|page=527}}</ref><ref name="White rhino name">{{Cite journal | journal = Pachyderm | author = Rookmaaker, Kees | title = Why the name of the white rhinoceros is not appropriate | volume = 34 | pages = 88–93 | year = 2003 | doi = 10.69649/pachyderm.v34i1.1137 | url = http://www.rhinoresourcecenter.com/index.php?s=1&act=refs&CODE=ref_detail&id=1165243803 | url-access = subscription | doi-access = free | archive-date = 18 August 2022 | access-date = 24 February 2012 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20220818154252/http://www.rhinoresourcecenter.com/index.php?s=1&act=refs&CODE=ref_detail&id=1165243803 | url-status = dead }}</ref>

The white rhino has an immense body and large head, a short neck and broad chest. Females weigh {{cvt|1600|kg}} and males {{cvt|2400|kg}} on average, though exceptional specimens can reportedly weigh up to {{cvt|4500|kg}}.<ref name="bisbee">{{Cite web |url=https://bisbeesconservationfund.org/conservation/savetherhino/rhinogeneralinfo_white.aspx |title=The White Rhinoceros |publisher=Bisbee's Fish & Wildlife Conservation Fund |access-date= 24 November 2024}}</ref> The head-and-body length is {{cvt|3.5|-|4.6|m|ft}} and the shoulder height is {{cvt|1.8|-|2|m|ft}}. On its snout it has two [[horn (anatomy)|horns]]. The front horn is larger than the other horn and averages {{cvt|90|cm}} in length and can reach {{cvt|150|cm}}. The white rhinoceros also has a prominent muscular hump that supports its relatively large head. The colour of this animal can range from yellowish brown to slate grey. Most of its body hair is found on the ear fringes and tail bristles, with the rest distributed rather sparsely over the rest of the body. White rhinos have the distinctive flat broad mouth that is used for grazing.<ref name=skinner/>

=== Black ===
{{main|Black rhinoceros}}
The name "black rhinoceros" (''[[Diceros bicornis]]'') was chosen to distinguish this species from the white rhinoceros (''[[Ceratotherium simum]]''). This can be confusing, as the two species are not truly distinguishable by color. There are four subspecies of black rhino: South-central (''[[Diceros bicornis minor]]''), the most numerous, which once ranged from central Tanzania south through Zambia, Zimbabwe and Mozambique to northern and eastern South Africa; South-western (''[[Diceros bicornis occidentalis]]'') which are better adapted to the arid and semi-arid savannas of Namibia, southern Angola, western Botswana and western South Africa; East African (''[[Diceros bicornis michaeli]]''), primarily in Tanzania; and West African (''[[Diceros bicornis longipes]]'') which was declared extinct in November 2011.<ref name=BBC>{{Cite news | url = https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/science-environment-15663982 | title = Western black rhino declared extinct | publisher = [[BBC]] | date = 9 November 2011| access-date = 9 November 2011}}</ref> The native [[Tswana language|Tswanan]] name ''keitloa'' describes a South African variation of the black rhino in which the posterior horn is equal to or longer than the anterior horn.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/keitloa |title=Keitloa {{!}} Define Keitloa at Dictionary.com |website=Dictionary.reference.com |access-date=21 February 2012}}</ref>

An adult black rhinoceros stands {{convert|1.50|–|1.75|m|in|abbr=on}} high at the shoulder and is {{convert|3.5|-|3.9|m|ft|abbr=on}} in length.<ref name=WAZA>{{cite web|url=http://www.waza.org/virtualzoo/factsheet.php?id=118-003-003-001&view=Rhinos&main=virtualzoo |title=Black Rhinoceros |work=[[World Association of Zoos and Aquariums]] |access-date=9 October 2007 |author1=Dollinger, Peter |author2=Silvia Geser  |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090716032025/http://www.waza.org/virtualzoo/factsheet.php?id=118-003-003-001&view=Rhinos&main=virtualzoo |archive-date=16 July 2009 }}</ref> An adult weighs from {{convert|850|to|1600|kg|lb|abbr=on}}, exceptionally to {{convert|1800|kg|lb|abbr=on}}, with the females being smaller than the males. Two [[horn (anatomy)|horns]] on the skull are made of [[keratin]] with the larger front horn typically {{convert|50|cm|abbr=on}} long, exceptionally up to {{convert|140|cm|abbr=on}}. Sometimes, a third smaller horn may develop.<ref name="FortWorthZoo">{{ cite web|url=http://www.safarisamblog.com/about-the-black-rhino/ |title=About the Black Rhino |access-date=25 February 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140222235619/http://www.safarisamblog.com/about-the-black-rhino/ |archive-date=22 February 2014 }}</ref> The black rhino is much smaller than the [[white rhino]], and has a pointed mouth, which it uses to grasp leaves and twigs when feeding.

During the latter half of the 20th century, their numbers were severely reduced from an estimated 70,000<ref name=Panda>{{cite web | url = http://panda.org/downloads/species/ecop13blackrhinofactsheet.pdf | title = WWF Factsheet; Black Rhinoceros Diceros Bicornis | work = [[World Wide Fund for Nature|World Wildlife Fund]] |date=October 2004 | access-date = 9 October 2007 }}</ref> in the late 1960s to a record low of 2,410 in 1995. Since then, numbers have been steadily increasing at a continental level with numbers doubling to 4,880 by the end of 2010.{{citation needed|date=December 2019}} As of 2008, the numbers are still 90% lower than three generations ago.<ref>{{cite iucn |author=Emslie, R. |date=2020 |title=''Diceros bicornis'' |volume=2020 |article-number=e.T6557A152728945 |doi=10.2305/IUCN.UK.2020-1.RLTS.T6557A152728945.en |access-date=11 November 2021}}</ref>

=== Indian ===
{{Main|Indian rhinoceros}}
The [[Indian rhinoceros]], or greater one-horned rhinoceros, (''Rhinoceros unicornis'') has a single [[horn (anatomy)|horn]] 20 to 60&nbsp;cm long.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.newindianexpress.com/nation/One-of-world%E2%80%99s-biggest-rhino-horns-found-in-Assam/2016/08/30/article3604348.ece |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160831150925/http://www.newindianexpress.com/nation/One-of-world%E2%80%99s-biggest-rhino-horns-found-in-Assam/2016/08/30/article3604348.ece |archive-date=31 August 2016 |work=The New Indian Express |title=One of world's biggest rhino horns found in Assam| author=Prasanta Mazumdar |date=30 August 2016 |access-date=31 August 2016}}</ref> It is nearly as large as the African white rhino. Its thick, silver-brown skin folds into the shoulder, back, and rump, giving it an armored appearance. Its upper legs and shoulders are covered in [[wart]]-like bumps, and it has very little body hair. Grown males are larger than females in the wild, weighing from {{convert|2500|–|3200|kg|lb|abbr=on}}. Shoulder height is {{convert|1.75|–|2.0|m|ft|abbr=on}}. Females weigh about {{convert|1900|kg|lb|sigfig=2|abbr=on}} and are {{convert|3|-|4|m|ft|sigfig=2|abbr=on}} long. The record-sized specimen was approximately {{convert|4000|kg|lb|sigfig=2|abbr=on}}.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=X0eVCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA37|title=Wild Animals of India|last1=Panda|first1=Sasmita|last2=Panigrahi|first2=Gagan Kumar|last3=Padhi|first3=Surendra nath|date=2016-02-16|publisher=Anchor Academic Publishing|isbn=978-3-96067-514-3|language=en}}</ref>

Indian rhinos once inhabited many areas ranging from Pakistan to Myanmar and maybe even parts of China. Because of humans, they now exist in only several protected areas of India (in [[Assam]], West Bengal, and a few pairs in [[Uttar Pradesh]]) and Nepal, plus a pair in [[Lal Suhanra National Park]] in Pakistan reintroduced there from Nepal. They are confined to the tall [[grassland]]s and forests in the foothills of the [[Himalayas]]. Two-thirds of the world's Indian rhinoceroses are now confined to the [[Kaziranga National Park]] situated in the [[Golaghat district]] of [[Assam]], India.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/6564337.stm |work=BBC News |title=Assam rhino poaching 'spirals' |author=Bhaumik, Subir |date=17 April 2007 |access-date=23 August 2008}}</ref>

=== Javan ===
{{Main|Javan rhinoceros}}
The Javan rhinoceros (''Rhinoceros sondaicus'') is one of the most endangered large [[mammal]]s in the world.<ref name="NYT Java">{{Cite news |title = Racing to Know the Rarest of Rhinos, Before It's Too Late | author = Derr, Mark | work = [[The New York Times]] | date = 11 July 2006 | access-date = 11 October 2007 | url = https://www.nytimes.com/2006/07/11/science/11rhin.html?_r=1 }}</ref> According to 2015 estimates, only about 60 remain, in Java, Indonesia, all in the wild. It is also the least known rhino species. Like the closely related, and larger, [[Indian rhinoceros]], the Javan rhino has a single horn. Its hairless, hazy gray skin falls into folds into the shoulder, back, and rump, giving it an armored appearance. Its length reaches {{convert|3.1|-|3.2|m|abbr=on}} including the head, and its height {{convert|1.5|–|1.7|m|abbr=on}}. Adults are variously reported to weigh {{convert|900-1400|kg|abbr=on}}<ref>{{cite web|url=http://library.thinkquest.org/27257/javanrhino.html |title=Species extinct: Javan Rhinoceros |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080306030355/http://library.thinkquest.org/27257/javanrhino.html |archive-date=6 March 2008 }}</ref> or {{convert|1360-2000|kg|abbr=on}}.<ref name=rg>{{cite web |url=http://www.therhinoguide.com/javan-rhinoceros.html |title=Rhino Guide: Javan Rhinoceros |access-date=3 February 2019 |archive-date=6 March 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070306093806/http://www.therhinoguide.com/javan-rhinoceros.html |url-status=usurped }}</ref> Male horns can reach {{convert|26|cm|abbr=on}} in length, while in females they are knobs or altogether absent.<ref name=rg/> These animals prefer dense lowland rain forest, tall grass and reed beds that are plentiful with large floodplains and mud wallows.

