View source for Romanization of Korean

{{Short description|Writing Korean using the Latin script}}
{{for|the official system of romanization in North Korea|Romanization of Korean (North Korean system)}}
{{Use mdy dates|date=August 2024}}
[[File:Specimen Personal Information Page South Korean Passport.jpg|thumb|A specimen of the identity information page of a [[South Korean passport]], displaying the romanization of the bearer's name (Lee Suyeon) for international legibility.]]
{{Korean romanization}}

The '''romanization of Korean''' is the use of the [[Latin script]] to transcribe the [[Korean language]].

There are multiple romanization systems in common use. The two most prominent systems are [[McCune–Reischauer]] (MR) and [[Revised Romanization of Korean|Revised Romanization]] (RR). MR is almost universally used in academic [[Korean studies]], and a variant of it has been [[Romanization of Korean (North Korean system)|the official system of North Korea]] since 1992. RR is the official system of [[South Korea]] and has been in use since 2000.

The earliest romanization systems for Korean emerged around the mid-19th century. Due to a number of factors, including the properties of the Korean language and alphabet, as well as social and geopolitical issues, a single settled standard did not emerge. By 1934, there were 27 extant romanization systems, and by 1997, there were over 40.

==Major systems==
The following systems are currently the most widely used:
* [[McCune–Reischauer]] ("MR"; 1939): Basis for various romanization systems. Almost universally used by international academic journals on [[Korean studies]].{{Sfn|Huh|2017|p=81}}
** [[Romanization of Korean (North Korea)|Romanization of Korean]] (1992): The official romanization in North Korea, with some differences from the original MR.
** [[ALA-LC romanization for Korean]], first published in 1997{{Sfn|Huh|2017|p=82}} and revised in 2009, is a modification of MR made for use in libraries. It was developed by the [[American Library Association]] (ALA) and [[Library of Congress]] (LC).{{Sfn|ALA-LC|2025|p=1}}
*[[Revised Romanization of Korean]] ("RR"; 2000): South Korea's official romanization system.{{Sfn|Lee|2001|p=246, 255}}
* [[Yale romanization of Korean]] (1942): Standard for almost exclusively international [[linguistics|linguists]].{{Sfn|Fouser|1999|p=|pp=164–165}}

== History ==
[[File:Nippon, by Philipp Franz von Siebold (15438351).jpg|thumb|[[Philipp Franz von Siebold]]'s first romanization system for Korean, published 1832]]
Possibly the earliest romanization system for Korean was an 1832 system by the German doctor [[Philipp Franz von Siebold]], who was living in [[Japan]].{{Sfn|Fouser|1999|p=159}} Another early romanization system was an 1835 unnamed and unpublished system by missionary [[Walter Henry Medhurst]] that was used in his translation of a book on the [[Chinese language|Chinese]], [[Korean language|Korean]], and [[Japanese language|Japanese]] languages.{{Sfn|Holstein|1999|p=3}}{{Efn|English title of work was ''Translation of a comparative Vocabulary of the Chinese, Corean and Japanese, to Which is Added the thousand Character Classic, in Chinese and Corean, the Whole Accompanied by Copious Indexes of All the Chinese and English Words Occurring in the Work''. It was a translation of an 18th century text by the [[Joseon]] government agency [[Bureau of Interpreters]]. Holstein claims this is the first romanization system,{{sfn|Holstein|1999|pp=12–13}} but Fouser provides an earlier example.{{Sfn|Fouser|1999|p=159}}}} Medhurst's romanization scheme was otherwise not significantly used.{{Sfn|Holstein|1999|pp=1–3}} In 1874, the Dallet system was introduced; it was based around French-language [[phonology]]. It was the first to use the digraphs ''eo'' and ''eu'',{{Sfn|Holstein|1999|pp=|p=3}}{{Sfn|Fouser|1999|p=|pp=159–160}} and the first to use [[diacritic]]s for Korean romanization; it used the [[Grave accent|grave]] and [[Acute accent|acute]] accents over the letter "e".{{Sfn|Fouser|1999|p=160}} The first system to see significant usage was the Ross system, named for [[John Ross (missionary)|John Ross]], which was designed in 1882. It saw adoption by missionaries.{{Sfn|Holstein|1999|pp=1–3}}

In 1897, [[James Scarth Gale]] introduced his system in his work ''[[A Korean-English Dictionary]]''.{{Sfn|Holstein|1999|pp=|p=3}} This system went on to achieve some adoption; it was reportedly adopted by the ''[[Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies]]''. In spite of this, some scholars found issues with these early systems.{{Sfn|McCune|Reischauer|1939|p=|pp=2–3}}{{Sfn|Holstein|1999|pp=|p=3}} More systems by Westerners emerged, based on English, French, and German phonology. Japanese scholars also developed their own romanizations for Korean, many of which were built on the work of Siebold and Dallet.{{Sfn|Fouser|1999|p=|pp=160–161}} In 1933, the first romanization system developed by Koreans, which was appended to the [[Unified Han'gŭl Orthography System]], was promulgated by the Korean Language Society.{{Sfn|Fouser|1999|p=161|pp=}} In 1935, {{Ill|Jeong In-seop|ko|정인섭}} published "The International Phonetic Transcription of Korean Speech Sounds".{{Sfn|Holstein|1999|pp=|p=3}}

Systems continued to be developed to address various perceived shortcomings in other systems. By 1934, according to Japanese linguist [[Shinpei Ogura]]'s count, there were at least 27 extant systems.{{Sfn|McCune|Reischauer|1939|p=2}} Whereas [[Hepburn romanization]] had already become the widely accepted standard for the [[romanization of Japanese]] by the 1930s, Korean continued to lack such a standard. This led to significant diversity and inconsistencies in romanizations, not only between scholars but reportedly even within the writings of individual authors.{{Sfn|McCune|Reischauer|1939|p=1}}

=== Challenges for developing a standard romanization ===
The task of developing a standard romanization scheme for Korean was complicated by a number of factors.{{Sfn|McCune|Reischauer|1939|pp=2–3}}

Even into the 20th century, there were significant variations in the pronunciation and spelling of the Korean language and Hangul respectively, often due to the [[Korean dialects|dialects of Korean]].{{Sfn|McCune|Reischauer|1939|pp=4–5}} Attempts were made to standardize the Korean language, but these efforts were made by multiple authorities. Two rivaling societies for standardizing Korean emerged: the [[Korean Language Society]] ({{Korean|hangul=조선어학회|labels=no}}) and the [[Chŏson Ŏhak Yŏn'guhoe]] ({{Korean|hangul=조선어학연구회|labels=no}}); they published separate guidances.{{Sfn|McCune|Reischauer|1939|pp=5–6}} Eventually, the Korean Language Society's standard became the basis for the standards of both North and South Korea.{{Sfn|Fouser|1999|p=157}} Other references for spelling included those used in Gale's dictionary, guidances from the [[Government-General of Chōsen]], and a French dictionary.{{Sfn|McCune|Reischauer|1939|p=7}}

