View source for Richard II of England

{{Short description|King of England from 1377 to 1399}}
{{Redirect|Richard II}}
{{Featured article}}
{{Use British English|date=October 2012}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2024}}
{{Infobox royalty
| name         = Richard II
| image        = The Westminster Portrait of Richard II of England (1390s).jpg
| alt          = Portrait of Richard crowned sitting on his throne and holding an orb and sceptre
| caption      = Portrait at [[Westminster Abbey]], mid-1390s{{efn|This is the earliest known portrait of an English monarch.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Richard II and Anne of Bohemia |url=https://www.westminster-abbey.org/abbey-commemorations/royals/richard-ii-and-anne-of-bohemia#i17860 |access-date=17 October 2022 |website=Westminster Abbey}}</ref>}}
| succession   = [[King of England]]
| moretext     = [[Styles of English sovereigns|(more...)]]
| reign        = 21 June 1377&nbsp;– {{nowrap|29 September 1399}}
| coronation   = 16 July 1377
| predecessor  = [[Edward III]]
| successor    = [[Henry IV of England|Henry IV]]
| birth_date   = 6 January 1367
| birth_place  = [[Bordeaux]], France
| death_date   = {{circa|14 February 1400}} (aged 33)
| death_place  = [[Pontefract Castle]], Yorkshire, England
| burial_place = [[King's Langley Priory|Dominican Friary, Kings Langley]], Hertfordshire (1400–1413)<br/>[[Westminster Abbey]], London (since 1413)
| spouses      = {{Unbulleted list |{{marriage|[[Anne of Bohemia]]|1382|1394|end=d}} |{{marriage|[[Isabella of Valois]]|1396}}}}
| house        = [[Plantagenet]]
| father       = [[Edward the Black Prince]]
| mother       = [[Joan of Kent]]
| signature    = Richard II Signature.svg
}}

'''Richard II''' (6 January 1367&nbsp;– {{circa|14 February 1400}}), also known as '''Richard of Bordeaux''', was [[King of England]] from 1377 until he was deposed in 1399. He was the son of [[Edward the Black Prince|Edward, Prince of Wales]] (later known as the Black Prince), and [[Joan, Countess of Kent]]. Richard's father died in 1376, leaving Richard as [[List of heirs to the English throne|heir apparent]] to his grandfather, [[King Edward III]]; upon the latter's death, the 10-year-old Richard succeeded to the throne.

During Richard's first years as king, government was in the hands of a series of [[regency]] councils, influenced by Richard's uncles [[John of Gaunt]] and [[Thomas of Woodstock]]. England at that time faced various problems, most notably the [[Hundred Years' War]]. A major challenge of the reign was the [[Peasants' Revolt]] in 1381, and the young king played a central part in the brutal suppression of this crisis. Less warlike than either his father or grandfather, he sought to bring an end to the Hundred Years' War. A firm believer in the [[royal prerogative]], Richard restrained the power of the aristocracy and relied on a private [[retinue]] for military protection instead. In contrast to his grandfather, Richard cultivated a refined atmosphere centred on art and culture at court, in which the king was an elevated figure.

The King's dependence on a small number of courtiers caused discontent among the nobility, and in 1387 control of government was taken over by a group of aristocrats known as the [[Lords Appellant]]. By 1389 Richard had regained control, and for the next eight years governed in relative harmony with his former opponents. In 1397, he took his revenge on the Appellants, many of whom were executed or exiled. The next two years have been described by historians as Richard's "tyranny". In 1399, after John of Gaunt died, the King disinherited Gaunt's son [[Henry Bolingbroke]], who had previously been exiled. Henry invaded England in June 1399 with a small force that quickly grew in numbers. Meeting little resistance, he deposed Richard and had himself crowned king. Richard is thought to have been starved to death in captivity, although questions remain regarding his final fate.

Richard's posthumous reputation has been shaped to a large extent by [[William Shakespeare]], whose play ''[[Richard II (play)|Richard II]]'' portrayed Richard's misrule and his deposition as responsible for the 15th-century [[Wars of the Roses]]. Modern historians do not accept this interpretation, while not exonerating Richard from responsibility for his own deposition. While probably not insane, as many historians of the 19th and 20th centuries believed him to be, he may have had a personality disorder, particularly manifesting itself towards the end of his reign. Most authorities agree that his policies were not unrealistic or even entirely unprecedented, but that the way in which he carried them out was unacceptable to the political establishment, leading to his downfall.

== Early life ==
[[File:Edward III Black Prince 14thc.jpg|thumb|upright|Edward, Prince of Wales, kneeling before his father, King Edward III]]

Richard of Bordeaux was the younger son of [[Edward the Black Prince|Edward, Prince of Wales]], and [[Joan, Countess of Kent]]. Edward, eldest son of [[Edward III]] and [[heir apparent]] to the throne of England, had distinguished himself as a military commander in the early phases of the [[Hundred Years' War]], particularly in the [[Battle of Poitiers]] in 1356. After further military adventures, however, he contracted [[dysentery]] in Spain in 1370. He never fully recovered and had to return to England the next year.<ref>{{Cite encyclopedia |title=Edward, prince of Wales and of Aquitaine (1330–1376) |encyclopedia=[[Oxford Dictionary of National Biography]] |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |location=Oxford |last=Barber |first=Richard |date=2004 |author-link=Richard Barber |doi=10.1093/ref:odnb/8523}}</ref>

Richard was born at the Archbishop's Palace of Bordeaux, in the English principality of [[Duchy of Aquitaine#Hundred Years' War|Aquitaine]], on 6 January 1367, reportedly [[Preterm birth|prematurely]] due to Joan's stress caused by the Black Prince's departure on Spanish campaign.<ref>Shaw, Amy (2002). ''Joan of Kent: Life and Legends''. The Ohio State University. p. 85.</ref> According to contemporary sources, three kings, "the [[King of Castile]], the [[King of Navarre]] and the [[King of Portugal]]", were present at his birth.<ref name="Tuck">{{Cite encyclopedia |title=Richard II (1367–1400) |encyclopedia=Oxford Dictionary of National Biography |publisher=Oxford University Press |last=Tuck |first=Anthony |date=2004 |doi=10.1093/ref:odnb/23499 |author-link=Anthony Tuck}}.</ref> This anecdote, and the fact that his birth fell on the feast of [[Epiphany (holiday)|Epiphany]], was later used in the religious imagery of the [[Wilton Diptych]], where Richard is one of three kings paying homage to the [[Virgin and Child]].<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Gillespie |title=Richard II, The Art of Kingship |last2=Goodman |date=1998 |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=nLbAoxCCt8YC&pg=PA266 266]}}</ref>

Richard's elder brother, [[Edward of Angoulême]], died near his sixth birthday in 1370.<ref>Saul (1997), p.&nbsp;12.</ref> 

During the [[Good Parliament]] of 1376 the Black Prince was dying. Having taken a house in London, he summoned both Edward III and John of Gaunt and made them swear to recognise his son, the future Richard II, as successor to Edward.  Both John and the King swore to recognise Richard.{{cn|date=October 2025}} 

The Prince of Wales finally succumbed to his long illness in June 1376. The [[House of Commons of England|Commons]] in the [[Good Parliament]] genuinely feared that Richard's uncle, [[John of Gaunt]], would [[usurp]] the throne. For this reason, Richard was quickly invested with the [[princedom of Wales]] and his father's other titles<ref>Saul (1997), p.&nbsp;17.</ref> and publicly recognised him as heir.<ref>{{cite book|title=The Eagle and the Hart: The Tragedy of Richard II and Henry IV|year=2024|author-link=Helen Castor|first=Helen |last=Castor|pages=20–21}}</ref>

[[File:Coronation Richard2 England 01.jpg|thumb|left|Coronation of Richard II aged ten in 1377, from the ''Recueil des croniques'' of [[Jean de Wavrin]]. [[British Library]], London.]]
On 21 June 1377, King Edward III, who was for some years frail and decrepit, died after a 50-year reign. This resulted in the 10-year-old Richard succeeding to the throne. He was [[Coronation of the British monarch|crowned]] on 16 July at [[Westminster Abbey]].<ref>Saul (1997), p.&nbsp;24.</ref> Again, fears of John of Gaunt's ambitions influenced political decisions, and a regency led by the King's uncles was avoided.<ref>McKisack (1959), pp.&nbsp;399–400.</ref> Instead, the King was nominally to exercise kingship with the help of a series of "continual councils", from which Gaunt was excluded.<ref name="Tuck"/>

Gaunt, together with his younger brother [[Thomas of Woodstock, Earl of Buckingham]], still held great informal influence over the business of government, but the King's councillors and friends, particularly Sir [[Simon de Burley]] and [[Robert de Vere, 9th Earl of Oxford]], increasingly gained control of royal affairs.