Though once widespread throughout Asia, by the 1930s, they were nearly hunted to extinction in Nepal, India, Burma, [[Peninsular Malaysia]], and [[Sumatra]] for the supposed medical powers of their horns and blood. As of 2015, only 58–61 individuals remain in [[Ujung Kulon National Park]], Java, Indonesia. The last known Javan rhino in Vietnam was reportedly killed for its horn in 2011 by Vietnamese poachers. Now only Java contains the last Javan rhinos.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.usatoday.com/news/world/story/2011-10-25/vietnam-javan-rhino/50900574/1|title=Group: Last Javan rhino in Vietnam killed for horn|work=USA Today}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://news.blogs.cnn.com/2011/10/25/last-rare-rhinoceros-in-vietnam-killed-by-poacher-group-says/|title=Last rare rhinoceros in Vietnam killed by poacher, group says|work=CNN|access-date=10 March 2016|archive-date=10 March 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160310221259/http://news.blogs.cnn.com/2011/10/25/last-rare-rhinoceros-in-vietnam-killed-by-poacher-group-says/}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |title = Javan rhino 'now extinct in Vietnam' | author = Kinver, Mark | work = [[BBC News]] | date = 25 October 2011 | access-date = 25 October 2011 | url = https://www.bbc.com/news/science-environment-15430787 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://wwf.panda.org/what_we_do/endangered_species/rhinoceros/asian_rhinos/javan_rhinoceros/|title=Javan Rhino |publisher=[[World Wide Fund for Nature|WWF]]|date=2015|access-date=16 November 2015}}</ref>

=== Sumatran ===
{{Main|Sumatran rhinoceros}}
The Sumatran rhinoceros (''Dicerorhinus sumatrensis'') is the smallest extant rhinoceros species, as well as the one with the most hair. It can be found at very high altitudes in [[Borneo]] and [[Sumatra]]. Because of habitat loss and [[poaching]], their numbers have declined, and it has become the second most threatened rhinoceros. About 275 Sumatran rhinos are believed to remain. There are three subspecies of Sumatran rhinoceros: the [[Sumatran rhinoceros]] proper (''Dicerorhinus sumatrensis sumatrensis''), the [[Bornean rhinoceros]] (''Dicerorhinus sumatrensis harrissoni'') and the possibly [[extinction|extinct]] [[Northern Sumatran rhinoceros]] (''Dicerorhinus sumatrensis lasiotis'').

A mature rhino typically stands about {{convert|1.3|m|abbr=on}} high at the shoulder, has a length of {{convert|2.4|-|3.2|m|abbr=on}} and weighs around {{convert|700|kg|lb|abbr=on}}, though the largest individuals have been known to weigh as much as {{convert|1000|kg}}. Like the African species, it has two horns; the larger is the front ({{convert|25–79|cm}}), with the smaller usually less than {{convert|10|cm}} long. Males have much larger horns than the females. Hair can range from dense (the densest hair in young calves) to sparse. The color of these rhinos is reddish brown. The body is short and has stubby legs. The lip is [[prehensility|prehensile]].

Sumatran rhinoceros once were spread across South-east Asia, but now are on the verge of extinction, confined to several parts of Indonesia and Malaysia by reproductive isolation.{{citation needed|date=October 2023}} It has been found through DNA comparison that the Sumatran rhinoceros is the most ancient extant rhinoceros and related to the extinct [[Eurasia]]n woolly rhino species, ''[[Coelodonta]]''. In 1994, [[Alan Rabinowitz]] publicly denounced governments, non-governmental organizations, and other institutions for lacking in their attempts to conserve the Sumatran rhinoceros. To conserve it, they would have to relocate them from small forests to breeding programs that could monitor their breeding success. To boost reproduction, the Malaysian and Indonesian governments could also agree to exchange the gametes of the Sumatran and (smaller) Bornean subspecies. The Indonesian and Malaysian governments have also proposed a single management unit for these two ancient subspecies.<ref name="Ahmad ZafirPayne2011">{{cite journal|last1=Ahmad Zafir|first1=Abdul Wahab|last2=Payne|first2=Junaidi|last3=Mohamed|first3=Azlan|last4=Lau|first4=Ching Fong|last5=Sharma|first5=Dionysius Shankar Kumar|last6=Alfred|first6=Raymond|last7=Williams|first7=Amirtharaj Christy|last8=Nathan|first8=Senthival|last9=Ramono|first9=Widodo S.|last10=Clements|first10=Gopalasamy Reuben|title=Now or never: what will it take to save the Sumatran rhinoceros Dicerorhinus sumatrensis from extinction?|journal=Oryx|volume=45|issue=2|year=2011|pages=225–233|issn=0030-6053|doi=10.1017/S0030605310000864|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |first= Goossens |last= Benoît |author2=Milena Salgado-Lynn |author3=Jeffrine J. Rovie-Ryan |author4=Abdul H. Ahmad |author5=Junaidi Payne |author6=Zainal Z. Zainuddin |author7=Senthilvel K. S. S. Nathan |author8=Laurentius N. Ambu |title=Genetics and the last stand of the Sumatran rhinoceros Dicerorhinus sumatrensis |journal=Oryx |year=2013 |volume=47 |issue= 3 |pages=340–344|doi=10.1017/S0030605313000045|doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.sierraclub.org/compass/2015/12/sharks-tigers-and-elephants-new-analysis-reveals-tpp-threats-endangered-species |title=Sharks, Tigers, and Elephants: New Analysis Reveals TPP Threats to Endangered Species  |last1=Beachy  |first1= Ben |date=7 December 2015 |website=Sierra Club }}</ref>

== Evolution ==
[[File:Палеонтологический музей Орлова (20221008151051).jpg|thumb|Skeleton of ''[[Paraceratherium]]'', an extinct rhinocerotoid belonging to [[Paraceratheriidae]], and one the largest land mammals ever]]
The earliest representatives of [[Rhinocerotoidea]] appeared during the early-middle [[Eocene]] in Asia, around 54 million years ago.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Wang |first1=Haibing |last2=Bai |first2=Bin |last3=Meng |first3=Jin |last4=Wang |first4=Yuanqing |date=2016-12-21 |title=Earliest known unequivocal rhinocerotoid sheds new light on the origin of Giant Rhinos and phylogeny of early rhinocerotoids |journal=Scientific Reports |language=en |volume=6 |issue=1 |article-number=39607 |doi=10.1038/srep39607 |issn=2045-2322 |pmc=5175171 |pmid=28000789 |bibcode=2016NatSR...639607W }}</ref> The family of modern rhinoceroses, Rhinocerotidae appeared during the middle-late Eocene around 39–40 million years ago, roughly at the same in North America and Asia,<ref>Antoine P-O, Ducrocq S, Marivaux L, Chaimanee Y, Crochet J-Y, Jaeger J-J, Welcomme J-L. 2003 Early rhinocerotids (Mammalia: Perissodactyla) from South Asia and a review of the Holarctic Paleogene rhinocerotid record. ''Can. J. Earth Sci.'' '''40''', 365-374.</ref> with rhinoceroses migrating into Europe at the Eocene-[[Oligocene]] boundary ~34 million years ago as part of the "[[Grande Coupure]]" along with many other Asian migrants.<ref name="Tissier-2020">{{Cite journal |last1=Tissier |first1=Jérémy |last2=Antoine |first2=Pierre-Olivier |last3=Becker |first3=Damien |date=July 2020 |title=New material of Epiaceratherium and a new species of Mesaceratherium clear up the phylogeny of early Rhinocerotidae (Perissodactyla) |journal=Royal Society Open Science |language=en |volume=7 |issue=7 |article-number=200633 |bibcode=2020RSOS....700633T |doi=10.1098/rsos.200633 |issn=2054-5703 |pmc=7428265 |pmid=32874655}}</ref> Rhinocerotids represented the only living family of rhinocerotoids following the end of the Oligocene epoch around 23 million and the extinction of other rhinocerotoid groups such as the giant [[Paraceratheriidae|paraceratheres]].<ref name="Tissier-2020" /> During the early [[Miocene]] epoch, around 20 million years ago rhinocerotids migrated into Africa following its connection to Eurasia.<ref name="Cerdeño-1998">{{Cite journal |last=Cerdeño |first=Esperanza |date=August 1998 |title=Diversity and evolutionary trends of the Family Rhinocerotidae (Perissodactyla) |url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0031018298000030 |journal=Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology |language=en |volume=141 |issue=1–2 |pages=13–34 |doi=10.1016/S0031-0182(98)00003-0|bibcode=1998PPP...141...13C |url-access=subscription }}</ref> 

The last common ancestor of living rhinoceroses (which belong to the subgroup Rhinocerotina) is thought to have lived during the Miocene, at least 15–16 million years ago.<ref name="Liu-2021" /> Rhinocerotids reached maximum diversity during the Miocene epoch, with often 4–5 species of rhinoceros coexisting with each other at any location in Eurasia, up to 9 in South Asia, which include members of the living group Rhinocerotina, as well as the extinct groups [[Teleoceratini]], [[Aceratheriinae]], and [[Elasmotheriinae]].<ref name="Antoine-2025">{{Citation |last1=Antoine |first1=Pierre-Olivier |title=Evolution and Fossil Record of Old World Rhinocerotidae |date=2025 |work=Rhinos of the World |pages=31–48 |editor-last=Melletti |editor-first=Mario |url=https://link.springer.com/10.1007/978-3-031-67169-2_2 |access-date=2025-03-01 |place=Cham |publisher=Springer Nature Switzerland |language=en |doi=10.1007/978-3-031-67169-2_2 |isbn=978-3-031-67168-5 |last2=Becker |first2=Damien |last3=Pandolfi |first3=Luca |last4=Geraads |first4=Denis |editor2-last=Talukdar |editor2-first=Bibhab |editor3-last=Balfour |editor3-first=David|url-access=subscription }}</ref> Rhinocertoids declined in diversity during the late Miocene following unfavourable climatic change, becoming entirely extinct in North America at the beginning of the [[Pliocene]], around 5 million years ago,<ref name="Cerdeño-1998" /> with Teleoceratini and Aceratheriinae having become extinct by or during the [[Early Pliocene]].<ref name="Antoine-2025" />

