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{{Short description|British Indian medical doctor and Nobel laureate (1857–1932)}}
{{other people}}
{{Use British English|date=August 2011}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=September 2017}}
{{Infobox scientist
| honorific_prefix = [[Sir]]
| name = Ronald Ross
| honorific_suffix = {{postnominals|country=GBR|size=100|KCB|KCMG|FRS|FRCS}}
| image = Ronald Ross.jpg
| caption = 
| birth_date = {{Birth date|df=yes|1857|5|13}}
| birth_place = [[Almora]], [[North-Western Provinces]], [[British India]] 
| death_date = {{death date and age|df=yes|1932|09|16|1857|5|13}}
| death_place = London, UK
| resting_place = [[Putney Vale Cemetery]]
| resting_place_coordinates = {{Coord|51.438408|-0.239821|type:landmark|display=}}
| nationality = British
| field = Medicine
| work_institutions = [[Presidency General Hospital]], [[Calcutta]]<br/>[[Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine]]<br/>[[King's College Hospital]]<br/>[[British War Office]]<br/>[[Ministry of Pensions and National Insurance]]<br/>Ross Institute and Hospital for Tropical Diseases
| alma_mater = [[St Bartholomew's Hospital Medical College]]
| doctoral_advisor = 
| doctoral_students = 
| known_for = Discovering that the [[malaria]] parasite is transmitted by mosquitoes
| prizes = {{Plainlist|
*[[Cameron Prize for Therapeutics of the University of Edinburgh]] <small>(1901)</small> 
* [[Fellow of the Royal Society|FRS]] <small>(1901)</small><ref name=frs/>
* [[Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine]] <small>(1902)</small>
* [[Albert Medal (Royal Society of Arts)|Albert Medal]] {{small|(1923)}}
* [[Manson Medal]] {{small|(1929)}}}}
| author_abbrev_zoo = Ross
| spouse = {{marriage|Rosa Bessie Bloxam|1889}}
}}

'''Sir Ronald Ross''' {{postnominals|country=GBR|KCB|KCMG|FRS|FRCS}}<ref name=frs>{{cite journal|last=N.|first=G. H. F.|title=Sir Ronald Ross. 1857–1932|journal=Obituary Notices of Fellows of the Royal Society|volume=1|issue=2|pages=108–115|doi=10.1098/rsbm.1933.0006|year=1933|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref name=rajkumar>{{cite journal |last1=Rajakumar |first1=Kumaravel |last2=Weisse |first2=Martin |title=Centennial Year of Ronald Ross' Epic Discovery of Malaria Transmission |journal=Southern Medical Journal |date=June 1999 |volume=92 |issue=6 |pages=567–571 |doi=10.1097/00007611-199906000-00004 |pmid=10372849 |s2cid=10757525 }}</ref> (13 May 1857 – 16 September 1932) was a British [[medical doctor]] who received the [[Nobel Prize for Physiology or Medicine]] in 1902 for his work on the transmission of [[malaria]], becoming the first British Nobel laureate, and the first born outside Europe. His [[History of malaria|discovery of the malarial parasite]] in the [[digestion|gastrointestinal tract]] of a [[mosquito]] in 1897 proved that [[malaria]] was transmitted by mosquitoes, and laid the foundation for the method of [[vector control|combating the disease]].

Ross was a [[polymath]], writing a number of poems, publishing several novels, and composing songs. He was also an amateur artist and mathematician. He worked in the [[Indian Medical Service]] for 25 years. It was during his service that he made the groundbreaking medical discovery. After resigning from his service in India, he joined the faculty of [[Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine]], and continued as Professor and Chairman of [[Tropical Medicine]] of the institute for 10 years. In 1926, he became Director-in-Chief of the Ross Institute and Hospital for Tropical Diseases, which was established in honour of his works. He remained there until his death.<ref name="cdc">{{cite web|title=Ross and the Discovery that Mosquitoes Transmit Malaria Parasites|url=https://www.cdc.gov/malaria/about/history/ross.html|publisher=Centers for Disease Control and Prevention|access-date=31 January 2014|date=8 February 2010}}</ref><ref name="kakk">{{cite web|title=Sir Ronald Ross (1857–1932)|url=http://www.malariasite.com/malaria/ross.htm|publisher=Dr. B.S. Kakkilaya's Malaria Web Site|access-date=31 January 2014|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130319081450/http://www.malariasite.com/malaria/ross.htm|archive-date=19 March 2013|df=dmy-all}}</ref>