In a matter of three years, these councillors earned the mistrust of the Commons to the point that the councils were discontinued in 1380.<ref name="Tuck"/> Contributing to discontent was an increasingly heavy burden of [[Taxation in medieval England|taxation]] levied through [[English Poll Taxes (1377–1381)|three poll taxes]] between 1377 and 1381 that were spent on unsuccessful military expeditions on the continent.<ref>Harriss (2005), pp.&nbsp;445–446.</ref> By 1381, there was a deep-felt resentment against the governing classes in the lower levels of English society.<ref>Harriss (2005), pp.&nbsp;229–230.</ref>

== Early reign ==
=== Peasants' Revolt ===
[[File:Death of Wat Tyler Froissart.jpg|thumb|right|Richard II watches [[Wat Tyler]]'s death and addresses the peasants in the background: taken from the [[Froissart of Louis of Gruuthuse (BnF Fr 2643-6)|Gruuthuse manuscript]] of [[Froissart]]'s ''Chroniques'' (c.&nbsp;1475)]]

Whereas the poll tax of 1381 was the spark of the [[Peasants' Revolt]], the root of the conflict lay in tensions between peasants and landowners precipitated by the economic and demographic consequences of the [[Black Death in England|Black Death]] and [[Second plague pandemic|subsequent outbreaks]] of the plague.<ref name="Tuck"/> The rebellion started in [[Kent]] and [[Essex]] in late May, and on 12 June, bands of peasants gathered at [[Blackheath, London|Blackheath]] near London under the leaders [[Wat Tyler]], [[John Ball (priest)|John Ball]], and [[Jack Straw (rebel leader)|Jack Straw]]. John of Gaunt's [[Savoy Palace]] was burnt down. The [[Archbishop of Canterbury]], [[Simon Sudbury]], who was also [[Lord Chancellor]], and [[Lord High Treasurer]] [[Robert Hales (knight)|Robert Hales]] were both killed by the rebels,<ref>Harriss (2005), pp.&nbsp;230–231.</ref> who were demanding the complete abolition of [[serfdom]].<ref name="H231">Harriss (2005), p.&nbsp;231.</ref> The King, sheltered within the [[Tower of London]] with his councillors, agreed that the Crown did not have the forces to disperse the rebels and that the only feasible option was to negotiate.<ref>Saul (1997), p.&nbsp;67.</ref>

It is unclear how much Richard, who was still only fourteen years old, was involved in these deliberations, although historians have suggested that he was among the proponents of negotiations.<ref name="Tuck"/> The King set out by the [[River Thames]] on 13 June, but the large number of people thronging the banks at [[Greenwich]] made it impossible for him to land, forcing him to return to the Tower.<ref>McKisack (1959), p.&nbsp;409.</ref> The next day, Friday, 14 June, he set out by horse and met the rebels at [[Mile End]].<ref>Saul (1997), p.&nbsp;68.</ref> He agreed to the rebels' demands, but this move only emboldened them; they continued their looting and killings.<ref>Saul (1997), pp.&nbsp;68–70.</ref> Richard met Wat Tyler again the next day at [[Smithfield, London|Smithfield]] and reiterated that the demands would be met, but the rebel leader was not convinced of the King's sincerity. The King's men grew restive, an altercation broke out, and [[William Walworth]], the [[Lord Mayor of London]], pulled Tyler down from his horse and killed him.<ref>Saul (1997), pp.&nbsp;70–71.</ref> The situation became tense once the rebels realised what had happened, but the King acted with calm resolve and, saying "I am your captain, follow me!", he led the mob away from the scene.{{Efn|It has been speculated that the whole incident surrounding the killing of Wat Tyler was in fact planned in advance by the council, in order to end the rebellion.<ref name="Tuck"/><ref>Saul (1997), pp.&nbsp;71–72.</ref>}} Walworth meanwhile gathered a force to surround the peasant army, but the King granted clemency and allowed the rebels to disperse and return to their homes.<ref>McKisack (1959), pp.&nbsp;413–414.</ref>

The King soon revoked the charters of freedom and pardon that he had granted, and as disturbances continued in other parts of the country, he personally went into Essex to suppress the rebellion. On 28 June at [[Billericay]], he defeated the last rebels in a small skirmish and effectively ended the Peasants' Revolt.<ref name="H231"/> In the following days rebel leaders, such as John Ball, were hunted down and executed. Despite his young age, Richard had shown great courage and determination in his handling of the rebellion. It is likely, though, that the events impressed upon him the dangers of disobedience and threats to royal authority, and helped shape the [[Absolute monarchy|absolutist]] attitudes to kingship that would later prove fatal to his reign.<ref name="Tuck"/>

=== Coming of age ===
[[File:Richard2 Anna.jpg|thumb|upright|Anne and Richard's coronation in the ''[[Liber Regalis]]'' of [[Westminster Abbey]]]]

It is only with the Peasants' Revolt that Richard starts to emerge clearly in the [[chronicle|annals]].<ref>McKisack (1959), p.&nbsp;424.</ref> One of his first significant acts after the rebellion was to marry [[Anne of Bohemia]], daughter of [[Charles IV, Holy Roman Emperor]], on 20 January 1382.<ref>Saul (1997), p.&nbsp;90. The marriage had been agreed upon as of 2 May 1381; Saul (1997), p.&nbsp;87.</ref> It had diplomatic significance; in the division of Europe caused by the [[Western Schism]], [[Bohemia]] and the [[Holy Roman Empire]] were seen as potential allies against [[France in the Middle Ages|France]] in the ongoing Hundred Years' War.{{Efn|While both England and the Empire supported [[Pope Urban VI]] in Rome, the French sided with the [[Avignon Papacy]] of [[Antipope Clement VII|Clement VII]].<ref name="Tuck"/>}} Nonetheless, the marriage was not popular in England. Despite great sums of money awarded to the Empire, the political alliance never resulted in any military victories.<ref>Saul (1997), pp.&nbsp;94–95.</ref> Furthermore, the marriage was childless. Anne died from the plague in 1394, greatly mourned by her husband.<ref>Saul (1997), p.&nbsp;225.</ref>

[[Michael de la Pole, 1st Earl of Suffolk|Michael de la Pole]] had been instrumental in the marriage negotiations;<ref name="Tuck"/> he had the King's confidence and gradually became more involved at court and in government as Richard came of age.<ref>Saul (1997), pp.&nbsp;117–120.</ref> De la Pole came from an upstart merchant family.{{Efn|A complaint in parliament claimed that he had been "raised from low estate to the rank of earl"<ref>Saul (1997), p.&nbsp;118.</ref>}} When Richard made him chancellor in 1383, and created him [[Earl of Suffolk]] two years later, this antagonised the more established nobility.<ref>Saul (1997), p.&nbsp;117.</ref> Another member of the close circle around the King was [[Robert de Vere, Duke of Ireland|Robert de Vere, Earl of Oxford]], who in this period emerged as the King's [[favourite]].<ref>Harriss (2005), p.&nbsp;98.</ref> Richard's close friendship to de Vere was also disagreeable to the political establishment. This displeasure was exacerbated by the earl's elevation to the new title of [[Duke of Ireland]] in 1386.<ref>McKisack (1959), pp.&nbsp;425, 442–443.</ref> The chronicler [[Thomas Walsingham]] suggested the relationship between the King and de Vere was of a homosexual nature, due to a resentment Walsingham had toward the King.<ref>Saul (1997), p.&nbsp;437.</ref>

Tensions came to a head over the approach to the war in France. While the court party preferred negotiations, Gaunt and Buckingham urged a large-scale campaign to protect English possessions.<ref name="Tuck"/> Instead, a so-called [[crusade]] led by [[Henry le Despenser]], [[Bishop of Norwich]], was dispatched, which failed miserably.<ref name="Tuck"/> Faced with this setback on the continent, Richard turned his attention instead towards France's ally, the [[Kingdom of Scotland]]. In 1385, the King himself led a [[English invasion of Scotland (1385)|punitive expedition to the north]],<ref>Muster of the 1385 army [https://books.google.com/books?id=vVFIAAAAYAAJ&q=archaeologia+1829 Ellis, Nicolas, Nicolas Harris, 'Richard II's army for Scotland, 1385', in ''Archaeologia'', vol. 22, (1829), 13–19].</ref> but the effort came to nothing, and the army had to return without ever engaging the Scots in battle.<ref>Saul (1997), pp.&nbsp;142–145.</ref> Meanwhile, only an uprising in [[Ghent]] prevented a French invasion of southern England.<ref>Saul (1997), pp.&nbsp;145–146.</ref> The relationship between Richard and his uncle Gaunt deteriorated further with military failure, and Gaunt left England to pursue his claim to the throne of [[Kingdom of Castile|Castile]] in 1386 amid rumours of a plot against his person.<ref name="Tuck"/> With Gaunt gone, the unofficial leadership of the growing dissent against the King and his courtiers passed to Buckingham{{Spaced ndash}}who had by now been created Duke of Gloucester{{Spaced ndash}}and [[Richard Fitzalan, 4th Earl of Arundel]].<ref name="Tuck"/>