The earliest remains of the genus ''[[Rhinoceros (genus)|Rhinoceros]]'' (which includes the living Indian/one horned and Javan rhinoceros) are known from the [[Late Miocene]], represented by remains such as an indeterminate species found in deposits in Myanmar dating to around 8-9 million years ago,<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Longuet |first1=Morgane |last2=Zin-Maung-Maung-Thein |last3=Thaung-Htike |last4=Man-Thit-Nyein |last5=Takai |first5=Masanaru |date=2024-08-02 |title=New fossil remains of Rhinocerotidae (Perissodactyla) from the early Late Miocene Tebingan area, central Myanmar |url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/08912963.2023.2218873 |journal=Historical Biology |language=en |volume=36 |issue=8 |pages=1468–1481 |doi=10.1080/08912963.2023.2218873 |bibcode=2024HBio...36.1468L |issn=0891-2963|url-access=subscription }}</ref> with the two modern species appearing during the Early-Middle [[Pleistocene]] epoch.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Antoine |first=P.-O. |year=2012 |title=Pleistocene and Holocene rhinocerotids (Mammalia, Perissodactyla) from the Indochinese Peninsula |journal=Comptes Rendus Palevol |volume=11 |issue=2–3 |pages=159–168 |bibcode=2012CRPal..11..159A |doi=10.1016/j.crpv.2011.03.002}}</ref> The earliest unambiguous relatives of white and black rhinoceros belonging to the genera ''[[Ceratotherium]]'' and ''[[Diceros]]'', first appear during the late Miocene,<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Handa |first1=Naoto |last2=Nakatsukasa |first2=Masato |last3=Kunimatsu |first3=Yutaka |last4=Nakaya |first4=Hideo |date=2019-02-07 |title=Additional specimens of Diceros (Perissodactyla, Rhinocerotidae) from the Upper Miocene Nakali Formation in Nakali, central Kenya |url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/08912963.2017.1362560 |journal=Historical Biology |language=en |volume=31 |issue=2 |pages=262–273 |doi=10.1080/08912963.2017.1362560 |bibcode=2019HBio...31..262H |issn=0891-2963|url-access=subscription }}</ref><ref name="Aouraghe-2022">{{Cite journal |last1=Aouraghe |first1=Hassan |last2=van der Made |first2=Jan |last3=Haddoumi |first3=Hamid |last4=Agustí |first4=Jordi |last5=Benito-Calvo |first5=Alfonso |last6=Rodríguez-Hidalgo |first6=Antonio |last7=Lazagabaster |first7=Ignacio A. |last8=Souhir |first8=Mohamed |last9=Mhamdi |first9=Hicham |last10=El Atmani |first10=Abderrahman |last11=Ewague |first11=Abdelhadi |last12=Sala-Ramos |first12=Robert |last13=Chacón |first13=M. Gema |date=2022-10-03 |title=New materials of the white rhinoceros Ceratotherium simum and auerochs Bos primigenius from a Late Pleistocene terrace of the Oued el Haï (NE Morocco) - two elements of the Maghrebi Palearctic fauna |url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/08912963.2021.1995381 |journal=Historical Biology |language=en |volume=34 |issue=10 |pages=1981–1999 |doi=10.1080/08912963.2021.1995381 |bibcode=2022HBio...34.1981A |issn=0891-2963|url-access=subscription }}</ref> with the first unambiguous appearance of modern white and black rhinoceros during the Early Pleistocene.<ref name="Aouraghe-2022" /><ref>Geraads, D., 2010. [http://www.rhinoresourcecenter.com/index.php?s=1&act=refs&CODE=ref_detail&id=1289601282 Rhinocerotidae] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220204161233/http://www.rhinoresourcecenter.com/index.php?s=1&act=refs&CODE=ref_detail&id=1289601282|date=4 February 2022}}, in: Werdelin, L., Sanders, W.J. (eds), Cenozoic mammals of Africa. University of California Press, Berkeley, pp. 669-683</ref> The earliest unambiguous remains of ''[[Dicerorhinus]]'' are known from the latest Pliocene,<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Zin-Maung-Maung-Thein |last2=Takai |first2=Masanaru |last3=Nishioka |first3=Yuichiro |last4=Wynn |first4=Jonathan |last5=Uno |first5=Hikaru |last6=Thaung-Htike |last7=Egi |first7=Naoko |last8=Tsubamoto |first8=Takehisa |last9=Maung-Maung |date=September 2021 |title=Stable isotope geochemistry of Gwebin mammalian fauna with implications for late Neogene paleoenvironmental changes in central Myanmar |url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1367912021002224 |journal=Journal of Asian Earth Sciences |language=en |volume=218 |article-number=104884 |doi=10.1016/j.jseaes.2021.104884|bibcode=2021JAESc.21804884Z |url-access=subscription }}</ref> with the appearance of the modern Sumatran rhinoceros during the Early Pleistocene.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Chen |first1=Shaokun |last2=Pang |first2=Libo |last3=Yan |first3=Yaling |last4=Wei |first4=Guangbiao |last5=Yue |first5=Zongying |date=August 2021 |title=First Discovery of Dicerorhinus sumatrensis from Yanjinggou Provides Insights into the Pleistocene Rhinocerotidae of South China |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/1755-6724.14719 |journal=Acta Geologica Sinica - English Edition |language=en |volume=95 |issue=4 |pages=1065–1072 |bibcode=2021AcGlS..95.1065C |doi=10.1111/1755-6724.14719 |issn=1000-9515 |s2cid=236407190|url-access=subscription }}</ref>[[File:Coelodonta antiquitatis .jpg|thumb|Skeleton of a [[woolly rhinoceros]] (''Coelodonta antiquitatis'') [[MHNT]]]]
[[File:Sa-rhino-skin.jpg|thumb|The thick dermal [[Armour (anatomy)|armour]] of the rhinoceros evolved at the same time as shearing [[tusks]].<ref>{{cite thesis |last=Hieronymus|first=Tobin L.|title=Osteological Correlates of Cephalic Skin Structures in Amniota: Documenting the Evolution of Display and Feeding Structures with Fossil Data |type=PhD dissertation |publisher=Ohio University |url=http://rave.ohiolink.edu/etdc/view?acc_num=ohiou1237491191|page=3|date=March 2009}}</ref>]]Alongside the extant species, four additional species of rhinoceros survived into the [[Last Glacial Period]]: the [[woolly rhinoceros]] (''Coelodonta antiquitatis''), ''[[Elasmotherium|Elasmotherium sibiricum]]'' and two species of ''[[Stephanorhinus]],'' [[Merck's rhinoceros]] (''Stephanorhinus kirchbergensis'') and the [[narrow-nosed rhinoceros]] (''Stephanorhinus hemitoechus)''.<ref name="Liu-2021">{{Cite journal|last1=Liu|first1=Shanlin|last2=Westbury|first2=Michael V.|last3=Dussex|first3=Nicolas|last4=Mitchell|first4=Kieren J.|last5=Sinding|first5=Mikkel-Holger S.|last6=Heintzman|first6=Peter D.|last7=Duchêne|first7=David A.|last8=Kapp|first8=Joshua D.|last9=von Seth|first9=Johanna|last10=Heiniger|first10=Holly|last11=Sánchez-Barreiro|first11=Fátima|date=24 August 2021|title=Ancient and modern genomes unravel the evolutionary history of the rhinoceros family|journal=Cell|volume=184|issue=19|pages=4874–4885.e16|doi=10.1016/j.cell.2021.07.032|pmid=34433011|issn=0092-8674|doi-access=free|hdl=10230/48693|hdl-access=free}}</ref>

[[Cladogram]] showing the relationships of recent and Late Pleistocene rhinoceros species (minus ''Stephanorhinus hemitoechus)'' based on whole nuclear genomes, after Liu et al., 2021:<ref name="Liu-2021" />

{{clade|{{clade
|label1=[[Elasmotheriinae]]
|1={{extinct}}''[[Elasmotherium sibiricum]]''
|label2=Rhinocerotinae
|2={{clade
   |1={{clade
      |1=[[White Rhinoceros]] (''Ceratotherium simum'')
      |2=[[Black rhinoceros]] (''Diceros bicornis'')
       }}      
    |2={{clade
       |label1=
       |1={{clade
         |1={{clade
          |1={{extinct}} [[Woolly rhinoceros]] (''Coelodonta antiquitatis'')
          |2={{extinct}} [[Merck's rhinoceros]] (''Stephanorhinus kirchbergensis'')
          }}
         |2=[[Sumatran rhinoceros]] (''Dicerorhinus sumatrensis'')
        }}
     |label2=
      |2={{clade
        |1=[[Javan rhinoceros]] (''Rhinoceros sondaicus'')
        |2=[[Indian rhinoceros]] (''Rhinoceros unicornis'')
         }}