Other challenges were fundamental to properties of the Korean language and script, which make the language not easily mappable onto the Latin script. McCune and Reischauer claimed in 1939 that there are eight to ten vowels in Korean (this topic was still debated by that point). As there are only five vowels in the Latin script, the other vowel sounds had to be rendered either using multiple letters in the form of [[Digraph (orthography)|digraphs]] (e.g. ''eo'' for {{Korean|hangul=ㅓ|labels=no}}) or by using [[diacritic]]s.{{Sfn|McCune|Reischauer|1939|pp=9–12}} Also, in many cases, pronunciation does not exactly match what is written in Hangul; similar phenomena occurs with all other major scripts as well. For example, due to [[Assimilation (phonology)|linguistic assimilation]], the state [[Silla]] is written in Korean as {{Korean|hangul=신라|labels=no}} ({{Transliteration|ko|sin-la}}), but pronounced {{Translit|ko|sil-la}}.{{Sfn|McCune|Reischauer|1939|pp=20–21, 23}}

Some challenges were social and geopolitical. Reportedly, early scholars often wrote about Korea from [[Sinocentrism|Sinocentric]] or Japanese perspectives; Korean place names were often rendered using pronunciations from the Chinese or Japanese languages. Furthermore, after [[Korea under Japanese rule|Korea went under Japanese rule]], the "official" names of many places were considered to be those in the Japanese language.{{Sfn|McCune|Reischauer|1939|pp=2–3}} In addition, the [[Government-General of Chōsen|Japanese colonial government]] implemented various restrictions on the use of the Korean language around the mid-1930s; the [[Korean Language Society incident|Korean Language Society was also persecuted in one incident]].{{Sfn|Fouser|1999|p=161}}

Regardless of romanization systems, many Koreans chose and continue to choose to spell their names in Latin script in an ''ad hoc'' manner. For example, [[Lee (Korean surname)|이/리 (李)]] is variously romanized as ''Lee'', ''Yi'', ''I'', or ''Rhee''. In some cases, single families romanized their surnames differently on [[South Korean passport]]s. For example, within a single {{lang|ko|심}} family, a father's surname was rendered as "Shim" and the son's as "Sim".<ref>{{cite news |author=김용 |date=2023-07-12 |script-title=ko:아버지 성은 'SHIM', 아들은 'SIM'...'헤라클래스' 부자에 무슨 사연이? |trans-title=Father's surname is Shim, son's is Sim... What is the story behind the "Hercules" father and son? |url=https://sports.news.naver.com/news.nhn?oid=076&aid=0004030620 |publisher=[[Sports Chosun]] |language=ko |quote=심정수는 이주 과정에서 여권 신청서를 작성할 때 실수로 아들들의 성을 'SIM'으로 적었다고 한다. 뒤늦게 실수를 알았지만, 다시 이름을 바꾸기는 어려웠다. |trans-quote=When [[Shim Jeong-soo]] was applying for his sons' passports to go abroad, he mistakenly wrote their surname as "SIM". He later realized his mistake, but it was too late to change.}}</ref>

=== McCune–Reischauer ===
{{Main article|McCune–Reischauer}}

McCune–Reischauer (MR) is a system that was first introduced in 1939, in the journal ''[[Transactions of the Royal Asiatic Society Korea Branch]]''.{{Sfn|Holstein|1999|pp=|p=2}}{{Sfn|McCune|Reischauer|1939|p=}} It is named for [[George M. McCune]] and [[Edwin O. Reischauer]]; the two developed the system together in consultation with Korean linguists [[Choe Hyeon-bae]], {{Ill|Jeong In-seop|ko|정인섭}}, and {{Ill|Kim Seon-gi (linguist)|lt=Kim Seon-gi|ko|김선기 (언어철학자)}}.{{Sfn|McCune|Reischauer|1939|p=1}}{{Sfn|Holstein|1999|pp=|p=3}}

The system has proved controversial with especially native Korean speakers. It had been developed mainly for use in Western academia, and reflected pronunciation rules that many Koreans were not consciously aware of, as they are not reflected in Hangul.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Sohn |first=Ho-Min |author-link=Ho-min Sohn |date=August 1982 |title=Romanization of Korean : A Cross-Phonemic Approach |url=https://www.dbpia.co.kr/Journal/articleDetail?nodeId=NODE09374233 |journal=[[Korea Journal]] |language=en |volume=22 |issue=8 |pages=52–55 |issn=0023-3900 |via=[[DBpia]]}}</ref>{{Sfn|Fouser|1999|pp=162–164}}<ref name=":12">{{Cite web |author=김기중 |year=1986 |script-title=ko:現行 “로마字 表記法”의 문제점 – McCune-Reischauer System을 비판함 |trans-title=Problems of the current romanization system – Criticizing the McCune–Reischauer system |url=https://www.riss.kr/link?id=A19647790 |publisher=[[Gwangju University]] |language=ko |pp=8–9}}</ref> Linguist Robert J. Fouser argued that another point of contention was related to nationalism; some disliked that the system had been developed by foreigners during the Japanese colonial period, and wanted a natively developed alternative.{{Sfn|Fouser|1999|p=166}}

=== After the liberation and division of Korea ===
With 1945 came the [[liberation of Korea]], as well as [[Division of Korea|its division]]. [[North–South differences in the Korean language|Both Koreas began to develop separate language standards]].{{Sfn|Fouser|1999|p=162|pp=}} South Korea adopted MR in 1948.{{Sfn|Holstein|1999|p=3}}{{Sfn|Lee|1982|p=5}} According to Reischauer, McCune "persuaded the American [[Army Map Service]] to adopt [the McCune–Reischauer system], and through the Korean War it became the foundation for most current Romanizations of Korean place names".<ref>{{cite book |last=Reischauer |first=Edwin O. |title=My Life between Japan and America |publisher=Harper & Row |year=1986 |isbn=0-06-039054-9 |location=New York |page=70}}</ref> Just after the 1950–1953 [[Korean War]], romanization was seen as a minor concern, compared to improving domestic literacy in Hangul.{{Sfn|Fouser|1999|p=162|pp=}} Meanwhile, romanization systems continued to emerge; by 1997, there were more than 40 romanization systems.{{Sfn|Holstein|1999|pp=1–2}}