=== First crisis of 1386–1388 ===
[[File:Robert de Vere fleeing Radcot Bridge.jpg|thumb|right|[[Robert de Vere, Duke of Ireland|Robert de Vere]] fleeing the [[Battle of Radcot Bridge]], from the ''Chroniques'' of [[Jean Froissart]]]]

The threat of a French invasion did not subside, but instead grew stronger into 1386.<ref name="Tuck"/> At the parliament of October that year, Michael de la Pole{{Spaced ndash}}in his capacity of chancellor{{Spaced ndash}}requested taxation of an unprecedented level for the defence of the realm.<ref>Saul (1997), p.&nbsp;157.</ref> Rather than consenting, the parliament responded by refusing to consider any request until the chancellor was removed.<ref>McKisack (1959), p.&nbsp;443.</ref> The parliament (later known as the [[Wonderful Parliament]]) was presumably working with the support of Gloucester and Arundel.<ref name="Tuck"/><ref>Saul (1997), p.&nbsp;160.</ref> The King famously responded that he would not dismiss as much as a [[scullery maid|scullion]] from his kitchen at parliament's request.<ref>Saul (1997), pp.&nbsp;157–158.</ref> Only when threatened with deposition was Richard forced to give in and let de la Pole go.<ref>Saul (1997), p.&nbsp;158.</ref> A commission was set up to review and control royal finances for a year.<ref>Harriss (2005), p.&nbsp;459.</ref>

Richard was deeply perturbed by this affront to his royal prerogative, and from February to November 1387 went on a "[[Richard II's gyration|gyration]]" (tour) of the country to muster support for his cause.<ref>Tuck (1985), p.&nbsp;189.</ref> By installing de Vere as [[Justice of Chester]], he began the work of creating a loyal military power base in [[Cheshire]].<ref>Goodman (1971), p.&nbsp;22.</ref> He also secured a legal ruling from [[Lord Chief Justice of England and Wales|Chief Justice]] [[Robert Tresilian]] that parliament's conduct had been unlawful and treasonable.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Chrimes |first=S. B. |date=1956 |title=Richard II's questions to the judges |journal=[[Law Quarterly Review]] |volume=lxxii |pages=365–390}}</ref>

On his return to London, the King was confronted by Gloucester, Arundel and [[Thomas de Beauchamp, 12th Earl of Warwick]], who brought an [[Criminal appeal|appeal]]{{Efn|This "appeal"{{Spaced ndash}}which would give its name to the [[Lords Appellant]]{{Spaced ndash}}was not an appeal in the modern sense of an application to a higher authority. In medieval [[common law]] the appeal was a criminal charge, often one of treason.<ref name="Tuck"/><ref>{{Cite web |title=appeal, ''n.'' |url=http://dictionary.oed.com/cgi/entry/50010618 |url-access=subscription |access-date=25 August 2008 |publisher=[[Oxford Dictionary of English]]}}</ref>}} of treason against de la Pole, de Vere, Tresilian, and two other loyalists: the mayor of London, [[Nicholas Brembre]], and [[Alexander Neville]], the [[Archbishop of York]].<ref>Goodman (1971), p.&nbsp;26.</ref> Richard stalled the negotiations to gain time, as he was expecting de Vere to arrive from Cheshire with military reinforcements.<ref name="S187">Saul (1997), p.&nbsp;187.</ref> The three peers then joined forces with Gaunt's son [[Henry Bolingbroke]], Earl of Derby, and [[Thomas de Mowbray, 1st Duke of Norfolk|Thomas de Mowbray, Earl of Nottingham]]{{Spaced ndash}}the group known to history as the [[Lords Appellant]]. On 20 December 1387 they intercepted de Vere at [[Battle of Radcot Bridge|Radcot Bridge]], where he and his forces were routed and he was obliged to flee the country.<ref>Goodman (1971), pp.&nbsp;129–130.</ref>

Richard now had no choice but to comply with the appellants' demands; Brembre and Tresilian were condemned and executed, while de Vere and de la Pole{{Spaced ndash}}who had by now also left the country<ref name="S187"/>{{Spaced ndash}}were sentenced to death ''in absentia'' at the [[Merciless Parliament]] in February 1388.{{Efn|Neville, as a man of the clergy, was deprived of his [[temporalities]], also ''in absentia''.<ref>Saul (1997), pp.&nbsp;192–193.</ref> The proceedings went further, and a number of Richard's chamber knights were also executed, among these Burley.<ref>McKisack (1959), p.&nbsp;458.</ref>}} The appellants had now succeeded completely in breaking up the circle of favourites around the King.<ref name="Tuck"/>

== Later reign ==
=== A fragile peace ===
[[File:Silver halfpenny of (Richard II YORYM 1980 1578) obverse.jpg|thumb|Silver half penny of Richard II, [[York Museums Trust]]]]
Richard gradually re-established royal authority in the months after the deliberations of the Merciless Parliament. The aggressive foreign policy of the Lords Appellant failed when their efforts to build a wide, anti-French coalition came to nothing, and the north of England fell victim to a [[Battle of Otterburn|Scottish incursion]].<ref>Saul (1997), p.&nbsp;199.</ref> Richard was now over twenty-one years old and could with confidence claim the right to govern in his own name.<ref name="S203-4">Saul (1997), pp.&nbsp;203–204.</ref> Furthermore, John of Gaunt returned to England in 1389 and settled his differences with the King, after which the old statesman acted as a moderating influence on English politics.<ref>Harriss (2005), p.&nbsp;469.</ref> Richard assumed full control of the government on 3 May 1389, claiming that the difficulties of the past years had been due solely to bad councillors. He outlined a foreign policy that reversed the actions of the appellants by seeking peace and reconciliation with France, and promised to lessen the burden of taxation on the people significantly.<ref name="S203-4"/> Richard ruled peacefully for the next eight years, having reconciled with his former adversaries.<ref name="Tuck"/> Still, later events would show that he had not forgotten the indignities he perceived.<ref>Harriss (2005), p.&nbsp;468.</ref> In particular, the execution of his former teacher Sir Simon de Burley was an insult not easily forgotten.<ref>Saul (1997), p.&nbsp;367.</ref>

[[File:Isabela richard2.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|Richard and [[Isabella of Valois|Isabella]] on their wedding day in 1396. She was six – he was 29.]]

With national stability secured, Richard began negotiating a permanent peace with France. A proposal put forward in 1393 would have greatly expanded the territory of [[Duchy of Aquitaine|Aquitaine]] possessed by the English Crown. However, the plan failed because it included a requirement that the English king pay [[homage (feudal)|homage]] to the King of France—a condition that proved unacceptable to the English public.<ref>Saul (1997), pp.&nbsp;215–225.</ref> Instead, in 1396, a truce was agreed to, which was to last 28 years.<ref>Saul (1997), p.&nbsp;227.</ref> As part of the truce, Richard agreed to marry [[Isabella of Valois]], daughter of [[Charles VI of France]], when she came of age. There were some misgivings about the betrothal, in particular, because the princess was then only six years old and thus would not be able to produce an heir to the throne of England for many years.{{Efn|As it turned out, she never did produce an heir: just four years later, Richard was dead.<ref>McKisack (1959), p.&nbsp;476.</ref>}}

Although Richard sought peace with France, he took a different approach to the situation in Ireland. The English [[Lordship of Ireland|lordships in Ireland]] were in danger of being overrun by the Gaelic Irish kingdoms, and the [[Normans in Ireland|Anglo-Irish]] lords were pleading for the King to intervene.<ref>Tuck (1985), p.&nbsp;204.</ref> In the autumn of 1394, Richard left for Ireland, where he remained until May 1395. His army of more than 8,000 men was the largest force brought to the island during the late Middle Ages.<ref>Harriss (2005), p.&nbsp;511.</ref> The invasion was a success, and a number of Irish chieftains submitted to English overlordship.<ref>Saul (1997), pp.&nbsp;279–281.</ref> It was one of the most successful achievements of Richard's reign, and strengthened his support at home, although the consolidation of the English position in Ireland proved to be short-lived.<ref name="Tuck"/>
[[File:Royal Arms of England (1395-1399).svg|thumb|In 1395 Richard II adopted the [[attributed arms]] of King [[Edward the Confessor]] and [[Impalement (heraldry)|impaling]] the royal arms of England, denoting a mystical union.]]