      }}
    }}
  }}|style=font-size:100%;line-height:80%}}

{{Extinct}} denotes extinct taxa

=== Subfamilies and genera ===
* '''Family Rhinocerotidae'''<ref name="Mikko">{{cite web | last = Haraamo | first = Mikko | title = Mikko's Phylogeny Archive entry on "Rhinoceratidae" | date = 15 November 2005 | url = http://www.fmnh.helsinki.fi/users/haaramo/metazoa/deuterostoma/chordata/synapsida/eutheria/Perissodactyla/Rhinocerotidae/Rhinocerotidae.htm | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20051127005502/http://www.fmnh.helsinki.fi/users/haaramo/metazoa/Deuterostoma/Chordata/Synapsida/Eutheria/Perissodactyla/Rhinocerotidae/Rhinocerotidae.htm | archive-date = 27 November 2005 | access-date = 7 January 2008 }}</ref>
** †''[[Teletaceras]]''
** †''[[Uintaceras]]''
** †''[[Epiaceratherium]]''
** †''[[Trigonias]]'' 
** †''[[Ronzotherium]]''
** †''[[Diceratherium]]'' 
** †''[[Menoceras]]'' 
** †''[[Subhyracodon]]'' 
** †''[[Molassitherium]]'' 
** '''Subfamily [[Aceratheriinae]]'''<ref name=":0" /> (sometimes placed in Rhinocerotinae as Aceratheriina)
*** †''[[Alicornops]]''
*** †''[[Aprotodon]]''
*** †''[[Acerorhinus]]''
*** †''[[Aphelops]]''
*** †''[[Hoploaceratherium]]''
*** †''[[Persiatherium]]''
*** †''[[Brachydiceratherium]]''
*** †''[[Diaceratherium]]''
*** †''[[Dromoceratherium]]''
*** †''[[Floridaceras]]''
*** †''[[Galushaceras]]''
*** †''[[Chilotheridium]]''
*** †''[[Mesaceratherium]]''
*** †''[[Plesiaceratherium]]''
*** †''[[Proaceratherium]]''
*** '''Tribe [[Aceratheriinae|Aceratheriini]]<ref name=":0" />'''
**** †''[[Acerorhinus]]''?
**** †''[[Aphelops]]''?
**** †''[[Hoploaceratherium]]''?
**** †''[[Persiatherium]]''?
**** †''[[Aceratherium]]''
**** †''[[Subchilotherium]]''
**** †''[[Peraceras]]''
**** †''[[Chilotherium]]''
**** †''[[Shansirhinus]]''
*** '''Tribe [[Teleoceratini]]'''?'''<ref name=":0" />''' (sometimes placed as a separate group)
**** †''[[Alicornops]]''?
**** †''[[Teleoceras]]''
**** †''[[Brachypotherium]]''
**** †''[[Prosantorhinus]]''
** '''Subfamily Rhinocerotinae'''
*** '''Subtribe''' '''Rhinocerotina'''<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Borrani |first=Antonio |last2=Mackiewicz |first2=Paweł |last3=Kovalchuk |first3=Oleksandr |last4=Barkaszi |first4=Zoltán |last5=Capalbo |first5=Chiara |last6=Dubikovska |first6=Anastasiia |last7=Ratajczak‐Skrzatek |first7=Urszula |last8=Sinitsa |first8=Maxim |last9=Stefaniak |first9=Krzysztof |last10=Mazza |first10=Paul P.A. |date=2025-10-26 |title=The evolutionary history of Rhinocerotidae: phylogenetic insights, climate influences and conservation implications |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/cla.70015 |journal=Cladistics |language=en |doi=10.1111/cla.70015 |issn=0748-3007}}</ref> (also used to encompass all modern rhinoceroses<ref>Pandolfi, L. [https://d1wqtxts1xzle7.cloudfront.net/57575881/Pandolfi_2018_evolutionary_history_rhinocerotina_fossilia-libre.pdf?1539701576=&response-content-disposition=inline%3B+filename%3DEVOLUTIONARY_HISTORY_OF_RHINOCEROTINA_MA.pdf&Expires=1761578012&Signature=EsuUIHfzQg1OCg-zWa7A5w0cFg~UKHtO1WfyK6iIy~pIgEmtYkYPJMa8LNbnU9GwZwFmlXXHOq-H0pWZNkg02ieTG~ZtOfXQw2cXU4fDB~Ky9rnQo03dd5oLyoZtf-Yh4Pxd4a8Y9wjobX9nkRCWt08txNy3so1AItrGmTguZv75XgW9Fh3iWDmeO~ziePYz6UoqsMcp3HjqwtoJFO~z4DDeKqHoxLABpLoNLg-akMHmy9fPCj78Lae1BUJg0MJssEfpFLoffdE6OscUtYPCvNHJu6akAsHlSTQErvEEnEM1D4Y9WbEjjOLdrjG1ZX~yUxbWIMEwpW-sOZppXKwIjg__&Key-Pair-Id=APKAJLOHF5GGSLRBV4ZA Evolutionary history of Rhinocerotina (Mammalia, Perissodactyla).] ''Fossilia'' '''2018''', 27–32 (2018).</ref>)
**** †''[[Nesorhinus]]''
**** ''[[Rhinoceros (genus)|Rhinoceros]]'' – [[Indian Rhinoceros|Indian]] & [[Javan rhinoceros]]
*** '''Tribe Dicerorhinini''' or '''Subtribe Dicerorhinina''' (also known as the "DCS clade"<ref name="Liu-2021" />)
**** †''[[Pliorhinus]]''
**** †''[[Coelodonta]]'' – [[Woolly rhinoceros]]
**** ''[[Dicerorhinus]]'' – [[Sumatran rhinoceros]]
**** †''[[Dihoplus]]''<ref name="Pandolfi2020">{{cite journal |last1= Pandolfi |first1= L. |last2= Rivals |first2= F. |last3= Rabinovich |first3= R. |date= January 2020 |title= A new species of rhinoceros from the site of Bethlehem: ''<nowiki>'Dihoplus'</nowiki> bethlehemsis'' sp. nov. (Mammalia, Rhinocerotidae) |journal= Quaternary International |volume= 537 |pages= 48–60 |doi= 10.1016/j.quaint.2020.01.011|s2cid= 213080180 }}</ref>
**** †''[[Stephanorhinus]]''  – [[Merck's rhinoceros]] & [[Narrow-nosed rhinoceros]]
*** '''Tribe Dicerotini/Diceroti''' or '''Subtribe Dicerotina'''
**** ''[[Ceratotherium]]'' – [[White rhinoceros]]
**** ''[[Diceros]]'' – [[Black rhinoceros]]
**** †''[[Paradiceros]]''<ref name="Pandolfi2018">{{cite journal |last1= Pandolfi |first1= L. |date= 2018 |title= Evolutionary history of Rhinocerotina (Mammalia, Perissodactyla) |journal= Fossilia |volume= 2018 |pages= 26–32 |doi= 10.32774/FosRepPal.20.1810.102732|isbn= 979-12-200-3408-1 |doi-access= free }}</ref> 
**** †''[[Miodiceros]]''?''<ref>{{Citation |last=Giaourtsakis |first=Ioannis X. |title=The Fossil Record of Rhinocerotids (Mammalia: Perissodactyla: Rhinocerotidae) in Greece |date=2022 |url=https://link.springer.com/10.1007/978-3-030-68442-6_14 |work=Fossil Vertebrates of Greece Vol. 2 |pages=409–500 |editor-last=Vlachos |editor-first=Evangelos |access-date=2023-11-20 |place=Cham |publisher=Springer International Publishing |language=en |doi=10.1007/978-3-030-68442-6_14 |isbn=978-3-030-68441-9|s2cid=239883886 |url-access=subscription }}</ref>''
*** '''Rhinocerotinae ''incertae sedis'''''
**** †''[[Protaceratherium]]''<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Becker|first1=Damien|last2=Pierre-Olivier|first2=Antoine|last3=Maridet|first3=Olivier|date=22 March 2013|title=A new genus of Rhinocerotidae (Mammalia, Perissodactyla) from the Oligocene of Europe|journal=Journal of Systematic Palaeontology|volume=11|issue=8|pages=947–972|doi=10.1080/14772019.2012.699007|bibcode=2013JSPal..11..947B |s2cid=55036210|url=http://doc.rero.ch/record/208830/files/PAL_E3772.pdf}}</ref>
**** †''[[Lartetotherium]]''
**** †''[[Gaindatherium]]''<ref name="Khan2014">{{cite journal |last1=Khan |first1=A.M. |last2=Cerdeno |first2=E. |display-authors=etal |date=June 2014 |title=New fossils of ''Gaindatherium'' (Rhinocerotidae, Mammalia) from the Middle Miocene of Pakistan |journal=Turkish Journal of Earth Sciences |volume=23 |pages=452–461 |doi=10.3906/yer-1312-24 |bibcode=2014TJES...23..452K |hdl=11336/32143 |doi-access=free |hdl-access=free}}</ref>
**** †''[[Rusingaceros]]''
** '''Subfamily [[Elasmotheriinae]]'''
*** †''[[Gulfoceras]]''?
*** †''[[Penetrigonias]]''?
*** †''[[Subhyracodon]]''?
*** †''[[Menoceras]]''?
*** †''[[Diceratherium]]''?
*** '''Tribe Elasmotheriini / Subtribe Elasmotheriina''' 
**** †''[[Bugtirhinus]]'' 
**** †''[[Caementodon]]''
**** †''[[Elasmotherium]]'' 
**** †''[[Eoazara]]'' 
**** †''[[Hispanotherium]]'' 
**** †''[[Iranotherium]]''
**** †''[[Victoriaceros]]''?<ref name="Victoriaceros">{{cite journal |author1=Geraads, Denis |author2=McCrossin, Monte |author3=Benefit, Brenda |year=2012 |title=A New Rhinoceros, ''Victoriaceros kenyensis'' gen. et sp. nov., and Other Perissodactyla from the Middle Miocene of Maboko, Kenya |journal=Journal of Mammalian Evolution |volume=19 |pages=57–75 |doi=10.1007/s10914-011-9183-9 |s2cid=1547306}}</ref>
**** †''[[Kenyatherium]]''<ref name="Handa2015">{{cite journal |last1=Handa |first1=N. |last2=Nakatsukasa |first2=M. |display-authors=etal |date=2015 |title=New specimens of ''Chilotheridium'' (Perissodactyla, Rhinocerotidae) from the Upper Miocene Namurungule and Nakali Formations, Northern Kenya |journal=Paleontological Research |volume=19 |issue=3 |pages=181–194 |doi=10.2517/2014PR035 |bibcode=2015PalRe..19..181H |s2cid=130817602}}</ref>
**** †''[[Meninatherium]]''
**** †''[[Samburuceros]]'' 
**** †''[[Ningxiatherium]]''<ref>{{cite journal|url=http://www.rhinoresourcecenter.com/pdf_files/124/1245663086.pdf|doi=10.1016/j.geobios.2008.01.006|title=A new elasmothere (Perissodactyla, Rhinocerotidae) from the late Miocene of the Linxia Basin in Gansu, China|year=2008|last1=Deng|first1=Tao|journal=Geobios|volume=41|issue=6|pages=719–728|bibcode=2008Geobi..41..719D }}</ref>
**** †''[[Ougandatherium]]''<ref name="Handa2015" />
**** †''[[Parelasmotherium]]''<ref name="Deng2007">{{cite journal |last1= Deng |first1= T. |date= 2007 |title= Skull of ''Parelasmotherium'' (Perissodactyla, Rhinocerotidae) from the Upper Miocene in the Linxia Basin (Gansu, China) |journal= Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology |volume= 27 |issue= 2 |pages= 467–475 |doi= 10.1671/0272-4634(2007)27[467:SOPPRF]2.0.CO;2|s2cid= 130213090 }}</ref>
**** †''[[Procoelodonta]]''<ref name="Antoine2003">{{cite journal |last1= Antoine |first1= P. |date= February 2003 |title= Middle Miocene elasmotheriine Rhinocerotidae from China and Mongolia: taxonomic revision and phylogenetic relationships |journal= Zoologica Scripta |volume= 32 |issue= 2 |pages= 95–118 |doi= 10.1046/j.1463-6409.2003.00106.x|s2cid= 86800130 }}</ref>
**** †''[[Sinotherium]]''

== Predators, poaching and hunting ==
{{see also|Rhino poaching in Southern Africa}}
[[File:Rhino poaching in Africa (2008-2018).png|thumb|right|250px|Graph showing the number of rhinos poached annually in Africa (2008–2018)<ref>Data compiled by the International Rhino Foundation</ref>]]
[[File:Ethiopian shield.jpg|thumb|left|250px|An [[Ethiopia]]n shield from rhinoceros skin, 19th century]]
Adult rhinoceroses have no real predators in the wild, other than humans. Young rhinos sometimes fall prey to [[big cat]]s, crocodiles, [[African wild dog]]s, and [[hyena]]s.