In 1956, North Korea became the first of the two Koreas to design a new official romanization system. This system combines features of the Dallet and 1933 Unified systems. It was revised in 1986.{{Sfn|Fouser|1999|p=162|pp=}}

In 1959, the {{Ill|Ministry of Education (South Korea, 1948–1990)|lt=South Korean Ministry of Education|ko|대한민국 문교부}} published a romanization system, which has since been dubbed the [[Ministry of Education romanization of Korean|Ministry of Education system]] (MOE).{{Sfn|Fouser|1999|p=162}}{{Sfn|Holstein|1999|pp=4–5}} The system received immediate backlash, mainly from foreigners. Fouser evaluated the system as prioritizing use for Koreans; it had a one-to-one correspondence from Hangul to Latin script, and did not account for the pronunciation changes that Hangul itself did not reflect. The system also tended to produce romanizations that bore superficial resemblance to words in English, some of which were seen as odd or humorous, such as [[Independence Gate|''Dogribmun'']] ({{Korean/auto|hangul=^독립문|rr=yes|mr=yes|links=no}}), which superficially evokes the [[Rib cage|ribs]] of [[Dog|dogs]].{{Sfn|Fouser|1999|pp=162–163}}<ref name="Chosun 1983">{{Cite news |url=https://newslibrary.naver.com/viewer/index.naver?articleId=1983031900239102013 |via=[[Naver News Library]] |newspaper=[[The Chosun Ilbo]] |date=1983-03-19 |title=한글의 로마字 表記 |lang=ko}}</ref> The Ministry of Education met in 1978 and 1979 and drafted several alterations to the system, although these did not come to pass allegedly because of political turmoil around that time.{{Sfn|Klein|1982|p=19}}{{Sfn|Lee|1982|p=5}} Eventually, the South Korean government began considering whether to use a more foreigner-friendly system in anticipation of the [[1988 Summer Olympics]], which were to be held in Seoul.{{Sfn|Fouser|1999|p=|pp=163–164}}{{Sfn|Kim|1999|p=453}} Various attempts were made to measure objective and subjective metrics of the various systems, for example how frequently systems deviated from expected pronunciation{{Sfn|Lee|1982|p=6}} or which systems produced the most accurate pronunciations by foreigners.{{Sfn|Klein|1982|pp=20–21}} In 1984, a slightly revised version of McCune–Reischauer was adopted,{{Sfn|Fouser|1999|p=|pp=163–164}}{{Sfn|Kim|1999|p=453}} to pushback from Koreans.{{Sfn|Fouser|1999|p=|pp=163–164}} 

In 1968, [[Samuel E. Martin]] introduced a system that has since been dubbed the [[Yale romanization of Korean|Yale system]]. The system became widely adopted by the international academic linguistics community, although few others adopted it. Fouser argues that while the system allowed for [[Romanization#Methods|reversibility]], it is "unsightly", is suited to those who already know Hangul, and does not adequately communicate pronunciation, even in comparison to the MOE system.{{Sfn|Fouser|1999|p=|pp=164–165}}

==== Computer age ====
With the spread of [[computer]]s and the [[Internet]] by the 1980s and 1990s, complaints about MR grew.{{Sfn|Fouser|1999|p=|pp=165–166}} The breves used in MR are not easily accessible on a standard keyboard. Some took to replacing the breve with alternate characters or simply omitting it altogether; the diversity of practice and ambiguity if breves were not used led to confusion.{{Sfn|Fouser|1999|p=|pp=165–166}}{{Sfn|Doll|2017|p=8}} In 1986, the [[International Organization for Standardization]] (ISO) requested both North and South Korea to work together on developing a standard romanization. The two countries held a series of meetings, during which they failed to reach a consensus.{{Sfn|Fouser|1999|p=166|pp=}}

Some created new systems and others proposed reverting to previous systems.{{Sfn|Holstein|1999|p=2|pp=}}{{Sfn|Fouser|1999|p=|pp=167–169}} In 1991, the South Korean [[National Academy of the Korean Language]] (NAKL; {{Korean|hangul=국립국어연구원|labels=no}}) proposed its own new system. Concurrently, Bok Moon Kim produced {{ill|Bok Moon Kim romanization of Korean|ko|김복문 로마자 표기법|lt=his own romanization system}}.{{Sfn|Fouser|1999|p=|pp=167–169}} Despite Kim's advocacy for his system, it never saw widespread adoption; some of the romanizations it produced (e.g. "Dongnipmoon") were mocked in the press for seeming humorous.<ref>{{Cite magazine |last=Duffy |first=Michael |date=November 1997 |title=The Romanization Debate and English Education |url=https://koreatesol.org/sites/default/files/pdf_publications/TECv1n4-9711.pdf |access-date=2025-07-14 |magazine=The Newsletter of Korea Teachers of English to Speakers of Other Languages |page=8–9 |volume=1 |issue=4}}</ref> In 1997, the South Korean government began moving to revise or switch romanization systems. The topic was hotly debated in South Korean press and foreigner communities. One point of concern was on the estimated expenses needed to repaint all road signs with new romanizations.{{Sfn|Fouser|1999|pp=166–167}}

In 1997, the National Academy of the Korean Language System was proposed.{{Sfn|Fouser|1999|p=|pp=169–170}} It was jointly proposed by the National Commission of Romanization of Korean and the [[National Institute of Korean Language|Academy of Korean Language]]. The system is transliteral in nature; journalist Choe Yong-shik of ''The Korea Times'' alleged that the system was designed without the input of non-Koreans and mostly meant for ease of use for Koreans.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Choe |first=Yong-shik |date=1997-05-26 |title=Proposed Hangul Romanization Plan Unrealistic, Impractical |work=[[The Korea Times]] |pages=1, 10}}</ref> Under that system, ''Tongnimmun'' is rendered ''Dogribmun''.<ref>{{Cite news |date=1997-05-29 |title=Hangul Romanization Plan |work=[[The Korea Times]] |pages=6}}</ref>

=== Revised Romanization of Korean ===
{{Main article|Revised Romanization of Korean}}

On July 7, 2000, the NAKL and [[Ministry of Culture and Tourism (South Korea)|Ministry of Culture and Tourism]] announced that South Korea would adopt a new system: Revised Romanization (RR).{{Sfn|Lee|2001|p=246, 255}} Road signs and textbooks were required to follow these rules as soon as possible, at a cost estimated by the government to be at least US$500–600 million.<ref>{{cite web |date=2000-09-01 |script-title=ko:2005년까지 연차적으로 도로표지판을 바꾸는 데 5000억~6000억원이 들고 |url=http://monthly.chosun.com/client/news/viw.asp?ctcd=&nNewsNumb=200009100029 |access-date=2019-05-22 |publisher=[[Monthly Chosun]]}}</ref>