=== Second crisis of 1397–1399 ===
The period that historians refer to as the "tyranny" of Richard II began towards the end of the 1390s.<ref>Saul (1997), p.&nbsp;203.</ref> The King had Gloucester, Arundel and Warwick arrested in July 1397. The timing of these arrests and Richard's motivation are not entirely clear. Although one chronicle suggested that a plot was being planned against the King, there is no evidence that this was the case.<ref>Saul (1997), pp.&nbsp;371–375.</ref> It is more likely that Richard had simply come to feel strong enough to safely retaliate against these three men for their role in events of 1386–1388 and eliminate them as threats to his power.<ref>Harriss (2005), p.&nbsp;479.</ref>

Arundel was the first of the three to be brought to trial, at the parliament of September 1397. After a heated quarrel with the King, he was condemned and executed.<ref>Saul (1997), p.&nbsp;378.</ref> Gloucester was being held prisoner by the Earl of Nottingham at Calais while awaiting his trial. As the time for the trial drew near, Nottingham brought news that Gloucester was dead. It is thought likely that the King had ordered him to be killed to avoid the disgrace of executing a prince of the blood.<ref>Saul (1997), pp.&nbsp;378–379.</ref>

Warwick was also condemned to death, but his life was spared and his sentence reduced to life imprisonment. Arundel's brother [[Thomas Arundel]], the Archbishop of Canterbury, was exiled for life.<ref>Tuck (1985), p.&nbsp;210.</ref> Richard then took his persecution of adversaries to the localities. While recruiting [[retinue|retainers]] for himself in various counties, he prosecuted local men who had been loyal to the appellants. The fines levied on these men brought great revenues to the crown, although contemporary chroniclers raised questions about the legality of the proceedings.<ref name="Tuck"/>
[[File:Thomas of Woodstock.jpg|thumb|upright=0.81|Murder of [[Thomas of Woodstock, 1st Duke of Gloucester|Thomas of Woodstock]] in [[Calais]] in 1397]]

[[File:Johnofgaunt.jpg|thumb|right|upright|[[John of Gaunt]] had been at the centre of English politics for over thirty years, and his death in 1399 led to insecurity.]]

These actions were made possible primarily through the collusion of John of Gaunt, but with the support of a large group of other magnates, many of whom were rewarded with new titles, and were disparagingly referred to as Richard's "duketti".<ref name="Saul (2005), p.&nbsp;63.">Saul (2005), p.&nbsp;63.</ref> These included the former Lords Appellant
* [[Henry Bolingbroke, Earl of Derby]], who was made [[Duke of Hereford]], and
* Thomas de Mowbray, Earl of Nottingham, who was created [[Duke of Norfolk]].

Also among them were
* [[John Holland, 1st Duke of Exeter|John Holland]], the King's half-brother, promoted from [[Earl of Huntingdon]] to [[Duke of Exeter]]
* [[Thomas Holland, 1st Duke of Surrey|Thomas Holland]], the King's nephew, promoted from [[Earl of Kent]] to [[Duke of Surrey]]
* [[Edward of Norwich, Earl of Rutland]], the King's cousin, who received Gloucester's French title of [[Duke of Aumale]]
* Gaunt's son [[John Beaufort, 1st Earl of Somerset]], who was made [[Marquess of Somerset]] and [[Marquess of Dorset]]
* [[John Montacute, 3rd Earl of Salisbury]]
* [[Thomas Despenser, 1st Earl of Gloucester|Lord Thomas le Despenser]], who became [[Earl of Gloucester]].{{Efn|John Beaufort was the oldest of John of Gaunt's children with [[Katherine Swynford]]; illegitimate children whom Richard had given legitimate status in 1390. He was made [[Marquess of Dorset]]; [[marquess]] being a relatively new title in England up until this point. Rutland, heir to the [[Edmund of Langley, 1st Duke of York|Duke of York]], was created [[Duke of Aumale]]. John Montacute had succeeded [[William Montacute, 2nd Earl of Salisbury|his uncle]] as [[Earl of Salisbury]] earlier the same year. Thomas Despenser, the great-grandson of [[Hugh Despenser the Younger]], [[Edward II]]'s favourite who was executed for treason in 1326, was given the forfeited [[earldom of Gloucester]].<ref>Saul (1997), pp.&nbsp;381–382.</ref>}}
With the forfeited lands of the convicted appellants, the King could reward these men with lands suited to their new ranks.<ref name="M483-4">McKisack (1959), pp.&nbsp;483–484.</ref>

A threat to Richard's authority still existed, however, in the form of the [[House of Lancaster]], represented by John of Gaunt and his son Henry Bolingbroke, Duke of Hereford. The House of Lancaster not only possessed greater wealth than any other family in England, they were of royal descent and, as such, likely candidates to succeed the childless Richard.<ref>Saul (1997), pp.&nbsp;196–197.</ref>

Discord broke out in the inner circles of court in December 1397, when Bolingbroke and Mowbray became embroiled in a quarrel. According to Bolingbroke, Mowbray had claimed that the two, as former Lords Appellant, were next in line for royal retribution. Mowbray vehemently denied these charges, as such a claim would have amounted to treason.<ref name="Saul (2005), p.&nbsp;63."/> A parliamentary committee decided that the two should settle the matter by battle, but at the last moment Richard exiled the two dukes instead: Mowbray for life, Bolingbroke for ten years.<ref>Harriss (2005), p.&nbsp;482.</ref>
[[File:Shrewsbury Abbey - geograph.org.uk - 1708510.jpg|thumb|Shrewsbury thought to be the venue of the Revenge Parliament, which was prorogued in Westminster and moved to Shropshire]]
In 1398 Richard summoned the Parliament of [[Shrewsbury]], often called the Revenge Parliament<ref>{{Cite web |date=2022-05-12 |title=Parliament and the Politics of intimidation in Medieval England - The History of Parliament |url=https://historyofparliament.com/2022/05/12/intimidation-in-medieval-england/ |access-date=2025-02-23 |website=historyofparliament.com |language=en-US}}</ref> and understood to have met in the Abbey of that town,<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://doi.org/10.1093/odnb/9780192683120.013.16406 |title=Leighton, William Allport (1805–1889) |date=2017-11-28 |publisher=Oxford University Press |series=Oxford Dictionary of National Biography|doi=10.1093/odnb/9780192683120.013.16406 }}</ref> which declared all the acts of the Merciless Parliament to be null and void, and announced that no restraint could legally be put on the King. It delegated all parliamentary power to a committee of twelve lords and six commoners chosen from the King's friends, making Richard an absolute ruler unbound by the necessity of gathering a Parliament again.<ref>Gardiner, Samuel R. (1916), [http://www.mirrorservice.org/sites/gutenberg.org/2/8/1/5/28157/28157-h/28157-h.htm#chap18sec11 Student's History of England from the Earliest Times to the Death of King Edward VII], vol. I.: B.C. 55–A.D. 1509. Longman's.</ref>

On 3 February 1399, Gaunt died. Rather than allowing Bolingbroke to succeed, Richard extended the term of his exile to life and expropriated his properties.<ref>Saul (1997), pp.&nbsp;403–404.</ref> The King felt safe from Bolingbroke, who was residing in Paris, since the French had little interest in any challenge to Richard and his peace policy.<ref>Saul (2005), p.&nbsp;64.</ref> Richard left the country in May for another expedition in Ireland.<ref>McKisack (1959), p.&nbsp;491.</ref>

=== Court culture ===
In the last years of Richard's reign, and particularly in the months after the suppression of the appellants in 1397, the King enjoyed a virtual monopoly on power in the country, a relatively uncommon situation in medieval England.<ref>Saul (1997), pp.&nbsp;331–332.</ref> In this period a particular court culture was allowed to emerge, one that differed sharply from that of earlier times. A new form of address developed; where the King previously had been addressed simply as "[[highness]]", now "royal [[majesty]]", or "high majesty" were often used. It was said that on solemn festivals Richard would sit on his throne in the royal hall for hours without speaking, and anyone on whom his eyes fell had to bow his knees to the King.<ref>Saul (1997), pp.&nbsp;340–342.</ref> The inspiration for this new sumptuousness and emphasis on dignity came from the courts on the continent, not only the French and Bohemian courts that had been the homes of Richard's two wives, but also the court that his father had maintained while residing in Aquitaine.<ref>Saul (1997), pp.&nbsp;344–354.</ref>

Richard's approach to kingship was rooted in his strong belief in the [[royal prerogative]], the inspiration of which can be found in his early youth, when his authority was challenged first by the Peasants' Revolts and then by the Lords Appellant.<ref>Harriss (2005), pp.&nbsp;489–490.</ref> Richard rejected the approach his grandfather Edward III had taken to the nobility. Edward's court had been a martial one, based on the interdependence between the king and his most trusted noblemen as military captains.<ref>Harriss (2005), pp.&nbsp;490–491.</ref> In Richard's view, this put a dangerous amount of power in the hands of the baronage. To avoid dependence on the nobility for military recruitment, he pursued a policy of peace towards France.<ref name="S439">Saul (1997), p.&nbsp;439.</ref> At the same time, he developed his own private military retinue, larger than that of any English king before him, and gave them [[livery]] [[heraldic badge|badges]] with his [[White Hart]].<ref>Harriss (2005), p.&nbsp;28.</ref> He was then free to develop a courtly atmosphere in which the king was a distant, venerated figure, and art and culture, rather than warfare, were at the centre.<ref>Saul (1997), pp.&nbsp;332, 346.</ref>