Although rhinos are large and aggressive and have a reputation for being resilient, they are very easily poached; they visit water holes daily and can be easily killed while they drink. As of December 2009, poaching increased globally while efforts to protect the rhino are considered increasingly ineffective. The most serious estimate, that only 3% of poachers are successfully countered, is reported of Zimbabwe, while Nepal has largely avoided the crisis.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/8388606.stm |title='Global surge' in rhino poaching |publisher=[[BBC]] |date=1 December 2009 |access-date=9 May 2016}}</ref> Poachers have become more sophisticated. South African officials have called for urgent action against poaching after poachers killed the last female rhino in the [[Krugersdorp Game Reserve]] near [[Johannesburg]].<ref>{{cite news |url= https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2010/jul/18/poachers-kill-last-female-rhino |title=Poachers kill last female rhino in South African park for prized horn |work=[[The Guardian]] |date=18 July 2010 |access-date=25 July 2010}}</ref> Statistics from [[South African National Parks]] show that 333 rhinoceroses were killed in South Africa in 2010,<ref>{{cite news |url= https://www.theguardian.com/world/2011/nov/04/south-africa-rhino-poaching-record-high |title=Rhino poachers bring death toll in South Africa to record high |work=[[The Guardian]] |date=4 November 2011 |access-date=9 May 2016}}</ref> increasing to 668 by 2012,<ref>{{cite web |title=Update on rhino poaching statistics |url=http://www.sanparks.org/about/news/default.php?id=55461 |publisher=[[South African National Parks]] |access-date=18 April 2013}}</ref> over 1,004 in 2013,<ref name=nyt>{{cite news |last=Lucero |first=Louis II |title= South Africa: Rhino Killings Increase |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2014/01/18/world/africa/south-africa-rhino-killings-increase.html |access-date=20 January 2014 |newspaper=The New York Times |date=17 January 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite press release |title=Rhino poaching update |url=https://www.environment.gov.za/mediarelease/update_on_rhino_poaching |publisher=Department of Environmental Affairs | access-date=25 December 2013 |date=19 December 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=946 rhino killed in 2013 |url= http://ewn.co.za/2013/12/19/946-Rhino-poached-in-2013 |access-date=25 December 2013 |newspaper=Eyewitness News |date=19 December 2013}}</ref> and over 1,338 killed in 2015.<ref>{{cite web |title=Record number of African rhinos killed in 2015 |url= https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2016/mar/09/record-number-of-african-rhinos-killed-in-2015?CMP=share_btn_tw |work=[[The Guardian]] |date=9 March 2016 |access-date=10 March 2015}}</ref> In some cases rhinos are tranquilized and their horns removed leaving them to bleed to death, while in other instances more than the horn is taken.<ref>{{cite web |last=Mngoma |first=Nosipho |title=R100 000 reward for rhino poachers |date=19 December 2013 |url=http://www.iol.co.za/news/crime-courts/r100-000-reward-for-rhino-poachers-1.1624777#.UuYxJ_uxVxC |work=[[Independent Online (South Africa)|IOL]] |publisher=Independent Newspapers |access-date=27 January 2014}}</ref>

The Namibian government has supported the practice of rhino trophy hunting as a way to raise money for conservation. Hunting licenses for five Namibian black rhinos are auctioned annually, with the money going to the government's Game Products Trust Fund. Some conservationists and members of the public oppose or question this practice.<ref>{{cite web |last=Welz |first=Adam |title=Kill a Rhino to save its species? |url=http://www.dw.de/rhino-hunt-controversy/a-17360069 |date=14 January 2014 |publisher=Deutsche Welle (DW) |access-date=23 January 2014}}</ref>

== Horn use ==
[[File:Weight of seized rhino horns, OWID.svg|thumb|upright=2|Weight of seized rhino horns, 2018<ref>{{cite web |title=Weight of seized rhino horns |url=https://ourworldindata.org/grapher/seized-rhino-horns |website=Our World in Data |access-date=5 March 2020}}</ref>]]
[[File:Rhino with fake horn.jpg|thumb|Sign in the [[National Museum of Scotland]] notifying visitors that the horn on display is a replica; this is because several rhino horns have been stolen from museums.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.irishtimes.com/news/crime-and-law/rhino-heads-horns-worth-500-000-stolen-in-dublin-1.1364543|title=Rhino heads, horns worth €500,000 stolen in Dublin|newspaper=The Irish Times}}</ref>]]
Rhinoceros horns develop from subcutaneous tissues, and are made of [[keratin]]ous mineralized compartments. The horns root in a germinative layer.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Nasoori|first=A|date=2020|title=Formation, structure, and function of extra-skeletal bones in mammals|url=https://archive.org/details/formation-structure-and-function-of-extra-skeletal-bones-in-mammals|journal=Biological Reviews|volume=95|issue=4|pages=986–1019|doi=10.1111/brv.12597|pmid=32338826|s2cid=216556342|via=Wiley}}</ref>

Rhinoceros horns are used in [[traditional medicine]]s in parts of Asia, and for dagger handles in Yemen and Oman. [[Esmond bradley martin|Esmond Bradley Martin]] has reported on the trade for dagger handles in Yemen,<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.gcci.org/gcci/bradley.html |title=GCC: Esmond Bradly Martin Reports From Yemen |publisher=Gcci.org |access-date=23 September 2010 |archive-date=7 November 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151107010149/http://www.gcci.org/gcci/bradley.html |url-status=dead }}</ref> which was historically a major source for the demand for rhino horn in the late 20th century.<ref name="Vigne-2018" /> In Europe, it was historically believed that rhino horns could purify water and could detect poisoned liquids, and likely believed to be an [[aphrodisiac]] and an antidote to poison.<ref>{{cite web|title=Facts about Rhino Horn|url=https://www.fws.gov/le/pdf/rhino-horn-factsheet.pdf|website=U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service|access-date=25 October 2016|archive-date=19 September 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200919071037/https://www.fws.gov/le/pdf/rhino-horn-factsheet.pdf}}</ref>

It is a common misconception that rhinoceros horn in powdered form is used as an [[aphrodisiac]]<ref>{{Cite web |last=Hsu |first=Jeremy |date=April 5, 2017 |title=The Hard Truth about the Rhino Horn 'Aphrodisiac' Market |url=https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/the-hard-truth-about-the-rhino-horn-aphrodisiac-market/ |url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210303034817/https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/the-hard-truth-about-the-rhino-horn-aphrodisiac-market/|archive-date=2021-03-03|website=[[Scientific American]]|language=en}}</ref> or a cure for cancer in [[traditional Chinese medicine]] (TCM) as ''Cornu Rhinoceri Asiatici'' (犀角, ''xījiǎo'', "rhinoceros horn"); no TCM text in history has ever mentioned such prescriptions.<ref name="theatlantic.com">{{cite web|url=https://www.theatlantic.com/business/archive/2013/05/why-does-a-rhino-horn-cost-300-000-because-vietnam-thinks-it-cures-cancer-and-hangovers/275881/|title=Why Does a Rhino Horn Cost $300,000? Because Vietnam Thinks It Cures Cancer and Hangovers|work=The Atlantic|first=Gwynn|last=Guilford|date=15 May 2013}}</ref><ref name="savetherhino.org">{{cite web|title=Rhino Poaching|url=https://www.savetherhino.org/rhino_info/threats_to_rhino/poaching_for_rhino_horn|work=[[Save the Rhino]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.pbs.org/wnet/nature/rhinoceros-rhino-horn-use-fact-vs-fiction/1178/|title=Rhino Horn Use: Fact vs. Fiction|date=20 August 2010|work=PBS}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|last=Richard Ellis|date=2 November 2012|title=Poaching for Traditional Chinese Medicine |url=http://www.savetherhino.org/rhino_info/threats_to_rhino/poaching_for_traditional_chinese_medicine |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121102214008/http://www.savetherhino.org/rhino_info/threats_to_rhino/poaching_for_traditional_chinese_medicine|archive-date=2 November 2012|work=[[Save the Rhino]]}}</ref> In TCM, rhino horn is sometimes prescribed for fevers and convulsions,<ref>{{cite book |editor-last=Bensky |editor-first=Dan |editor-last2=Clavey |editor-first2=Steven |editor-last3=Stoger |editor-first3=Erich |editor-last4=Gamble |editor-first4=Andrew |year=2004 |title=Chinese Herbal Medicine: Materia Medica |edition=3rd |publisher=Eastland Press |isbn=0-939616-42-4}}</ref> a treatment not supported by [[evidence-based medicine]]: this treatment has been compared to consuming fingernail clippings in water.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.economist.com/news/international/21607891-parts-some-endangered-species-are-worth-more-gold-or-cocaine-bitter-pills |title=Bitter Pills – Parts from some endangered species are worth more than gold or cocaine |publisher=[[The Economist]] |date=18 July 2014}}</ref> In a 2021 survey of Chinese users of rhinoceros horn TCM products, the vast majority of respondents cited "dispelling heat" and "detoxification" as reasons for using rhino horn.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Cheung |first1=Hubert |last2=Mazerolle |first2=Lorraine |last3=Possingham |first3=Hugh P. |last4=Biggs |first4=Duan |date=May 2021 |title=Rhino horn use by consumers of traditional Chinese medicine in China |url=https://conbio.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/csp2.365 |journal=Conservation Science and Practice |language=en |volume=3 |issue=5 |article-number=e365 |doi=10.1111/csp2.365 |bibcode=2021ConSP...3E.365C |issn=2578-4854|hdl=11573/1713877 |hdl-access=free }}</ref> In 1993, China signed the [[CITES]] treaty and removed rhinoceros horn from the [[Pharmacopoeia of the People's Republic of China|Chinese medicine pharmacopeia]], administered by the Ministry of Health. In 2011, the Register of Chinese Herbal Medicine in the United Kingdom issued a formal statement condemning the use of rhinoceros horn.<ref>{{cite web | date=9 September 2011 | title=Chinese Medicine Organization Speaks Out Against Use of Rhino Horn | publisher=RhinoConservation.org |last=Larson |first=Rhishja |url=http://www.rhinoconservation.org/2011/09/09/chinese-medicine-organization-speaks-out-against-use-of-rhino-horn/ | access-date=26 October 2011 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110925085940/http://www.rhinoconservation.org/2011/09/09/chinese-medicine-organization-speaks-out-against-use-of-rhino-horn/ | archive-date=25 September 2011 }}</ref> A growing number of TCM educators are also speaking out against the practice,<ref>{{cite web | date=15 August 2011 | title=TCM Educators Speak Out Against Use of Rhino Horn | publisher=RhinoConservation.org | author=Larson, Rhishja | url=http://www.rhinoconservation.org/2011/08/15/tcm-educators-speak-out-against-use-of-rhino-horn/ | access-date=26 October 2011 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111003002258/http://www.rhinoconservation.org/2011/08/15/tcm-educators-speak-out-against-use-of-rhino-horn/ | archive-date=3 October 2011 }}</ref> although some TCM practitioners still believe that it is a life-saving medicine.{{citation needed|date=June 2023}}