In a 2020 book, linguists Sungdai Cho and John Whitman argued that RR's lack of diacritics has "helped it gain widespread acceptance on the Internet".{{Sfn|Cho|Whitman|2020|p=326}}
== Romanization systems of the Soviet Union ==
Around the late 1920s to 1930s, the [[Latinisation in the Soviet Union|Soviet Latinization movement]], which sought to standardize use of variants of the [[Latin script]] across the Soviet Union, unsuccessfully attempted to supplant Hangul as the primary script for Korean.{{Sfn|King|2024|pp=61–64}} Koreans publicly debated whether to Latinize (i.e. use a romanization system in place of Hangul), with some publishing articles in the newspaper ''[[Koryo Ilbo|Sŏnbong]]''.{{Sfn|King|1992|pp=8–9}} According to an 1931 article by B. K. Pashkov, a 1930 meeting by Korean members of the [[Communist Party of the Soviet Union|Communist Party]] and [[Komsomol]] in Vladivostok concluded with a resolution to Latinize as soon as possible. Meanwhile, Russian scholars and bureaucrats also began proposing the same.{{Sfn|King|1992|pp=13–16}}

The below plans were debated, with alternatives proposed, including ones by Kim Naksŏn ({{Lang|ko|김낙선}}) and Pak Yŏngbin ({{Lang|ko|박영빈}}).{{Sfn|King|1992|pp=29–34}} Overall, such proposals were never widely adopted, and were often received coldly by Koreans. Around 1934, the overall Soviet Latinization movement began to decline.{{Sfn|King|1992|pp=42–45}}

=== Maritime Committee romanization ===
The first Soviet romanization scheme was the Maritime Committee romanization scheme, which published in November 1931 by the Maritime Committee based in [[Khabarovsk]]. Its Korean name was given as {{Korean/auto|hangul=^라텐화한_^고려_글@자_초안<!--글자 is pronounced [글짜]-->|mr=yes|labels=no|order=mh|out=yes}}.{{Sfn|King|1992|pp=18–20}}
{| class="wikitable"
!Latin
|a
|b
|c
|d
|e
|f
|g
|h
|i
|j
|k
|l
|m
|n
|ng
|o
|p
|r
|s
|t
|u
|j
|v
|w
|x
|y
|z
|ch
|kh
|th
|ph
|-
![[Hangul]]
|{{lang|ko|ㅏ}}
|{{lang|ko|ㅂ}}
|{{lang|ko|ㅉ}}
|{{lang|ko|ㄷ}}
|{{lang|ko|ㅓ}}
|{{lang|ko|ㅍ}}
|{{lang|ko|ㄱ}}
|{{lang|ko|ㅎ}}
|{{lang|ko|ㅣ}}
|{{lang|ko|ㅣ}}
|{{lang|ko|ㄱ}}
|{{lang|ko|ㄹㄹ}}
|{{lang|ko|ㅁ}}
|{{lang|ko|ㄴ}}
|{{lang|ko|ㅇ}}
|{{lang|ko|ㅗ}}
|{{lang|ko|ㅃ}}
|{{lang|ko|ㄹ}}
|{{lang|ko|ㅅ}}
|{{lang|ko|ㄸ}}
|{{lang|ko|ㅜ}}
|{{lang|ko|ㅡ}}
|{{lang|ko|ㅂ}}
|{{lang|ko|ㅜ}}
|{{lang|ko|ㅆ}}
|{{lang|ko|ㅣ}}
|{{lang|ko|ㅈ}}
|{{lang|ko|ㅊ}}
|{{lang|ko|ㅋ}}
|{{lang|ko|ㅌ}}
|{{lang|ko|ㅍ}}
|}
J and w are [[Semivowel|semivowels]] used before vowels to make [[Diphthong|diphthongs]] (e.g. ''ja'' for {{lang|ko|ㅑ}} and ''wy'' for {{lang|ko|ㅟ}}). Y is a [[short vowel]] used after vowels to make diphthongs (e.g. ''oy'' for {{lang|ko|ㅚ}} and йy for {{lang|ko|ㅢ}}). An [[apostrophe]] (') is used to prevent occurrences of ''ng'' that aren't meant to represent {{lang|ko|ㅇ}} from being read this way, for example ''chen{{'}}ge'' for {{lang|ko|천거}} (without the apostrophe, ambiguous with {{lang|ko|청어}}).{{Sfn|King|1992|pp=18–20}}

=== Moscow romanization ===
The Moscow romanization scheme was published around the same time as the Maritime Committee scheme in 1931.{{sfn|King|1992|pp=21–22}}
{| class="wikitable"
!Latin
|A
|ə
|B
|C
|Ch
|D
|E
|ь
|G
|H
|I
|J
|K
|Kh
|L
|M
|N
|O
|Ø
|P
|Ph
|R
|S
|Sh
|T
|Th
|U
|W
|Y
|Z
|n
|-
![[Hangul]]
|{{lang|ko|ㅏ}}
|{{lang|ko|ㅐ}}
|{{lang|ko|ㅂ}}
|{{lang|ko|ㅉ}}
|{{lang|ko|ㅊ}}
|{{lang|ko|ㄷ}}
|{{lang|ko|ㅔ}}
|{{lang|ko|ㅓ}}
|{{lang|ko|ㄱ}}
|{{lang|ko|ㅎ}}
|{{lang|ko|ㅣ}}
|{{lang|ko|ㅣ}}
|{{lang|ko|ㄲ}}
|{{lang|ko|ㅋ}}
|{{lang|ko|ㄹㄹ}}
|{{lang|ko|ㅁ}}
|{{lang|ko|ㄴ}}
|{{lang|ko|ㅗ}}
|{{lang|ko|ㅚ}}
|{{lang|ko|ㅃ}}
|{{lang|ko|ㅍ}}
|{{lang|ko|ㄹ}}
|{{lang|ko|ㅆ}}
|{{lang|ko|ㅅ}}
|{{lang|ko|ㄸ}}
|{{lang|ko|ㅌ}}
|{{lang|ko|ㅜ}}
|{{lang|ko|ㅜ}}
|{{lang|ko|ㅣ}}
|{{lang|ko|ㅈ}}
|{{lang|ko|ㅇ}}
|}
While some diphthongs are represened by single symbols (e.g. Ø for {{lang|ko|ㅚ}}), others are represented by joining the semi-vowels j and w to other vowels (e.g. ''jь'' for {{lang|ko|ㅕ}} and ''wj'' for {{lang|ko|ㅟ}}).{{sfn|King|1992|pp=21–22}}