== Patronage and the arts ==
[[File:Wilton diptych.jpg|thumb|The [[Wilton Diptych]], showing Richard venerating the Virgin and Child, accompanied by his patron saints: [[Edmund the Martyr]], [[Edward the Confessor]], and [[John the Baptist]]. The angels in the picture wear the [[White Hart]] badge. [[National Gallery]], London.]]
As part of Richard's programme of asserting his authority, he also tried to cultivate the royal image. Unlike any other English king before him, he had himself portrayed in [[panel painting]]s of elevated majesty,<ref>Saul (1997), p.&nbsp;238.</ref> of which two survive: an over life-size [[Westminster Abbey]] portrait (c.&nbsp;1390), and the [[Wilton Diptych]] (1394–1399), a portable work probably intended to accompany Richard on his Irish campaign.<ref>Alexander and Binski, pp.&nbsp;134–135. See also Levey, pp.&nbsp;20–24.</ref> It is one of the few surviving English examples of the courtly [[International Gothic]] style of painting that was developed in the courts of the Continent, especially Prague and Paris.<ref>Levey, pp.&nbsp;13–29.</ref> Richard's expenditure on jewellery, rich textiles and metalwork was far higher than on paintings, but as with his [[illuminated manuscript]]s, there are hardly any surviving works that can be connected with him, except for a crown, "one of the finest achievements of the Gothic goldsmith", that probably belonged to his wife Anne.<ref>Alexander and Binski, pp.&nbsp;202–203, 506. It is documented in the royal collection from 1399 and accompanied Blanche, daughter of Henry IV, to her Bavarian marriage. It is still in Munich. [http://www.history.ac.uk/richardII/images/crownbig.jpg image] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081031044630/http://www.history.ac.uk/richardII/images/crownbig.jpg |date=31 October 2008 }} See also [http://www.history.ac.uk/richardII/roll.html Richard's Treasure roll], The Institute of Historical Research and Royal Holloway. Retrieved 12 October 2008.</ref>

Among Richard's grandest projects in the field of architecture was [[Westminster Hall]], which was extensively rebuilt during his reign,<ref>{{Cite book |title=The History of the King's Works |date=1963 |publisher=[[HMSO]] |editor-last=Brown |editor-first=R. A. |volume=i |location=London |pages=527–533 |editor-last2=Colvin |editor-first2=H. M. |editor-last3=Taylor |editor-first3=A.J.}}</ref> perhaps spurred on by the completion in 1391 of John of Gaunt's magnificent hall at [[Kenilworth Castle]]. Fifteen life-size statues of kings were placed in niches on the walls, and the [[hammer-beam]] roof by the royal carpenter [[Hugh Herland]], "the greatest creation of medieval timber architecture", allowed the original three [[Romanesque architecture|Romanesque]] aisles to be replaced with a single huge open space, with a dais at the end for Richard to sit in solitary state.<ref>Alexander and Binski, pp.&nbsp;506–507, 515. Only six of the statues remain, rather damaged, and the dais has been remodelled, but otherwise the hall remains largely as Richard and his architect [[Henry Yevele]] left it.</ref> The rebuilding had been begun by [[Henry III of England|Henry III]] in 1245, but had by Richard's time been dormant for over a century.<ref>Saul (1997), p.&nbsp;315.</ref>

The court's patronage of literature is especially important because this was the period in which the English language took shape as a [[Middle English literature#Late period|literary language]].<ref name="Tuck"/> There is little evidence to tie Richard directly to the patronage of [[English poetry#The Anglo-Norman period and the Later Middle Ages|poetry]], but it was nevertheless within his court that this culture was allowed to thrive.<ref>Saul (1997), pp.&nbsp;361–364.</ref> The greatest poet of the age, [[Geoffrey Chaucer]], served the King as a diplomat, a customs official and a clerk of [[Office of Works|The King's Works]] while producing some of his best-known work.<ref>{{Cite book |title=The Riverside Chaucer |date=1988 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=0-1928-2109-1 |editor-last=Benson |editor-first=Larry D. |edition=3rd |location=Oxford |pages=xi–xxii}}</ref><ref>McKisack (1959), pp.&nbsp;529–530.</ref> Chaucer was also in the service of John of Gaunt, and wrote ''[[The Book of the Duchess]]'' as a eulogy to Gaunt's wife [[Blanche of Lancaster|Blanche]].<ref>Benson (1988), p.&nbsp;xv.</ref> Chaucer's colleague and friend [[John Gower]] wrote his ''[[Confessio Amantis]]'' on a direct commission from Richard, although he later grew disenchanted with the King.<ref>Saul (1997), pp.&nbsp;362, 437.</ref>

Richard was interested in [[occult]] topics such as [[geomancy]], which he viewed as a greater discipline that included [[philosophy]], [[science]], and [[alchemic]] elements and commissioned a book on,<ref>{{Cite book |last=Schama |first=Simon |title=A History of Britain 1: 3000 BC-AD 1603 At the Edge of the World? |title-link=A History of Britain (TV series)#DVDs and books |date=2003 |publisher=[[BBC Worldwide]] |isbn=978-0-5634-8714-2 |edition=Paperback 2003 |location=London |pages=223 |author-link=Simon Schama}}</ref> and sponsored writing and discussion of them in his court.

== Downfall ==
=== Deposition ===
[[File:Bolingbroke-richard-flint-castle-harley-ms-1319 (cropped).png|thumb|left|Richard's surrender to Henry at [[Flint Castle]] in Wales]]
In June 1399, [[Louis I, Duke of Orléans]], gained control of the court of the insane [[Charles VI of France]]. The policy of rapprochement with the English crown did not suit Louis's political ambitions, and for this reason he found it opportune to allow Bolingbroke to leave for England.<ref>Saul (1997), pp.&nbsp;406–407.</ref> With a small group of followers, Bolingbroke landed at [[Ravenspurn]] in Yorkshire towards the end of June 1399.<ref>Saul (1997), p.&nbsp;408.</ref> Insisting that his only object was to regain his own patrimony, Bolingbroke received the support of both of the preeminent northern magnates, [[Henry Percy, 1st Earl of Northumberland|Henry Percy, Earl of Northumberland]], and [[Ralph Neville, 1st Earl of Westmorland|Ralph Neville, Earl of Westmorland]].<ref>Saul (1997), pp.&nbsp;408–410.</ref> The King had taken most of his household knights and the loyal members of his nobility with him to Ireland, so Bolingbroke experienced little resistance as he moved south. The Keeper of the Realm, [[Edmund, Duke of York]], had little choice but to side with Bolingbroke.<ref>Harriss (2005), pp.&nbsp;486–487.</ref> Meanwhile, Richard was delayed in his return from Ireland and did not land in Wales until 24 July.<ref>Saul (1997), p.&nbsp;411.</ref> He made his way to [[Conwy Castle|Conwy]], where on 12 August he met with Northumberland for negotiations.<ref>Saul (1997), pp.&nbsp;412–413.</ref> On 19 August, Richard surrendered to Bolingbroke at [[Flint Castle]], promising to abdicate if his life were spared.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Richard II, King of England (1367–1400) |url=http://www.luminarium.org/encyclopedia/richard2.htm |access-date=17 August 2012 |publisher=Luminarium.org}}</ref> Both men then made their way to [[Chester Castle]] where Richard was held in the crypt of the Agricola Tower.<ref>{{cite book| last =Richards | first =Raymond | title =Old Cheshire Churches|page=102 | publisher =Batsford | year =1947 | location =London |oclc =719918}}</ref> On the journey to London, the indignant king had to ride all the way behind Bolingbroke. On arrival, he was imprisoned in the Tower of London on 1 September.<ref>Saul (1997), p.&nbsp;417.</ref>

It was now argued that Richard, through his tyranny and misgovernment, had rendered himself unworthy of being king.<ref>McKisack (1959), pp.&nbsp;494–495.</ref> According to the normal law of primogeniture, the heir to the throne at this point would have been [[Edmund Mortimer, 5th Earl of March|Edmund Mortimer, Earl of March]], great-grandson of Edward III's second son to reach adulthood, [[Lionel, Duke of Clarence]], through Lionel's daughter [[Philippa, 5th Countess of Ulster|Philippa]].  Bolingbroke's father, John of Gaunt, was Edward's next eldest son. However, in 1376 Edward had [[entailed]] the succession to heirs male, bypassing Philippa and her descendants in favour of his next eldest son, John of Gaunt, and thence his son Henry Bolingbroke. Richard's own view of the question during his reign is uncertain, but his assignment in 1397 of the highest place in the order of precedence to Bolingbroke suggests endorsement of his status as [[heir presumptive]].<ref>Bennett (1998), pp.&nbsp;582–94; Saul (1997), pp.&nbsp;419–420.</ref>