Vietnam reportedly has the biggest number of rhino horn consumers, with their demand driving most of the poaching, which has risen to record levels.<ref name="TRAFFIC">{{cite book|last1=Milliken|first1=Tom|url=http://www.traffic.org/species-reports/traffic_species_mammals66.pdf|title=The South Africa – Viet Nam Rhino Horn Trade Nexus|last2=Shaw|first2=Jo|date=2012|publisher=[[Traffic (conservation programme)|TRAFFIC]]|isbn=978-0-9584025-8-3|location=Johannesburg, South Africa|page=15}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://qz.com/233596/rich-vietnamese-snorting-rhino-horns-are-causing-a-poaching-explosion-in-south-africa/|title=Rich Vietnamese snorting rhino horns are causing a poaching explosion in South Africa|work=Quartz|first=Zach|last=Wener-Fligner|date=13 July 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/magazine-26081168|title=Vietnam's illegal trade in rhino horn|work=BBC|first=Sue Lloyds|last=Roberts|date=9 February 2014}}</ref> The "Vietnam CITES Management Authority" has claimed that Hanoi recently experienced a 77% drop in the usage of rhino horn, but National Geographic has challenged these claims, noticing that there was no rise in the numbers of criminals who were apprehended or prosecuted.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://voices.nationalgeographic.com/2014/11/03/has-demand-for-rhino-horn-truly-dropped-in-vietnam/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141105124800/http://voices.nationalgeographic.com/2014/11/03/has-demand-for-rhino-horn-truly-dropped-in-vietnam/|archive-date=5 November 2014|title=Has Demand for Rhino Horn Truly Dropped in Vietnam?|first=Wildlife Conservation|last=Society|date=3 November 2014|work=nationalgeographic.com}}</ref> South African rhino poaching's main destination market is Vietnam.<ref>{{cite news |last=Northam |first=Jackie |date= 28 January 2015 |title=Tiger Skins And Rhino Horns: Can A Trade Deal Halt The Trafficking? |url=https://www.npr.org/sections/parallels/2015/01/28/381896551/tiger-skins-and-rhino-horns-can-a-trade-deal-halt-the-trafficking |newspaper=NPR }}{{cite web |url=http://www.ictsd.org/bridges-news/biores/news/rhino-poaching-on-the-rise-ministers-pledge-to-tackle-illegal-horn-trade |title=Rhino poaching on the rise, ministers pledge to tackle illegal horn trade |date=19 February 2015 |website=International Centre for Trade and Sustainable Development }}</ref> An average sized horn can bring in as much as a quarter of a million dollars in Vietnam and many rhino range states have stockpiles of rhino horn.<ref>{{cite news|author1=Frank, Meghan  |author2=Hopper, Jessica  |title=Spike in rhino poaching threatens survival of species|url=http://rockcenter.msnbc.msn.com/_news/2012/02/21/10466912-spike-in-rhino-poaching-threatens-survival-of-species|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120222170136/http://rockcenter.msnbc.msn.com/_news/2012/02/21/10466912-spike-in-rhino-poaching-threatens-survival-of-species|archive-date=22 February 2012|date=21 February 2012}}</ref><ref>Milledge, Simon (2005). {{cite web|url= http://www.traffic.org/species-reports/traffic_species_mammals31.pdf |title=Rhino Horn Stockpile }}&nbsp;{{small|(1.34&nbsp;MB)}}, ''TRAFFIC''. Retrieved 9 January 2008.</ref>

== Horn trade ==
International trade in rhinoceros horn has been declared illegal by the [[Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora]] (CITES) since 1977.<ref name="Baker">{{cite news|last1=Baker|first1=Aryn|title=Legalizing the Sale of Rhino Horn May Only Endanger the Animals More|url=https://time.com/4199814/south-africa-legal-rhino-horn-market/|access-date=24 July 2017|work=The New York Times|date=29 January 2016}}</ref> A proposal by Swaziland to lift the international ban was rejected in October 2016.<ref name="Actman">{{cite news|last1=Actman|first1=Jani|title=The World Votes to Keep Rhino Horn Sales Illegal: A proposal by Swaziland to legalize trade in rhino horn was rejected at the wildlife trade conference in South Africa|url=http://news.nationalgeographic.com/2016/10/wildlife-watch-vote-rhino-horn-sales-illegal/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161004171621/http://news.nationalgeographic.com/2016/10/wildlife-watch-vote-rhino-horn-sales-illegal/|archive-date=4 October 2016|access-date=24 July 2017|work=National Geographic|date=3 October 2016}}</ref> Domestic sale of rhinoceros horn in South Africa, home of 80% of the remaining rhino population,<ref name="Bale">{{cite news|last1=Bale|first1=Rachael|title=A Brief History of the Long Fight to End Rhino Slaughter|url=http://news.nationalgeographic.com/2015/09/150922-rhino-horn-south-africa-conservation-trade-poaching/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150924104250/http://news.nationalgeographic.com/2015/09/150922-rhino-horn-south-africa-conservation-trade-poaching/|archive-date=24 September 2015|access-date=24 July 2017|work=National Geographic|date=22 September 2015}}</ref> was banned as of 2009. The ban was overturned in a court case in 2017, and South Africa plans to draft regulations for the sale of rhino horn, possibly including export for "non-commercial purposes".<ref name="Torchia">{{cite news|last1=Torchia|first1=Christopher|title=South Africa moves ahead on domestic trade in rhino horn|url=https://abcnews.go.com/Technology/wireStory/south-africa-moves-ahead-domestic-trade-rhino-horn-48811259|access-date=24 July 2017|work=ABC|date=24 July 2017}}</ref> The South African government has proposed that a legal trade of rhino horn be established, arguing that this could reduce poaching and prevent the extinction of this species.<ref name="DEA">{{cite web |title=Minister Edna Molewa briefs the media on Cabinet approval of the rhino trade proposal for consideration at CITES CoP17 in 2016 |url=https://www.environment.gov.za/ednamolewa_briefsmedia_onrhinotradeproposal |publisher=Department of Environmental Affairs (Government of South Africa) |date=3 July 2013 |access-date=9 May 2016 |archive-date=20 August 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170820034454/https://www.environment.gov.za/ednamolewa_briefsmedia_onrhinotradeproposal |url-status=dead }}</ref>

In March 2013, some researchers suggested that the only way to reduce poaching would be to establish a regulated trade based on humane and renewable harvesting from live rhinos.<ref>{{cite journal | journal = Science | title = Legal Trade of Africa's Rhino Horns | date = 1 March 2013 | volume = 339 | doi = 10.1126/science.1229998 | url = http://rhino-dialogues.co.za/wp-content/uploads/2012/11/BiggsetalScience2013.pdf | last1 = Biggs | first1 = D. | last2 = Courchamp | first2 = F. | last3 = Martin | first3 = R. | last4 = Possingham | first4 = H. P. | issue = 6123 | pages = 1038–1039 | pmid = 23449582 | bibcode = 2013Sci...339.1038B | s2cid = 206545172 | access-date = 10 December 2018 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20140123062959/http://rhino-dialogues.co.za/wp-content/uploads/2012/11/BiggsetalScience2013.pdf | archive-date = 23 January 2014 }}</ref> The [[World Wildlife Fund]] opposes legalization of the horn trade, as it may increase demand,<ref>{{cite web |last= Braun |first= Maja|title= Should the rhino horn trade be legalized? |url= http://www.dw.de/should-the-rhino-horn-trade-be-legalized/a-16678083 |date=15 March 2013 |work=Animals |publisher=Deutsche Welle (DW) |access-date=24 January 2014|display-authors=etal}}</ref> while [[International Fund for Animal Welfare|IFAW]] released a report by ''EcoLarge'', suggesting that more thorough knowledge of economic factors is required to justify the pro-trade option.<ref>{{cite web |last=Michler |first=Ian |title=Horn of contention: pro-trade thinking comes in for criticism |date=16 January 2014 | url=http://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2014-01-16-horn-of-contention-pro-trade-thinking-comes-in-for-criticism/#.UuELqvuxVxC |work=South Africa |publisher=Daily Maverick |access-date=24 January 2014}}</ref>