=== O Sŏngmuk romanization ===
[[Goryeo ware|Koryo-saram]] O Sŏngmuk ({{Korean|hangul=오성묵|hanja=吳成默|labels=no}}) devised his own romanization system, which is attested to in a surviving 1932 publication entitled ''First Steps in Latinized Korean'' ({{Korean|hangul=라ᄶᅵᆫ화한 고려글 자란이독본|labels=no}}; ''Latinizirovannyi Koreiskii Bukvar’''). The system used two letters from [[Cyrillic script|Cyrillic]].{{sfn|King|2024|pp=61–67}}

: Vowels: a {{Lang|ko|ㅏ}}, e {{Lang|ko|ㅔ}},  ə {{Lang|ko|ㅐ}}, i {{Lang|ko|ㅣ}}, o {{Lang|ko|ㅗ}}, ø {{Lang|ko|ㅚ}}, u {{Lang|ko|ㅜ}}, y {{Lang|ko|ㅡ}}, Ь {{Lang|ko|ㅓ}}
: Semi-vowels: j, w
: Consonants: b {{lang|ko|ㅂ}}, c {{lang|ko|ㅉ}}, d {{lang|ko|ㄷ}}, g {{lang|ko|ㄱ}}, h {{lang|ko|ㅎ}}, k {{lang|ko|ㄲ}}, l {{lang|ko|ㄹㄹ}}, m {{lang|ko|ㅁ}}, n {{lang|ko|ㄴ}}, ŋ {{lang|ko|-ㅇ}}, p {{lang|ko|ㅃ}}, r {{lang|ko|ㄹ}}, s {{lang|ko|ㅆ}}, t {{lang|ko|ㄸ}}, z {{lang|ko|ㅅ}}, з {{lang|ko|ㅈ}}.

For example, {{lang|ko|온 세게 프롤레따리들은 단합하라!}} was rendered as ''On zege proletaridyryn danhab hara!'' and {{lang|ko|새 글짜 전동맹 중앙위원회 발행}} was rendered as ''SӘ GRCA ЗЬNDOŊMӘŊ ZUŊAŊWIWЬNHØ BARHӘŊ''.{{sfn|King|2024|pp=61–67}}

O's proposal was approved and published by the All-Union Central Committee for the New Alphabet in Moscow. However, it was likely rejected at some point afterwards.{{Sfn|King|1992|pp=29–34}}

=== Kholodovich romanization ===

{{ill|Aleksandr Kholodovich|ru|Холодович, Александр Алексеевич}} proposed the following romanization scheme in 1935:{{Sfn|King|1992|pp=39–42}}
{| class="wikitable"
!Latin script 
!a
!ʙ
!d
!e
!æ
!g
!h
!i
!y
!k
!kh
!l
!r
!m
!n
!ng
!o
!ө
!ə
!p
!ph
!s
!t
!th
!u
!z
|-
![[Hangul]]
|ㅏ
|ㅂ
|ㄷ
|ㅔ
|ㅐ
|ㄱ
|ㅎ
|ㅣ
|ㅡ
|ㄲ
|ㅋ
|ᄙ
|ㄹ
|ㅁ
|ㄴ
|ㅇ
|ㅗ
|ㅚ
|ㅓ
|ㅃ
|ㅍ
|ㅆ
|ㄸ
|ㅌ
|ㅜ
|ㅅ
|}

==List of romanization systems ==
* Siebold romanization (1832){{Sfn|Fouser|1999|p=159|pp=}}
* Medhurst romanization (1835){{Sfn|Holstein|1999|p=3}}
* Dallet system (1874){{Sfn|Fouser|1999|p=159|pp=}}<ref>{{Cite web |title=Charles Dallet, Histoire |url=http://anthony.sogang.ac.kr/Dallet/Index.html |access-date=2024-01-19 |website=anthony.sogang.ac.kr}}</ref>
* {{ill|Félix-Clair Ridel|fr}} dictionary (1880)<ref>{{Cite book |last=Société des missions étrangères |url=http://archive.org/details/DictionnaireCoren-franais |title=Dictionnaire coréen-français}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Société asiatique (Paris |first=France) |date=1864 |title=Aperçu de la langue coréenne |url=https://fr.wikisource.org/wiki/Aper%C3%A7u_de_la_langue_cor%C3%A9enne |journal=Journal asiatique |pages=287–325}}</ref>
* Ross system (1882){{Sfn|Holstein|1999|pp=1–3}}
* [[A Korean-English Dictionary|Gale system]] (1897){{Sfn|Holstein|1999|pp=|p=3}}
* Eckardt system (1923){{Sfn|Lee|2001|p=249}}
* Maritime Committee romanization (1931){{Sfn|King|1992|pp=18–20}}
* Moscow romanization (1931){{sfn|King|1992|pp=21–22}}
* O Sŏngmuk romanization (1932){{sfn|King|2024|pp=61–67}}
* [[Unified Han'gŭl Orthography System]] appendix (1933){{Sfn|Fouser|1999|p=161|pp=}}
* Ogura system (1934){{Sfn|Lee|2001|p=249}}
* Jung romanization (1935{{Sfn|Lee|1982|p=6}} or 1936){{Sfn|Fouser|1999|p=161|pp=}}
* Kholodovich romanization{{Sfn|King|1992|pp=39–42}}
* [[McCune–Reischauer]] (1939){{Sfn|Holstein|1999|pp=|p=2}}
** [[ALA-LC romanization]]
** Ministry of Education system ("MOE-1984"; 1984){{Sfn|Kim|1999|p=445}}
* [[Lukoff romanization of Korean|Lukoff romanization]] (1945), developed by [[Fred Lukoff]]{{Sfn|Lee|2001|p=249}}<ref name="FredLukoff">{{cite web |title=Korean Romanization Reference |url=http://www.glossika.com/en/dict/korpin.php |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090926081646/http://www.glossika.com/en/dict/korpin.php |archive-date=September 26, 2009}}</ref>
* Ministry of Education system ("MOE-1959"; 1959){{Sfn|Lee|2001|p=249}}{{Sfn|Kim|1999|p=445}}
* The Shibu Shohei System (1961)<ref>{{Cite web |title=Shibu Shohei System of Korean Romanisation |url=https://www.tufs.ac.jp/ts/personal/choes/korean/middle/Esibu.html |access-date=2024-01-19 |website=www.tufs.ac.jp}}</ref>
* [[Yale romanization of Korean]] (1968){{Sfn|Lee|2001|p=249}}
* Korean Language Society ("KLS-1984"; 1984){{Sfn|Kim|1999|p=445}}
* Korean Romanization for Data Application (1992)<ref>{{Cite web |title=KORDA |url=https://help.keyman.com/keyboard/korda/2.1/About%20KORDA.pdf}}</ref>
* You Mahn-gun's System (1992){{Sfn|Fouser|1999|p=172|pp=}}
* Korean romanization of [[Institut national des langues et civilisations orientales|INALCO]] (1992)<ref>{{Cite book |last=Shim |first=Sheung-ja |title=Dictionnaire français-coréen |url=https://search.worldcat.org/pt/title/406882036 |publisher=L'Asiathèque |year=1992 |isbn=9782901795476 |location=Paris |publication-date=1992 |pages=240 |language=French}}</ref>
* Lee Hyun Bok's Computer-Communication System (1994){{Sfn|Fouser|1999|p=171|pp=}}
* {{ill|Bok Moon Kim romanization|ko|김복문 로마자 표기법}} (1996)
* HanSe System (1996){{Sfn|Fouser|1999|p=|pp=170–171}}
* [[ISO/TR 11941]] (1996): This actually is two different standards under one name: one for North Korea (DPRK) and the other for South Korea (ROK).{{Sfn|Kim|1999|p=445}} The initial submission to the ISO was based heavily on Yale and was a joint effort between both states, but they could not agree on the final draft.{{Citation needed|date=July 2025}} Linguists Sungdai Cho and John Whitman claimed the system was never adopted by any organization or state and never saw significant use.{{Sfn|Cho|Whitman|2020|p=55}}
* National Academy of the Korean Language System (1997){{Sfn|Fouser|1999|p=|pp=169–170}}
* [[Revised Romanization of Korean]] (2000){{Sfn|Lee|2001|p=246}}