== Early life and education ==

Ross was born in [[Almora]], then in the [[North-Western Provinces]] of [[Company rule in India|Company-ruled India]], north west of Nepal.<ref name="frs" /> He was the eldest of ten children of Sir [[Campbell Claye Grant Ross]], a general in the [[British Indian Army]], and Matilda Charlotte Elderton. At age eight, he was sent to England to live with his aunt and uncle on the [[Isle of Wight]]. He attended Primary schools at [[Ryde]], and for secondary education he was sent to a boarding school at Springhill, near [[Southampton]], in 1869. From his early childhood, he developed a passion for poetry, music, literature and [[mathematics]]. At fourteen years of age he won a prize for mathematics, a book titled ''Orbs of Heaven'' which sparked his interest in mathematics. In 1873, at sixteen, he secured first position in the [[Oxford, Cambridge and RSA Examinations|Oxford and Cambridge local examination]] in drawing.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Ross|first=Sir Ronald|url=https://archive.org/details/b29825738|title=Memoirs with a full account of The Great Malaria Problem and its Solution|publisher=John Murray|year=1923|location=Albemarle Street, W. London|page=[https://archive.org/details/b29825738/page/24 24]}}</ref>

Although Ross wanted to become a writer, his father arranged enrollment at [[St Bartholomew's Hospital Medical College]] in London, in 1874. Not fully committed, he spent most of his time composing music, and writing poems and plays. He left in 1880. In 1879 he had passed the examinations for the [[Royal College of Surgeons of England]], and he worked as a ship's surgeon on a transatlantic steamship while studying for the [[licenciate]] of the [[Society of Apothecaries]].<ref name="london">{{cite web|title=Biography of Sir Ronald Ross|url=http://www.lshtm.ac.uk/library/archives/ross/biography/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140202111525/http://www.lshtm.ac.uk/library/archives/ross/biography/|url-status=dead|archive-date=2 February 2014|publisher=London School of Hygiene & Tropical Medicine|access-date=28 January 2014}}</ref> He qualified on second attempt in 1881, and after a four-month training at [[Army Medical School]], was appointed a surgeon in the [[Indian Medical Service]] on 5 April 1881, assigned to the Madras Presidency.<ref>{{London Gazette|issue=25010 |supp=|page=4453|date=30 August 1881}}</ref><ref name="kakk" /> Between June 1888 and May 1889 he took study leave to obtain the Diploma in Public Health from the [[Royal College of Physicians]] and [[Royal College of Surgeons]], and took a course in [[bacteriology]] under Professor [[Emanuel Edward Klein|E. E. Klein]].<ref name="cdc" />

== Career ==
=== India ===
Ross embarked for India on 22 September 1881 on the troopship ''Jumma''. Between 1881 and 1894 he was variously posted in [[Madras]], [[Mawlamyine|Moulmein]] (in Burma/[[Myanmar]]), [[Baluchistan]], [[Andaman Islands]], [[Bangalore]] and [[Secunderabad]]. In 1883, he was posted as the Acting Garrison Surgeon at Bangalore during which he noticed the possibility of controlling mosquitoes by limiting their access to water. In March 1894 he had his home leave and went to London with his family. On 10 April 1894 he met Sir [[Patrick Manson]] for the first time. Manson who became Ross's mentor, introduced him to the real problems in malaria research. Manson always had a firm belief that India was the best place for the study. Ross returned to India on [[P&O (company)|P&O]] ship ''Ballaarat'' on 20 March 1895 and landed in Secunderabad on 24 April.<ref name=lavery>{{cite web|author=Lavery, Marck Bryan|title=Malaria Wars Episode MDCCCXCVIII: Ronald Ross and the Great Malaria Problem|url=http://www.evolve360.co.uk/Data/10/Docs/20/Lavery.pdf|publisher=evolve360|access-date=9 February 2014|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140221235135/http://www.evolve360.co.uk/Data/10/Docs/20/Lavery.pdf|archive-date=21 February 2014|df=dmy-all}}</ref> Even before his luggage was cleared in the custom office, he went straight for Bombay Civil Hospital, looking for malarial patients and started making blood films.