[[File:Abdikace Richarda2.png|thumb|Richard surrendering the crown to Henry]]
According to the official record, read by the Archbishop of Canterbury during an assembly of [[House of Lords#History|lords]] and commons at Westminster Hall on Tuesday 30 September, Richard gave up his crown willingly and ratified his deposition citing as a reason his own unworthiness as a monarch. In contrast, the ''Traison et Mort Chronicle'' suggests otherwise. It describes a meeting between Richard and Henry that took place one day before the parliament's session. The King succumbed to blind rage, ordered his own release from the Tower, called his cousin a traitor, demanded to see his wife, and swore revenge, throwing down his bonnet, while Henry refused to do anything without parliamentary approval.<ref name="kingsmadeengland">{{Cite book |last=Jones |first=Dan |title=The Plantagenets: The Kings Who Made England |date=2012 |publisher=[[HarperPress]] |isbn=978-0-0072-1392-4 |chapter=Richard Alone |author-link=Dan Jones (writer)}}</ref> When parliament met to discuss Richard's fate, [[John Trevor (died 1410)|John Trevor]], Bishop of St Asaph, read thirty-three articles of deposition that were unanimously accepted by lords and commons. On 1 October 1399, Richard II was formally deposed. On 13 October, the feast day of [[Edward the Confessor]], Henry was crowned king.<ref name = kingsmadeengland/>

=== Death ===
Henry had agreed to let Richard live after his abdication. This changed when it was revealed that the earls of Huntingdon, Kent, and Salisbury, and Lord Despenser, and possibly also the Earl of Rutland{{Spaced ndash}}all now demoted from the ranks they had been given by Richard{{Spaced ndash}}were planning to murder the new king and restore Richard in the [[Epiphany Rising]].<ref>Saul (1997), pp.&nbsp;424–425.</ref> Although averted, the plot highlighted the danger of allowing Richard to live. He is thought to have starved to death in captivity in [[Pontefract Castle]] on or around 14 February 1400, although there is some question over the date and manner of his death.<ref name="Tuck"/> His body was taken south from Pontefract and displayed in [[old St Paul's Cathedral|St Paul's Cathedral]] on 17 February before burial in [[King's Langley Priory]] on 6 March.

Rumours that Richard was still alive persisted, but never gained much credence in England;<ref>Tuck (1985), p.&nbsp;226.</ref> in Scotland, however, a man identified as Richard came into the hands of [[Robert Stewart, Duke of Albany|Regent Albany]], lodged in [[Stirling Castle]], and serving as the notional{{Spaced ndash}}and perhaps reluctant{{Spaced ndash}}figurehead of various anti-Lancastrian and [[Lollard]] intrigues in England. Henry IV's government dismissed him as an impostor, and several sources from both sides of the border suggest the man had a mental illness, one also describing him as a "beggar" by the time of his death in 1419, but he was buried as a king in [[Blackfriars, Stirling]], the local [[Dominican friary]]. Meanwhile, [[Henry V of England|Henry V]]{{Spaced ndash}}in an effort both to atone for his father's act of murder and to silence the rumours of Richard's survival{{Spaced ndash}}had decided to have the body at King's Langley reinterred in Westminster Abbey on 4 December 1413. Here Richard himself had prepared an elaborate tomb, where the remains of his wife Anne were already entombed.<ref>Saul (1997), pp.&nbsp;428–429.</ref>

== Character and assessment ==
Contemporary writers, even those less sympathetic to the King, agreed that Richard was a "most beautiful king", though with an unmanly "face which was white, rounded and feminine."<ref>Saul (2005), p.&nbsp;237.</ref> He was athletic and tall; when his tomb was opened in 1871, he was found to be six feet (1.82 m) tall.<ref>Saul (1997), pp.&nbsp;451–452, quoting [[John Gower]] and ''Historia vitae et regni Ricardi II''.</ref> He was also intelligent and well read, and when agitated he had a tendency to stammer.<ref>Harriss (2005), p.&nbsp;489.</ref> While the Westminster Abbey portrait probably shows a good similarity of the King, the Wilton Diptych portrays him as significantly younger than he was at the time; it must be assumed that he had a beard by this point.<ref>Saul (1997), pp.&nbsp;450–451.</ref> Religiously, he was orthodox, and particularly towards the end of his reign he became a strong opponent of the Lollard heresy.<ref>Saul (1997), pp.&nbsp;297–303.</ref> He was particularly devoted to the cult of Edward the Confessor, and around 1395 he had his own [[coat of arms]] [[impalement (heraldry)|impaled]] with the [[attributed arms|mythical arms]] of the Confessor.<ref name="Tuck"/> Though not a warrior king like his grandfather, Richard nevertheless enjoyed [[tournament (medieval)|tournaments]], as well as hunting.<ref>Saul (1997), pp.&nbsp;452–453.</ref>

[[File:King Richard II from NPG (2).jpg|thumb|Anonymous artist's impression of Richard II in the 16th century. [[National Portrait Gallery, London]].]]

The popular view of Richard has more than anything been influenced by [[Shakespeare]]'s play about the King, ''[[Richard II (play)|Richard II]]''. Shakespeare's Richard was a cruel, vindictive, and irresponsible king, who attained a semblance of greatness only after his fall from power.<ref>Saul (1997), p.&nbsp;1.</ref> Writing a work of fiction, Shakespeare took many liberties and made great omissions, basing his play on works by writers such as [[Edward Hall]] and [[Samuel Daniel]], who in turn based their writings on contemporary chroniclers such as Thomas Walsingham.<ref>Saul (1997), pp.&nbsp;3–4.</ref> Hall and Daniel were part of Tudor [[historiography]], which was highly unsympathetic to Richard,<ref>Saul (2005), pp.&nbsp;11–12.</ref> although it also viewed his deposition as a misdeed which provoked [[divine retribution]].<ref name=":0">{{Cite book |last=Aston |first=Margaret |title=Lollards and Reformers: Images and Literacy in Late Medieval Religion |date=1984 |publisher=[[Continuum International Publishing Group]] |isbn=0-9076-2818-4 |pages=283–284 |chapter=Richard II and the Wars of the Roses |quote=Two major features of the Tudor thesis were already enunciated in the declaration of the Yorkist title in the first parliament of Edward IV; namely the idea that the deposition and death of Richard II had involved the land in untold tribulation, and secondly an elaborately exaggerated view of the scale of fifteenth-century troubles. […]  So, from the arguments of the disputants themselves Tudor writers were able to develop that conception of divine punishment and deliverance which Shakespeare inherited from Polydore Vergil through the chronicle of Edward Hall.}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Grene |first=Nicholas |title=Shakespeare's Tragic Imagination |date=1996 |publisher=Palgrave Macmillan UK |isbn=978-1-349-24970-1 |edition= |location=London |pages=1}}</ref> The Tudor orthodoxy, reinforced by Shakespeare, saw a continuity in civil discord starting with Richard's misrule that did not end until [[Henry VII of England|Henry VII]]'s accession in 1485.<ref>Aston (1984), pp.&nbsp;273–312.</ref> The idea that Richard was to blame for the later-15th century [[Wars of the Roses]] was prevalent as late as the 19th century, but came to be challenged in the 20th.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Pollard |first=A.J. |title=The Wars of the Roses |date=1988 |publisher=[[Macmillan Education]] |isbn=0-3334-0603-6 |location=Basingstoke |page=12 |author-link=A. J. Pollard}}</ref> Some recent historians prefer to look at the Wars of the Roses in isolation from the reign of Richard II.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Carpenter |first=Christine |title=The Wars of the Roses: Politics and the Constitution in England, c. 1437–1509 |date=1997 |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |isbn=0-5213-1874-2 |location=Cambridge |page=20}}</ref>