==Comparison of various systems==
{| class="wikitable"
|+ Comparison of romanization of consonants<ref name="EoL">{{cite book
|chapter=Korean |given=Hideki |surname=Noma |pages=579–584
|title=Encyclopedia of Linguistics |volume=1
|editor-given=Philipp |editor-surname=Strazny
|publisher=Taylor & Francis |year=2005| isbn=978-1-57958-450-4
}}</ref><ref name="UNGEGN">{{cite web
|title=Updates to the Report on the Current Status of UN Romanization Systems for Geographic Names
|publisher=United Nations |year=2004
|pages=20–22
|url=https://unstats.un.org/Unsd/geoinfo/UNGEGN/docs/22-GEGN-Docs/wp/gegn22wp48.pdf
|access-date=30 September 2019
}}</ref><ref name=":1">{{Cite web |title=Argument for horizontal writing of Hangul |url=http://www.hangeul.or.kr/html/nmf/han_50/12220.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140307225247/http://www.hangeul.or.kr/html/nmf/han_50/12220.pdf# |archive-date=March 7, 2014}}</ref>{{sfn|King|2024|p=}}
|-
! Hangul !! IPA !! RR !! MR !! Yale !! DPRK 
!USSR!! KORDA !! Shibu !! Han!! Lukoff !! Mahngun 
|-
| ㅁ || {{IPA|/m/}} ||m||m||m||m
|m||m||m||m||m||m
|-
| ㅂ || {{IPA|/p/}} ||b/p{{efn|name=rr-stop|The first alternative is used before a vowel; the second is used elsewhere.}}||p/b||p||p
|b||b||b||b||p||b
|-
| ㅃ || {{IPA|/p͈/}} ||pp||pp||pp||pp
|p||bb||bb||bb||pp||p
|-
| ㅍ || {{IPA|/pʰ/}} ||p||p'||ph||ph
|ph||p||p||p||ph||ph
|- style="border-top: 2px solid #aaa;"
| ㄴ || {{IPA|/n/}} ||n||n||n||n
|n||n||n||n||n||n
|-
| ㄷ || {{IPA|/t/}} ||d/t{{efn|name=rr-stop}}||t/d||t||t
|d||d||d||d||t||d
|-
| ㄸ || {{IPA|/t͈/}} ||tt||tt||tt||tt
|t||dd||dd||dd||tt||t
|-
| ㅌ || {{IPA|/tʰ/}} ||t||t'||th||th
|th||t||t||t||th||th
|-
| ㄹ || {{IPA|/l/ [l]~[ɾ]}} ||r/l{{efn|name=rr-stop}}||r/l||l||r
|r||r/l||r||l||l||l/r
|-
| ㅅ || {{IPA|/s/}} ||s||s||s||s
|z||s||s||s||s||s
|-
| ㅆ || {{IPA|/s͈/}} ||ss||ss||ss||ss
|s||ss||ss||ss||ss||ss
|- style="border-top: 2px solid #aaa;"
| ㅈ || {{IPA|/t͡ɕ/~/t͡s/}} ||j||ch/j||c||ts
|з||j||j||z||j||j
|-
| ㅉ || {{IPA|/t͈͡ɕ/~/t͈͡s/}} ||jj||tch||cc||tss
|c||jj||jj||zz||jj||cz
|-
| ㅊ || {{IPA|/t͡ɕʰ/~/t͡sʰ/}} ||ch||ch'||ch||tsh
|ch||ch||c||c||jh||ch
|- style="border-top: 2px solid #aaa;"
| ㄱ || {{IPA|/k/}} ||g/k{{efn|name=rr-stop}}||k/g||k||k
|g||g||g||g||k||g
|-
| ㄲ || {{IPA|/k͈/}} ||kk||kk||kk||kk
|k||gg||gg||gg||kk||k
|-
| ㅋ || {{IPA|/kʰ/}} ||k||k'||kh||kh
|kh||k||k||k||kh||kh
|-
| ㅎ || {{IPA|/h/}} ||h||h||h||h
|h||h||h||h||h||h
|-
| ㅇ || silent / {{IPA|/ŋ/}}{{efn|name=ng|Nothing in syllable-initial position, ''ng'' syllable-finally.}} || -/ng{{efn|name=ng}} || -/ng{{efn|name=ng}} || -/ng{{efn|name=ng}} || -/ng{{efn|name=ng}} 
|ŋ|| -/ng{{efn|name=ng}}||'/q||g||ng||ng
|}