== Conservation ==
According to the [[World Wide Fund for Nature]], conservation of African rhinoceroses as consumers of large amounts of vegetation is crucial to maintaining the shape of the African landscape and the natural resources of local communities.<ref>{{Cite web |title=African rhinos |url=https://wwf.panda.org/discover/knowledge_hub/endangered_species/rhinoceros/african_rhinos.cfm |access-date=2022-07-20 |website=wwf.panda.org |language=en}}</ref>

=== Ways to prevent poaching ===

==== Horn removal ====
To prevent poaching, in certain areas, rhinos have been tranquillized and their horns removed. Armed park rangers, particularly in South Africa, are also working on the front lines to combat poaching, sometimes killing poachers who are caught in the act. A 2012 spike in rhino killings increased concerns about the future of the species.<ref name="sanpark-poachingstats">{{cite web|url=https://www.sanparks.org/about/news/default.php?id=1815|title=Media Release: Latest on Rhino Poaching in South Africa|date=14 February 2012|publisher=[[South African National Parks]]|access-date=29 August 2019}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=How chopping off their horns helps save rhinos from poachers |date=2018-05-31 |website=[[The Guardian]] |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230511110047/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2018/may/31/how-chopping-off-their-horns-helps-save-rhinos-from-poachers |archive-date=2023-05-11 |url-status=live |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2018/may/31/how-chopping-off-their-horns-helps-save-rhinos-from-poachers}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/av/world-africa-45189026|title=Cutting off horns to save rhinos|work=BBC News }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.savetherhino.org/thorny-issues/de-horning/|title=Dehorning rhinos|website=Save The Rhino}}</ref>{{Clarify|Can horns, obtained in this way be legally sold under CITES by wildlife parks to help fund their own operation ?|date=March 2021}} A 2025 ''Science'' study found that dehorning led to a 78% reduction in poaching.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Kuiper |first1=Timothy |last2=Haussmann |first2=Sharon |last3=Whitfield |first3=Steven |last4=Polakow |first4=Daniel |last5=Dreyer |first5=Cathy |last6=Ferreira |first6=Sam |last7=Hofmeyr |first7=Markus |last8=Shaw |first8=Jo |last9=Bird |first9=Jed |last10=Bourn |first10=Mark |last11=Boyd |first11=Wayne |last12=Greeff |first12=Zianca |last13=Hartman |first13=Zala |last14=Lester |first14=Kim |last15=Nowak |first15=Ian |date=2025-06-05 |title=Dehorning reduces rhino poaching |url=https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.ado7490 |journal=Science |volume=388 |issue=6751 |pages=1075–1081 |doi=10.1126/science.ado7490|pmid=40472107 |bibcode=2025Sci...388.1075K |url-access=subscription }}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last=Nuwer |first=Rachel |date=2025-06-05 |title=There's an Effective Way to Deter Rhino Poachers, a New Study Finds |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2025/06/05/climate/rhinos-dehorned-poaching-kruger-park.html |work=The New York Times |language=en-US |issn=0362-4331}}</ref>

==== Horn poisoning ====
In 2011, the Rhino Rescue Project began a horn-trade control method consisting of infusing the horns of living rhinos with a mixture of a pink dye and an [[acaricide]] (to kill [[tick]]s) which is safe for rhinos but toxic to humans.<ref name=RRR>{{cite web |url=http://www.rhinorescueproject.com/about-the-project/ |title=About the Rhino Rescue Project |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140406002709/http://www.rhinorescueproject.com/about-the-project/ |archive-date=6 April 2014}}</ref><ref name="SciAm">{{cite web|url=http://blogs.scientificamerican.com/guest-blog/2013/05/09/dye-and-poison-stop-rhino-poachers/|title=Dye and Poison Stop Rhino Poachers|author=Martin Angler|date=9 May 2013}}</ref> The procedure also includes inserting three [[RFID]] identification chips and taking DNA samples.<ref name=RRR/> Because of the fibrous nature of rhino horn, the pressurized dye infuses the interior of the horn but does not color the surface or affect rhino behavior. Depending on the quantity of horn a person consumes, experts believe the acaricide would cause nausea, stomach-ache, and diarrhea, and possibly convulsions. It would not be fatal—the primary deterrent is the knowledge that the treatment has been applied, communicated by signs posted at the refuges. The original idea grew out of research into the horn as a reservoir for one-time tick treatments, and experts selected an acaricide they think is safe for the rhino, [[oxpecker]]s, vultures, and other animals in the preserve's ecosystem.<ref name="RRR" /> Proponents claim that the dye cannot be removed from the horns, and remains visible on X-ray scanners even when the horn is ground to a fine powder.<ref name="RRR" /><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.cbc.ca/strombo/news/south-african-game-reserve-tries-poisoning-rhinos-horns-to-prevent-poaching |title=Injecting Poison into Rhinos' Horns To Fight Poaching |date=5 April 2013 |publisher= George Stroumboulopoulos, Canadian Broadcasting Company}}</ref>

The UK charity organization [[Save the Rhino]] has criticized horn poisoning on moral and practical grounds. The organization questions the assumptions that the infusion technique works as intended, and that even if the poison were effective, whether middlemen in a lucrative, illegal trade would care much about the effect it would have on buyers.<ref name="Poisoning rhino horns">{{cite web | url = http://www.savetherhino.org/rhino_info/thorny_issues/poisoning_rhino_horns | title = Poisoning rhino horns | publisher = Save the Rhino International | year = 2013 | access-date = 29 October 2014}}</ref> Additionally, rhino horn is increasingly purchased for decorative use, rather than for use in traditional medicine. Save the Rhino questions the feasibility of applying the technique to all African rhinos, since workers would have to reapply the acaricide every four years.<ref name="Poisoning rhino horns" /> It was also reported that one out of 150 rhinos treated did not survive the anesthesia.<ref name="SciAm" />

==== Artificial substitute for rhinoceros horn ====
Another way to undercut the rhinoceros horn market has been suggested by Matthew Markus of [[Pembient]], a biotechnology firm. He proposes the synthesis of an artificial substitute for rhinoceros horn. To enable authorities to distinguish the bioengineered horn from real rhinoceros horn, the genetic code of the bioengineered horn could be registered, similar to the DNA of living rhinoceros in the RhODIS (Rhino DNA Index System). Initial responses from many conservationists were negative, but a 2016 report from TRAFFIC—which monitors trade in wildlife and animal parts—conceded that it "...would be rash to rule out the possibility that trade in synthetic rhinoceros horn could play a role in future conservation strategies".<ref name="Distillations">{{cite journal|last1=Roberts|first1=Jacob|title=Can Biotech save the rhino?|journal=Distillations |date=2017|volume=2|issue=4|pages=24–35|url=https://www.sciencehistory.org/distillations/magazine/can-biotech-save-the-rhino|access-date=22 March 2018}}</ref>

== Historical representations ==
[[File:16 PanneauDesLions(CentreGauche)RhinocérosEnFuite.jpg|thumb|Upper Paleolithuc cave paintings of [[woolly rhinoceros]] at [[Chauvet Cave|Chauvet cave]], France (replica)]]

Woolly rhinoceroses are depicted the European [[Paleolithic art]], such as in cave paintings in [[Chauvet Cave]] in France,<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Boeskorov |first1=Gennady G. |last2=Shchelchkova |first2=Marina V. |last3=Protopopov |first3=Albert V. |last4=Kryukova |first4=Nadezhda V. |last5=Belyaev |first5=Ruslan I. |date=December 2024 |title=Reshaping a woolly rhinoceros: Discovery of a fat hump on its back |url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0277379124005158 |journal=Quaternary Science Reviews |language=en |volume=345 |article-number=109013 |doi=10.1016/j.quascirev.2024.109013|bibcode=2024QSRv..34509013B |url-access=subscription }}</ref> which date to around 30-40,000 years ago.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Quiles |first1=Anita |last2=Valladas |first2=Hélène |last3=Bocherens |first3=Hervé |last4=Delqué-Količ |first4=Emmanuelle |last5=Kaltnecker |first5=Evelyne |last6=van der Plicht |first6=Johannes |last7=Delannoy |first7=Jean-Jacques |last8=Feruglio |first8=Valérie |last9=Fritz |first9=Carole |last10=Monney |first10=Julien |last11=Philippe |first11=Michel |last12=Tosello |first12=Gilles |last13=Clottes |first13=Jean |last14=Geneste |first14=Jean-Michel |date=2016-04-26 |title=A high-precision chronological model for the decorated Upper Paleolithic cave of Chauvet-Pont d'Arc, Ardèche, France |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences |language=en |volume=113 |issue=17 |pages=4670–4675 |doi=10.1073/pnas.1523158113 |doi-access=free |issn=0027-8424 |pmc=4855545 |pmid=27071106 |bibcode=2016PNAS..113.4670Q }}</ref>[[File:Shan-Shan Museum - Western Zhou Bronze Rhino Zun.jpg|thumb|[[Western Zhou]] bronze rhino]]
Greek historian and geographer [[Agatharchides]] (2nd century BC) mentions the rhinoceros in his book ''On the Erythraean Sea''.<ref>Agatharchides, & Burstein, S. M. (1989). ''On the Erythraean sea'' (No. 172). London: Hakluyt Society.</ref>

In [[Khmer people|Khmer]] art, the Hindu god [[Agni]] is depicted with a rhinoceros as his [[vahana]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Poole |first1=Colin M. |last2=Duckworth |first2=John W. |year=2005 |title=A documented 20th&nbsp;century record of Javan Rhinoceros ''Rhinoceros sondaicus'' from Cambodia |journal=Mammalia |volume=69 |issue=3–4 |pages=443–444 |doi=10.1515/mamm.2005.039 |s2cid=85394693}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |first=Heinrich |last=Stönner |year=1925 |title=Erklärung des Nashornreiters auf den Reliefs von Angkor-Vat |journal=Artibus Asiae |volume=1 |issue=2 |pages=128–130|doi=10.2307/3248014 |jstor=3248014 }}</ref> Similarly in medieval era Thai literature, Agni also called ''Phra Phloeng'' is sometimes described as riding a rhinoceros.<ref>{{cite book |first=Jack M. |last=Clontz |year=2016 |title=Khon Mask: Thailand Heritage |page=250 |publisher=MOCA Bangkok |isbn=978-1-78301-872-7 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VzTFCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA250 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191220183343/https://books.google.com/books?id=VzTFCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA250 |archive-date=20 December 2019 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |author1=Justin Thomas McDaniel |author2=Lynn Ransom |year=2015 |title=From Mulberry Leaves to Silk Scrolls: New approaches to the study of Asian manuscript traditions |pages=26–27, 35 |publisher=University of Pennsylvania Press |isbn=978-0-8122-4736-7 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KL-XCgAAQBAJ}}</ref>