Richard's mental state has been a major issue of historical debate since the first academic historians started treating the subject in the 19th century. One of the first modern historians to deal with Richard II as a king and as a person was [[Bishop Stubbs]]. Stubbs argued that towards the end of his reign, Richard's mind "was losing its balance altogether."<ref>{{Cite book |last=Stubbs |first=William |title=The Constitutional History of England |date=1875 |publisher=[[Clarendon Press]] |volume=II |location=Oxford |page=490 |author-link=William Stubbs}}</ref> Historian [[Anthony Steel (historian)|Anthony Steel]], who wrote a full-scale biography of the King in 1941, took a psychiatric approach to the issue, and concluded that Richard had [[schizophrenia]].<ref>Steel (1941), p.&nbsp;8.</ref> This was challenged by [[V. H. Galbraith]], who argued that there was no historical basis for such a diagnosis,<ref name="Galbraith">{{Cite journal |last=Galbraith |first=V.H. |author-link=Vivian Hunter Galbraith |date=1942 |title=A new life of Richard II |journal=[[History (journal)|History]] |volume=xxvi |issue=104 |pages=223–239 |doi=10.1111/j.1468-229X.1942.tb00807.x}}</ref> a line that has also been followed by later historians of the period, such as [[Anthony Goodman (historian)|Anthony Goodman]] and [[Anthony Tuck]].<ref name="Tuck"/> [[Nigel Saul]], who wrote an academic biography of Richard II in 1997, concedes that{{Spaced ndash}}even though there is no basis for assuming the King had a mental illness{{Spaced ndash}}he showed clear signs of a [[narcissistic personality]], and towards the end of his reign "Richard's grasp on reality was becoming weaker."<ref>Saul (1997), pp.&nbsp;460–464.</ref>

One of the primary historiographical questions surrounding Richard concerns his political agenda and the reasons for its failure. His kingship was thought to contain elements of the early modern absolute monarchy as exemplified by the [[Tudor dynasty]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Walker |first=Simon |title=Rulers and Ruled in Late Medieval England |date=1995 |publisher=[[Hambledon Press]] |isbn=1-8528-5133-3 |editor-last=Rowena E. Archer |location=London |page=49 |chapter=Richard IIs Views on Kingship |editor-last2=Harriss |editor-first2=G. L. |editor-last3=Walker |editor-first3=Simon}}</ref> More recently, Richard's concept of kingship has been seen by some as not so different from that of his antecedents, and that it was exactly by staying within the framework of traditional monarchy that he was able to achieve as much as he did.<ref name="Tuck"/><ref name="W63">Walker (1995), p.&nbsp;63.</ref> Yet his actions were too extreme and too abrupt. For one, the absence of war was meant to reduce the burden of taxation, and so help Richard's popularity with the Commons in parliament. However, this promise was never fulfilled, as the cost of the royal retinue, the opulence of court and Richard's lavish patronage of his favourites proved as expensive as war had been, without offering commensurate benefits.<ref name="S439"/> As for his policy of military retaining, this was later emulated by [[Edward IV]] and Henry VII, but Richard II's exclusive reliance on the county of Cheshire hurt his support from the rest of the country.<ref>Saul (1997), pp.&nbsp;440, 444–445.</ref> [[Simon Walker (historian)|Simon Walker]] writes: "What he sought was, in contemporary terms, neither unjustified nor unattainable; it was the manner of his seeking that betrayed him."<ref name="W63"/>

==Family tree==
{{Ahnentafel
|align=center
|collapsed=yes
|boxstyle_1=background-color: #fcc;
|boxstyle_2=background-color: #fb9;
|boxstyle_3=background-color: #ffc;
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|1=1. '''Richard II of England'''
|2=2. [[Edward the Black Prince]]
|3=3. [[Joan, 4th Countess of Kent]]
|4=4. [[Edward III of England]]<ref name=odnb-edwardwoodstock>{{Cite ODNB |last=Barber |first=R. |date=2004 |title=Edward [Edward of Woodstock; Known as the Black Prince], Prince of Wales and of Aquitaine (1330–1376), Heir to the English throne and Military Commander |url=https://www.oxforddnb.com/display/10.1093/ref:odnb/9780198614128.001.0001/odnb-9780198614128-e-8523 |url-access=subscription |access-date=11 December 2024 |doi=10.1093/ref:odnb/8523}}</ref>
|5=5. [[Philippa of Hainaut]]<ref name=odnb-edwardwoodstock/>
|6=6. [[Edmund of Woodstock, 1st Earl of Kent]]<ref name=odnb-edmundkent>{{Cite ODNB |last=Waugh|first=Scott L. |title=Edmund, first earl of Kent (1301–1330) |doi=10.1093/ref:odnb/8506}}</ref>
|7=7. [[Margaret Wake, 3rd Baroness Wake of Liddell|Margaret Wake, 3rd Baroness Wake]]<ref name=odnb-edmundkent/>
|8=8. [[Edward II of England]]<ref name=mortimer21>{{Cite book |last=Mortimer |first=Ian |title=The Perfect King: The Life of Edward III, Father of the English Nation |date=2006 |publisher=Jonathan Cape |isbn=0-2240-7301-X |location=London |author-link=Ian Mortimer (historian) |page=21}}</ref>
|9=9. [[Isabella of France]]<ref name=mortimer21/>
|10=10. [[William I, Count of Hainaut]]<ref name=leese140>{{cite book |last=Leese |first=Thelma Anna |title=Blood Royal: Issue of the Kings and Queens of Medieval England, 1066-1399: the Normans and Plantagenets |date=2007 |publisher=Heritage Books |page=140}}</ref>
|11=11. [[Joan of Valois, Countess of Hainaut|Joan of Valois]]<ref name=leese140/>
|12=12. [[Edward I of England]]<ref name=alisonmarshall190>{{Cite book |last=Marshall |first=Alison |editor=Gwilym Dodd |editor2=Anthony Musson |title=The Reign of Edward II: New Perspectives |year=2006 |publisher=Boydell & Brewer |isbn=9781903153192 |page=190}}</ref>
|13=13. [[Margaret of France, Queen of England|Margaret of France]]<ref name=alisonmarshall190/>
|14=14. [[John Wake, 1st Baron Wake of Liddell|John Wake, 1st Baron Wake]]<ref name=odnb-edmundkent/>
|15=15. Joan Fiennes<ref name=odnb-edmundkent/>
}}

{{Chart top}}
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 |John=[[John Holland, 1st Duke of Exeter|John Holland]]<br/>{{Small|Duke of Exeter}}
 |Thomas=[[Thomas Holland, 2nd Earl of Kent|Thomas Holland]]<br/>{{Small|Earl of Kent}}
 |Philippa=[[Philippa of Clarence]]<br/>{{Small|Countess of Ulster}}
 |Henry='''[[Henry IV of England|Henry Bolingbroke<hr/>Henry IV]]'''<br/>{{Small|{{R.|1399|1413}}}}
   |boxstyle_Henry=border:2px solid #f00; border-radius:0.5em
 |Edward=[[Edward of Norwich]]<br/>{{Small|Duke of York}}
}}
{{Tree chart| | | | | |)|-|-|-|.| | | |!| | | |!| 
}}
{{Tree chart|border=1| | | | |Thomas| |Eleanor|y|Roger| |Henry| 
 |Thomas=[[Thomas Holland, 1st Duke of Surrey|Thomas Holland]]<br/>{{Small|Duke of Surrey}}
 |Eleanor=[[Alianore Holland]]<br/>{{Small|Countess of March}}
 |Roger=[[Roger Mortimer, 4th Earl of March|Roger Mortimer]]<br/>{{Small|Earl of March}}
 |Henry='''[[Henry V of England|Henry of Monmouth<hr/>Henry V]]'''<br/>{{Small|{{R.|1413|1422}}}}
   |boxstyle_Henry=border:2px solid #f00; border-radius:0.5em
 }}
{{Tree chart| | | | | | | | | | | |`|-|.| 
}}
{{Tree chart|border=1| | | | | | | | | | | | |Edmund| 
 |Edmund=[[Edmund Mortimer, 5th Earl of March|Edmund Mortimer]]<br/>{{Small|Earl of March}}
 }}
{{Tree chart/end}}
{{Chart bottom}}

== See also ==
* [[Cultural depictions of Richard II of England]]
* [[List of earls in the reign of Richard II of England]]