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Comparison of romanization of vowels<ref name="EoL"/><ref name="UNGEGN"/><ref name=":1" />{{sfn|King|2024|p=}}
|-
! Hangul !! IPA !! RR !! MR !! Yale !! DPRK 
!USSR!! KORDA !! Shibu !! Han!! Lukoff !! Mahngun 
|-
| ㅏ || {{IPA|/a/}} ||a||a||a||a
|a||a||a||a||a||a
|-
| ㅓ || {{IPA|/ʌ/}} ||eo||ŏ||e||ŏ
|ь||u||e||e||ø||au
|-
| ㅗ || {{IPA|/o/}} ||o||o||(w)o||o
|o||o||o||o||o||o
|-
| ㅜ || {{IPA|/u/}} ||u||u||wu||u
|u||oo||u||u||u||ou
|-
| ㅡ || {{IPA|/ɯ/ [ɯ]~[ɨ]}} ||eu||ŭ||u||ŭ
|y||eu||y||w||ʉ||u
|-
| ㅣ || {{IPA|/i/}} ||i||i||i||i
|i||i||i||i||i||i/y
|- style="border-top: 2px solid #aaa;"
| ㅐ || {{IPA|/ɛ/}} ||ae||ae||ay||ae
|ə||ae||ai||ae||ä||ai
|-
| ㅔ || {{IPA|/e/}} ||e||e||ey||e
|e||e||ei||é||e||e
|-
| ㅚ || {{IPA|/ø/ [ø]~[we]}} ||oe||oe||(w)oy||oe
|ø||oe||oi||ó||ö||we
|-
| ㅟ || {{IPA|/y/ [y]~[ɥi]}} ||wi||wi||wi||we
|ui||wi||ui||uj||wi||wi
|- 
| ㅢ || {{IPA|/ɰi/ [ɰi]~[ɨ̯i]~[i]}} ||ui||ŭi||uy||ŭi
|yi||ui||yi||wj||ʉ||ui
|- style="border-top: 2px solid #aaa;"
| ㅑ || {{IPA|/ja/}} ||ya||ya||ya||ya
|ja||ya||ia||ja||ya||ya
|-
| ㅕ || {{IPA|/jʌ/}} ||yeo||yŏ||ye||yŏ
|jь||yu||ie||je||yø||yau
|-
| ㅛ || {{IPA|/jo/}} ||yo||yo||yo||yo
|jo||yo||io||jo||yo||yo
|-
| ㅠ || {{IPA|/ju/}} ||yu||yu||yu||yu
|ju||yoo||iu||ju||yu||you
|-
| ㅒ || {{IPA|/jɛ/}} ||yae||yae||yay||yae
|jə||yae||iai||jae||yä||yai
|-
| ㅖ || {{IPA|/je/}} ||ye||ye||yey||ye
|je||ye||iei||jé||ye||ye
|- style="border-top: 2px solid #aaa;"
| ㅘ || {{IPA|/wa/}} ||wa||wa||wa||wa
|wa||wa||oa||ōa||wa||wa
|-
| ㅝ || {{IPA|/wʌ/}} ||wo||wŏ||we||wŏ
|wь||wo||ue||ōe||wø||wau
|-
| ㅙ || {{IPA|/wɛ/}} ||wae||wae||way||wae
|wə||wae||oai||óae||wä||wai
|-
| ㅞ || {{IPA|/we/}} ||we||we||wey||we
|we||we||uei||ōé||we||we
|}

== Examples ==
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! English !! Hangul !! IPA !! RR<br /><small>([[Revised Romanization of Hangeul|RR transliteration]] in brackets)</small> !! MR !! Yale 
|-
| [[wall]] || {{lang|ko|벽}} || {{IPA|[pjʌk̚]}} || ''byeok<br />(byeog)'' || ''pyŏk'' || pyek 
|-
| on the wall || {{lang|ko|벽에}} || {{IPA|[pjʌ.ɡe̞]}} || ''byeoge<br />(byeog-e)'' || ''pyŏge'' || pyek ey 
|-
| outside<br /><small>(uninflected)</small> || {{lang|ko|밖}} || {{IPA|[pak̚]}} || ''bak<br />(bakk)'' || ''pak'' || pakk 
|-
| outside || {{lang|ko|밖에}} || {{IPA|[pa.k͈e̞]}} || ''bakke<br />(bakk-e)'' || ''pakke'' || pakk ey 
|-
| kitchen || {{lang|ko|부엌}} || {{IPA|[pu.ʌk̚]}} || ''bueok<br />(bueok)'' || ''puŏk'' || puekh 
|-
| to/in the kitchen || {{lang|ko|부엌에}} || {{IPA|[pu.ʌ.kʰe̞]}} || ''bueoke<br />(bueok-e)'' || ''puŏk'e'' || puekh ey 
|-
| [[Wikipedia]] || {{lang|ko|위키백과}} || {{IPA|[yk.çi.be̞k̚.k͈wa̠] }} || ''wikibaekgwa<br />(wikibaeggwa)'' || ''wikibaekkwa'' || wikhi payk.kwa<!-- Yale used italics for Middle Korean, that's why it appears here without emphasis. --> 
|-
| [[Hangul]] || {{lang|ko|한글}} || {{IPA|[han.ɡɯl]}} || ''hangeul'' <small>or</small> ''han-geul<br />(hangeul)'' || ''han'gŭl'' || hānkul 
|-
| [[grapheme|character, letter]] || {{lang|ko|글자}} || {{IPA|[kɯl.t͈ɕa]}} || ''geulja<br />(geulja)'' || ''kŭlcha'' || kulqca 
|-
| (an) easy (+&nbsp;noun) || {{lang|ko|쉬운}} || {{IPA|[ɕɥi.un]}} || ''swiun<br />(swiun)'' || ''shwiun'' || swīwun 
|-
| Korea has four distinct [[season]]s. || {{lang|ko|한국은 네 계절이 뚜렷하다.}} || {{IPA|[han.ɡu.ɡɯn ne̞ kje̞.dʑʌ.ɾi t͈u.ɾjʌ.tʰa.da]}} || ''Hangugeun ne gyejeori tturyeotada.''<br />''(Hangug-eun ne gyejeol-i ttulyeoshada.)'' || ''Han'gugŭn ne kyejŏri tturyŏthada.'' || Hānkwuk un nēy kyēycel i ttwulyes hata. 
|-
| Just [[Check box|check]] the line color and width you want. || {{lang|ko|원하시는 선 색깔과 굵기에 체크하시면 됩니다.}} || {{IPA|[wʌn.ɦa.ɕi.nɯn sʌn sɛ̝k̚.k͈al.ɡwa kul.k͈i.e̞ tɕʰe̞.k͡xɯ.ɦa.ɕi.mjʌn twe̞m.ɲi.da]}} || ''Wonhasineun seon saekkkalgwa gulkkie chekeuhasimyeon doemnida.<br />(Wonhasineun seon saegkkalgwa gulggie chekeuhasimyeon doebnida.)'' || ''Wŏnhasinŭn sŏn saekkalgwa kulkie ch'ek'ŭhasimyŏn toemnida.'' || Wēn hasinun sen sayk.kkal kwa kwulk.ki ey cheykhu hasimyen toypnita. 
|}