[[Albrecht Dürer]] created a famous [[woodcut]] of a rhinoceros in 1515, based on a written description and brief sketch by [[Valentim Fernandes]], a German printer resident in [[Lisbon]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Pimentel |first1=Juan |title=The Rhinoceros and the Megatherium: An Essay in Natural History |date=2017 |page=88}}</ref> He never saw the animal itself, so ''[[Dürer's Rhinoceros]]'' is a somewhat inaccurate depiction.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://harvardmagazine.com/2012/05/the-refusal-of-time|title=The Refusal of Time|date=2012-05-01|website=Harvard Magazine|language=en|access-date=2018-12-07}}</ref>

There are legends about rhinoceroses stamping out fire in Burma, India, and Malaysia. The mythical rhinoceros has a special name in [[Malay language|Malay]], {{Lang|ms|badak api}}, wherein {{Lang|ms|badak}} means rhinoceros, and {{Lang|ms|api}} means fire. The animal would come when a fire was lit in the forest and stamp it out.<ref name="Rhino fire legends">{{cite web|url=http://www.sosrhino.org/knowledge/faq.php |title=Rhinoceros Frequently Asked Questions |publisher=Sosrhino.org |access-date=23 September 2010}}</ref> There are no recent confirmations of this phenomenon. This legend was depicted in the film ''[[The Gods Must Be Crazy]]'' (1980), which shows an African rhinoceros putting out two campfires.<ref>''[[The Gods Must Be Crazy]]'', James Uys, C.A.T. Films, 1980.</ref>

In 1974, a [[LGBT symbols#Lavender rhinoceros|lavender rhinoceros symbol]] began to be used as a symbol of the gay community in [[Boston]], United States.<ref>{{cite web |first=Arielle |last=Gray |url=https://www.wbur.org/artery/2019/06/03/lavender-rhino-gay-resistance-boston |title=How A Lavender Rhino Became A Symbol Of Gay Resistance In '70s Boston {{pipe}} The ARTery |publisher=Wbur.org |date=2019-06-03 |access-date=2019-12-05}}</ref>

{{multiple image
| align             = center
| direction         = horizontal
| header            = Rhinoceroses in art
| image1            = Bronze rhinoceros wine vessel.jpg
| total_width       = 700
| alt1              = 
| caption1          = A wine vessel in the form of a bronze rhinoceros with silver inlay, from the [[Han dynasty|Western Han]] (202 BC – 9 AD) period of China, sporting a saddle on its back
| image2            = Dürer - Rhinoceros.jpg|thumb
| alt2              = 
| caption2          = ''[[Dürer's Rhinoceros]]'', an [[Albrecht Dürer]] [[woodcut]] from 1515
| image3            = Villa Del Casale Grande Chasse-2.jpg
| alt3              = 
| caption3          = A rhinoceros depicted on a Roman [[mosaic]] in [[Villa Romana del Casale]], an archeological site near [[Piazza Armerina]] in Sicily, Italy
| image4            = 
| alt4              = 
| caption4          = 
| image5            = Justso rhino.jpg
| alt5              = 
| caption5          = ''How the Rhinoceros Got His Skin'' from [[Rudyard Kipling]]'s ''[[Just So Stories]]'' from 1902
| image6            = Lavender rhinoceros LGBT symbol.svg
| caption6          = A lavender rhinoceros, a symbol used as a sign of gay visibility
| width6            = 20
}}

== See also ==
=== Conservation ===
{{div col|colwidth=30em}}
* [[Bardiya National Park]]
* [[Chitwan National Park]]
* [[Care For Wild Rhino Sanctuary]]
* [[International Rhino Foundation]]
* [[Kaziranga National Park]]
* [[List of odd-toed ungulates by population]]
* [[Nicolaas Jan van Strien]]
* [[Save the Rhino]]
* [[TRAFFIC]]
{{div col end}}

=== Individual rhinoceroses ===
{{div col|colwidth=30em}}
* [[Abada (rhinoceros)|Abada]]
* [[Clara (rhinoceros)|Clara]]
* [[List of fictional pachyderms]]
* [[Rhinoceros of Versailles]]
{{div col end}}

=== Literature ===
* ''[[Rhinoceros (play)|Rhinoceros]]'', 1959 play

=== Other ===
* [[Rhinoceroses in ancient China]]

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

== Further reading ==
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20070706055257/http://animals.nationalgeographic.com/animals/mammals/white-rhinoceros.html White Rhinoceros, White Rhinoceros Profile, Facts, Information, Photos, Pictures, Sounds, Habitats, Reports, News – National Geographic<!-- Bot generated title -->]
* Laufer, Berthold. 1914. "History of the Rhinoceros". In: ''Chinese Clay Figures, Part I: Prolegomena on the History of Defence Armour''. Field Museum of Natural History, Chicago, pp.&nbsp;73–173.
* {{Cite journal | last = Cerdeño | first = Esperanza | url = http://digitallibrary.amnh.org/dspace/bitstream/2246/3566/1/N3143.pdf | journal = Novitates | year = 1995 | title = Cladistic Analysis of the Family Rhinocerotidae (Perissodactyla) | issn = 0003-0082 | issue = 3143 | access-date = 24 October 2007 | archive-date = 27 March 2009 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20090327065404/http://digitallibrary.amnh.org/dspace/bitstream/2246/3566/1/N3143.pdf }}
* {{Cite book | last = Foose | first = Thomas J. | author2 = van Strien, Nico  | year = 1997 | title = Asian Rhinos – Status Survey and Conservation Action Plan | publisher = IUCN, Gland, Switzerland, and Cambridge, UK | isbn = 978-2-8317-0336-7}}
* Chapman, January (1999). ''The Art of Rhinoceros Horn Carving in China''. Christies Books, London. {{ISBN|0-903432-57-9}}.
* {{Cite book | last = Emslie | first = R. | author2 = Brooks, M. | year = 1999 | title = African Rhino. Status Survey and Conservation Action Plan | publisher = IUCN/SSC African Rhino Specialist Group. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge, UK | isbn = 978-2-8317-0502-6}}
* {{Cite journal | url = http://www.oucom.ohiou.edu/dbms-witmer/Downloads/2006_Hieronymus-Witmer-Ridgely_rhino_horn.pdf | last = Hieronymus | first = Tobin L. |author2=Lawrence M. Witmer |author3=Ryan C. Ridgely | journal = Journal of Morphology | title = Structure of White Rhinoceros (Ceratotherium simum) Horn Investigated by X-ray Computed Tomography and Histology With Implications for Growth and External Form | year = 2006 | volume = 267 | pages = 1172–1176 | doi = 10.1002/jmor.10465 | pmid = 16823809 | issue = 10 | bibcode = 2006JMorp.267.1172H | s2cid = 15699528 }}
* {{cite web|url=http://www.rhinos-irf.org/white/|title=White Rhino (Ceratotherum simum)|work=Rhinos|publisher=The International Rhino Foundation|access-date=7 July 2009|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090720054219/http://www.rhinos-irf.org/white/|archive-date=20 July 2009}}
* {{cite web|title=Rare black rhino born Christmas Eve at Michigan zoo|language=en|author=Theresa Seiger|website=Fox23 News|date=25 December 2019|url=https://www.fox23.com/news/trending/rare-black-rhino-born-christmas-eve-michigan-zoo/NYTDEDCBOZE6HIGRSUJLKWKBUU/}}

== External links ==
{{Sister project links |wikt=rhinoceros |commons=Rhinocerotidae |commonscat=yes |n= |q=Rhinoceroses |s= |b= |v=}} 
{{Wiktionary|rhino}}
* [http://www.rhinoresourcecenter.com/species/ Rhino Species] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090717102057/http://www.rhinoresourcecenter.com/species/ |date=17 July 2009 }} & [http://www.rhinoresourcecenter.com/images/all/added/desc/1.php Rhino Images] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170711150112/http://www.rhinoresourcecenter.com/ |date=11 July 2017 }} page on the [http://www.rhinoresourcecenter.com/ Rhino Resource Center] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170711150112/http://www.rhinoresourcecenter.com/ |date=11 July 2017 }}
* [https://wwf.panda.org/discover/knowledge_hub/endangered_species/rhinoceros/ Rhinoceros entry] on [[World Wide Fund for Nature]] website.
* [https://www.akashinga.org/ Akashinga] (formerly the International Anti-Poaching Foundation)
* [http://www.safaritravelplus.com/images/tag/rhino/ Free To Use Rhino Images]
* [https://www.awf.org/wildlife-conservation/rhinoceros Rhinoceros Resources & Photos] on [[African Wildlife Foundation]] website
* UK Times article: "South African spy chief linked to rhino horn trade" [https://www.thetimes.com/travel/destinations/asia-travel/china/south-african-spy-chief-linked-to-rhino-horn-trade-hbslf5skf South African spy chief linked to rhino horn trade]
* Video on South African government minister's alleged involvement in illegal rhino horn trade. [http://www.enca.com/south-africa/video-state-security-minister-mahlobo-connected-in-rhino-poaching VIDEO: Rhino poacher says Mahlobo is his 'mate'] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171018010446/https://www.enca.com/south-africa/video-state-security-minister-mahlobo-connected-in-rhino-poaching |date=18 October 2017 }}
* [https://www.peoplenotpoaching.org/ People Not Poaching: The Communities and IWT Learning Platform]

{{Perissodactyla}}
{{Perissodactyla Genera|Rh.}}
{{Taxonbar|from=Q34718}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Rhinoceroses| ]]
[[Category:Rhinocerotoidea]]
[[Category:Extant Eocene first appearances]]
[[Category:Herbivorous mammals]]
[[Category:Taxa named by John Edward Gray]]
[[Category:Unicorns]]