== Notes ==
{{Notelist}}

==References==
{{Reflist|25em}}

==Sources==
{{Refbegin|25em|indent=yes}}

* {{Cite book |title=Age of Chivalry, Art in Plantagenet England, 1200–1400 |date=1987 |publisher=Royal Academy / Weidenfeld & Nicolson |editor-last=Alexander |editor-first=Jonathan |location=London|editor-last2=Binski |editor-first2=Paul |editor-link2=Paul Binski}}
* {{Cite book |last=Allmand |first=Christopher |title=The Hundred Years War: England and France at War c. 1300 – c. 1450 |date=1988 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=0-5213-1923-4 |author-link=Christopher Allmand}}
* {{Cite journal |last=Bennett |first=Michael |date=1998 |title=Edward III's Entail and the Succession to the Crown, 1376–1471 |journal=The English Historical Review |volume=113 |issue=452 |pages=580–609 |doi=10.1093/ehr/CXIII.452.580}}
* {{Cite book |last=Bennett |first=Michael J. |title=Richard II and the Revolution of 1399 |date=1999 |publisher=[[Sutton Publishing]] |isbn=0-7509-2283-4 |location=Stroud |ol=15298680M}}
* {{Cite book |last=Castor |first=Helen |title=The King, the Crown, and the Duchy of Lancaster: Public Authority and Private Power, 1399–1461 |date=2000 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=0-1982-0622-4 |pages=8–21}}
* {{Cite book |title=The Reign of Richard II |date=2000 |publisher=[[Tempus Publishing|Tempus]] |isbn=0-7524-1797-5 |editor-last=Dodd |editor-first=Gwilym |location=Stroud}}
* {{Cite book |last=Froissart |first=Jean |title=Chronicles |date=1978 |publisher=Penguin |isbn=0-1404-4200-6 |editor-last=Brereton |editor-first=Geoffrey |location=London |author-link=Jean Froissart}}
* {{Cite book |title=The Age of Richard II |date=1997 |publisher=Sutton Publishing |isbn=0-7509-1452-1 |editor-last=Gillespie |editor-first=James |location=Stroud |editor-last2=Goodman |editor-first2=Anthony |editor-link2=Anthony Goodman (historian)}}
* {{Cite book |title=Richard II: The Art of Kingship |date=1998 |publisher=Clarendon Press |isbn=0-1982-0189-3 |editor-last=Gillespie |editor-first=James |editor-mask=2 |location=Oxford |editor-last2=Goodman, Anthony |editor-mask2=2}}
* {{Cite book |title=Chronicles of the Revolution, 1397–1400: The Reign of Richard II |date=1993 |publisher=Manchester University Press |isbn=0-7190-3526-0 |editor-last=Given-Wilson |editor-first=Chris |editor-link=Chris Given-Wilson |location=Manchester}}
* {{Cite book |last=Goodman |first=Anthony |title=The Loyal Conspiracy: The Lords Appellant under Richard II |date=1971 |publisher=[[Routledge]] |isbn=0-7100-7074-8 |location=London |author-link=Anthony Goodman (historian)}}
* {{Cite book |last=Goodman |first=Anthony |title=John of Gaunt: The Exercise of Princely Power in Fourteenth-Century Europe |date=1992 |publisher=[[Longman]] |isbn=0-5820-9813-0 |location=Burnt Mill, Harlow, Essex |author-mask=2}}
* {{Cite book |last=Harriss |first=Gerald |title=Shaping the Nation: England, 1360–1461 |date=2005 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=0-1982-2816-3 |author-link=G. L. Harriss}}
* {{Cite book |last=Hilton |first=Rodney |title=Bond Men Made Free: Medieval Peasant Movements and the English Rising of 1381 |date=1973 |publisher=Temple Smith |isbn=0-8511-7039-0 |location=London |ol=21441508M |author-link=Rodney Hilton}}
* {{Cite book |title=The New Cambridge Medieval History, vol. 6: c. 1300 – c. 1415 |date=2000 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=0-5213-6290-3 |editor-last=Jones |editor-first=Michael |editor-link=Michael Jones (historian)}}
* {{Cite book |last=Keen |first=Maurice |title=England in the Late Middle Ages |date=1973 |publisher=[[Methuen Publishing|Methuen]] |isbn=0-4167-5990-4 |location=London |author-link=Maurice Keen}}
* {{Cite book |last=Knighton |first=Henry |title=Knighton's Chronicle 1337–1396 |date=1995 |publisher=Clarendon Press |isbn=0-1982-0503-1 |editor-last=Martin |editor-first=G.H. |location=Oxford|author-link=Henry Knighton}}
* {{Cite book |last=Levey |first=Michael |title=Painting at Court |date=1971 |publisher=Weidenfeld and Nicolson |location=London |author-link=Michael Levey}}
* {{Cite book |last=McKisack |first=May |title=The Fourteenth Century: 1307–1399 |date=1959 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=0-1982-1712-9 |author-link=May McKisack}}
* {{Cite book |last=Mortimer |first=Ian |title=The Fears of King Henry IV: The Life of England's Self-Made King |date=2007 |publisher=[[Jonathan Cape]] |isbn=978-0-2240-7300-4 |location=London |author-link=Ian Mortimer (historian)}}
* {{Cite book |last=Saul |first=Nigel |title=Richard II |date=1997 |publisher=[[Yale University Press]] |isbn=0-3000-7003-9 |location=New Haven |ol=997357M |author-link=Nigel Saul}}
* {{Cite book |last=Saul |first=Nigel |title=The Three Richards: Richard I, Richard II and Richard III |date=2005 |publisher=Hambledon |isbn=1-8528-5286-0 |location=London |author-mask=2}}
* {{Cite book |last=Steel |first=Anthony |title=Richard II |date=1941 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |author-link=Anthony Steel (historian)}}
* {{Cite book |title=Historia Vitae et Regni Ricardi Secundi |date=1977 |publisher=University of Pennsylvania Press |isbn=0-8122-7718-X |editor-last=Stow |editor-first=George B. |location=Philadelphia}}
* {{Cite book |last=Tuck |first=Anthony |title=Crown and Nobility 1272–1461: Political Conflict in Late Medieval England |date=1985 |publisher=Fontana |isbn=0-0068-6084-2 |location=London |author-link=Anthony Tuck|url=https://archive.org/details/crownnobility1270000tuck_m5s4/page/n5/mode/2up}}
* {{Cite book |last=Walsingham |first=Thomas |title=Historia Anglicana |date=1862–1864 |publisher=Longman, Roberts, and Green |editor-last=Riley |editor-first=H.T. |editor-link=Henry Thomas Riley |location=London|ol=15966037W |author-link=Thomas Walsingham}}
{{Refend}}

== External links ==
{{wikisource|works=or}}
{{Commons category|Richard II of England}}
{{Wikiquote}}
* [https://www.royal.uk/richard-ii Richard II] at the official website of the [[British monarchy]]
* {{Cite web |title=Richard II's treasure |url=https://archives.history.ac.uk/richardII/index.html |publisher=The [[Institute of Historical Research]] / [[Royal Holloway, University of London]]}}
* {{Cite web |title=Richard II's Irish chancery rolls |url=http://www.irishchancery.net/browse_CIRCLE.php |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120319150907/http://www.irishchancery.net/browse_CIRCLE.php |archive-date=19 March 2012 |publisher=CIRCLE |quote=listed by year, translated |edition=online}}
* {{Cite AV media |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/p0038x8s |title=The Peasants' Revolt |date=16 November 2006 |type=radio programme |publisher=BBC Radio&nbsp;4 |series=In Our Time |people=Miri Rubin, Caroline Barron & Alastair Dunn (discussion with)}}
* [https://www.bbc.co.uk/history/historic_figures/richard_ii_king.shtml Richard II] at BBC History
* {{NPG name|name=King Richard II}}

{{S-start}}
{{S-hou|[[House of Plantagenet]]|6 January|1367|14 February|1400}}
{{S-reg}}
{{S-bef|rows=2|before=[[Edward III]]}}
{{S-ttl|title=[[King of England]]<br/>[[Lord of Ireland]]|years=1377–1399}}
{{S-aft|after=[[Henry IV of England|Henry IV]]}}
|-
{{S-ttl|title=[[Duke of Aquitaine]]|years=1377–1390}}
{{S-aft|after=[[John of Gaunt]]}}
{{S-reg|en}}
{{S-break}}
{{S-vac|last=English title:[[Edward the Black Prince]]<br/>Welsh title: [[Dafydd ap Gruffudd]] (1283)}}
{{S-ttl|title=[[Prince of Wales]]|years=1376–1377}}
{{S-vac|next=English title:[[Henry of Monmouth]]<br/>Welsh title: [[Owain Glyndwr]] (Pretender 1400/15)}}
{{S-end}}

{{House of Plantagenet}}
{{English and British monarchs}}
{{Princes of Wales}}
{{Dukes of Cornwall}}
{{Norman Dukes}}
{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Richard 02 Of England}}
[[Category:Richard II of England| ]]
[[Category:1367 births]]
[[Category:1400 deaths]]
[[Category:14th-century English monarchs]]
[[Category:14th-century murdered monarchs]]
[[Category:14th-century English nobility]]
[[Category:14th-century princes of Wales]]
[[Category:14th-century dukes of Cornwall]]
[[Category:14th-century dukes of Aquitaine]]
[[Category:Burials at Westminster Abbey]]
[[Category:Children of Edward the Black Prince]]
[[Category:Deaths by starvation]]
[[Category:English pretenders to the French throne]]
[[Category:English Roman Catholics]]
[[Category:House of Plantagenet]]
[[Category:Knights of the Garter]]
[[Category:Medieval child monarchs]]
[[Category:Monarchs who abdicated]]
[[Category:Peasants' Revolt]]
[[Category:Peers created by Edward III of England]]
[[Category:People from Bordeaux]]
[[Category:Prisoners in the Tower of London]]
[[Category:Royal reburials]]
[[Category:Heads of state and government who were later imprisoned]]