==See also==
*[[Cyrillization of Korean]]

==Notes==
{{notelist}}

==References==
<references/>

=== Sources ===

* {{Cite web |date=July 2025 |title=Korean Romanization Table |url=https://www.loc.gov/catdir/cpso/roman.html |access-date=2025-09-09 |publisher=[[Library of Congress]] |ref={{SfnRef|ALA-LC|2025}}}}
* {{Cite book |last=Cho |first=Sungdai |url=https://www.google.com/books/edition/Korean/2d67DwAAQBAJ?hl=en&gbpv=0 |title=Korean: A Linguistic Introduction |last2=Whitman |first2=John |date=2020 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-51485-9 |language=en}}
* {{Cite journal |last=Doll |first=Chris |date=2017-10-01 |title=Korean Rŏmaniz’atiŏn:  Is It Finally Time for The Library Of Congress to Stop Promoting Mccune-Reischauer and Adopt the Revised Romanization Scheme? |url=https://scholarsarchive.byu.edu/jeal/vol2017/iss165/8/ |journal=Journal of East Asian Libraries |volume=2017 |issue=165 |issn=1087-5093}}
* {{Cite journal |last=Fouser |first=Robert J. |date=1999 |title=Nationalism and Globalism in Transliteration Systems: Romanization Debates in Korea |url=https://s-space.snu.ac.kr/bitstream/10371/90818/1/6.%20Nationalism%20and%20Globalism%20in%20Transliteration%20System%20%20Romanization%20Debates%20in%20Korea.pdf |journal=Language Research 어학연구 |language=en |publisher=Seoul National University Language Education Institute 서울대학교 언어교육원 |volume=35 |issue=1/4}}
* {{Cite journal |last=Holstein |first=John |date=1999 |title=The McCune-Reischauer Korean Romanization System |url=https://raskb.com/full-texts-by-volume-2/ |journal=Transactions of the Royal Asiatic Society Korea Branch |publisher=[[Royal Asiatic Society]] |volume=74 |pages=1–22}}
* {{Cite journal |last=Huh |first=Sun |date=2017-08-16 |title=How to romanize Korean characters in international journals |url=https://escienceediting.org/journal/view.php?number=106 |journal=Science Editing |language=English |volume=4 |issue=2 |pages=80–85 |doi=10.6087/kcse.100 |issn=2288-8063|doi-access=free }}
* {{Cite journal |last=Kim |first=Kyongsok |date=1999-12-01 |title=Standardizing Romanization of Korean Hangeul and Hanmal |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0920548999000227 |journal=Computer Standards & Interfaces |volume=21 |issue=5 |pages=441–459 |doi=10.1016/S0920-5489(99)00022-7 |issn=0920-5489|url-access=subscription }}
* {{cite conference |last=King |first=Ross |author-link=Ross King (academic) |year=1992 |title=A Failed Revolution in Korean Writing: The Attempt to Latinize Korean in the Soviet Far East, 1929-1935 |conference=International Circle of Korean Linguistics}}
* {{Cite journal |last=King |first=Ross |author-link=Ross King (academic) |date=May 2024 |title=Another ‘language that failed’? The beginnings of ‘Soviet’ Korean in the Russian Far East, 1922–1937 |url=https://www.jbe-platform.com/content/journals/10.1075/kl.00007.kin |journal=Korean Linguistics |publisher=[[John Benjamins Publishing Company]] |volume=20 |issue=1 |pages=33–81 |doi=10.1075/kl.00007.kin |issn=0257-3784 |eissn=2212-9731}}
* {{Cite journal |last=Klein |first=Edward F. |date=August 1982 |title=Romanization of Korean: Do Armchair Linguists Have the Answer? |url=https://www.dbpia.co.kr/Journal/articleDetail?nodeId=NODE09374257 |journal=[[Korea Journal]] |language=en |volume=22 |issue=8 |pages=16–23 |issn=0023-3900 |via=[[DBpia]]}}
* {{Cite journal |last=Lee |first=Sang Oak |date=August 1982 |title=The Second Best Compromise : The National Academy of Sciences` Proposal on Romanization of Korean :The National Academy of Sciences` Proposal on Romanization of Korean |url=https://www.dbpia.co.kr/Journal/articleDetail?nodeId=NODE09378445 |journal=Korea Journal |language=en |volume=22 |issue=8 |pages=5–15 |issn=0023-3900}}
* {{Cite journal |last=Lee |first=Sang-Oak |date=March 2001 |title=The Present State of Korean Romanization System in Y2K : Case of Fugitive G: Why to K? :Case of Fugitive G: Why to K? |url=https://www.dbpia.co.kr/Journal/articleDetail?nodeId=NODE09373317 |journal=[[Korea Journal]] |language=en |volume=41 |issue=1 |pages=246–267 |issn=0023-3900 |via=[[DBpia]]}}
* {{Cite journal |last=McCune |first=George M. |last2=Reischauer |first2=Edwin O. |date=1939 |title=The Romanization of the Korean Language Based on Its Phonetic Structure |url=https://raskb.com/full-texts-by-volume-2/ |journal=Transactions of the Royal Asiatic Society Korea Branch |language=en |publisher=[[Royal Asiatic Society Korea Branch]] |volume=29 |pages=1–55}}

==External links==
* '''Comparison tables of the different systems:'''
** [http://www.eki.ee/wgrs/rom2_ko.pdf Comparison table of ISO TR/11941, North Korean national system (1992), Revised Romanization, McCune–Reischauer, Yale] (PDF file from UN Group of Experts on Geographical Names Working Group on Romanization Systems)
** [https://web.archive.org/web/20100307230629/http://www.glossika.com/en/dict/Korpin.pdf Comparison table of IPA, Yale, McCune–Reischauer, Lukoff, South Korea Ministry of Education, Joseon Gwahagwon, Revised Romanization] (PDF file from Glossika Inc.)

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[[Category:Romanization of Korean| ]]