==== Discovery of malaria-causing mosquito ====
[[File:Ross, 20.Aug.1897.jpg|thumb|right| The page in Ross' notebook where he recorded the "pigmented bodies" in mosquitoes that he later identified as malaria parasites]]
Ross made his first important step in May 1895 when he observed the early stages of malarial parasite inside a mosquito stomach. However, his enthusiasm was interrupted as he was deployed to Bangalore to investigate an outbreak of [[cholera]]. Bangalore had no regular cases of malaria. He confided to Manson stating, "I am thrown out of employment and have 'no work to do'." But in April he had a chance to visit Sigur Ghat near the hill station of [[Ooty]], where he noticed a mosquito on the wall in a peculiar posture, and for this he called it "dappled-winged" mosquito, not knowing the species. In May 1896, he was given a short leave that enabled him to visit a malaria-endemic region around Ooty. In spite of his daily quinine prophylaxis, he was down with severe malaria three days after his arrival. In June he was transferred to [[Secunderabad]].<ref name="rajkumar" /><ref name=":0" />

After two years of research failure, in July 1897, Ross managed to culture 20 adult "brown" mosquitoes from collected larvae. He successfully infected the mosquitoes from a patient named Husein Khan for a price of 8 [[Indian anna|annas]] (one anna per blood-fed mosquito). After blood-feeding, he dissected the mosquitoes. On 20 August he confirmed the presence of the malarial parasite inside the gut of mosquito, which he originally identified as "dappled-wings" (which turned out to be a species of the genus ''Anopheles''). The next day, on 21 August, he confirmed the growth of the parasite in the mosquito. This discovery was published on 27 August 1897<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Ross |first1=Ronald |title=Peculiar Pigmented Cells Found in Two Mosquitoes Fed on Malarial Blood |journal=The Indian Medical Gazette |date=September 1897 |volume=32 |issue=9 |pages=357–358 |pmc=5148549 |pmid=29002928 }}</ref> in the Indian Medical Gazette and subsequently in the December 1897 issue of ''[[British Medical Journal]]''.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Ross |first1=R. |title=On some Peculiar Pigmented Cells Found in Two Mosquitos Fed on Malarial Blood |journal=BMJ |date=18 December 1897 |volume=2 |issue=1929 |pages=1786–1788 |doi=10.1136/bmj.2.1929.1786 |pmid=20757493 |pmc=2408186 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Sinden |first1=Robert E |title=Malaria, mosquitoes and the legacy of Ronald Ross. |journal=Bulletin of the World Health Organization |date=November 2007 |volume=85 |issue=11 |pages=894–6 |doi=10.2471/blt.04.020735 |doi-broken-date=12 August 2025 |pmid=18038083 |pmc=2636258 |hdl=10665/269872 }}</ref> In the evening he composed the following poem for his discovery (originally unfinished, sent to his wife on 22 August, and completed a few days later):<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Scott |first1=M. P. |title=Developmental genomics of the most dangerous animal |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences |date=9 July 2007 |volume=104 |issue=29 |pages=11865–11866 |doi=10.1073/pnas.0704795104 |pmid=17620616 |pmc=1924572 |bibcode=2007PNAS..10411865S |doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Mackay|first1=Alan L.|title=A Dictionary of Scientific Quotations|year=2001|publisher=IOP Publishing Ltd|location=Bristol|isbn=9780750301060|pages=209–210|edition=2, Reprinted|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KwESE88CGa8C|orig-year=1977}}</ref>

[[File:Plaque (1) of Ronald Ross Memorial, Kolkata.jpg|thumb|Plaque from the Ronald Ross Memorial, [[Kolkata]]]]

<blockquote>
This day relenting God<br>
Hath placed within my hand<br>
A wondrous thing; and God<br>
Be praised. At His command,<br>
Seeking His secret deeds<br>
With tears and toiling breath,<br>
I find thy cunning seeds,<br>
O million-murdering Death.<br>
I know this little thing<br>
A myriad men will save.<br>
O Death, where is thy sting?<br>
Thy victory, O Grave?<br>
</blockquote>

==== Discovery of malaria transmission in birds ====
[[File:Sir R. Ross on steps of laboratory in Calcutta, 1898 Wellcome L0011943.jpg|thumb|right| Ross, Mrs Ross, Mahomed Bux, and two other assistants at [[David Douglas Cunningham|Cunningham's]] laboratory of Presidency Hospital in Calcutta]]

In September 1897, Ross was transferred to Bombay, from where he was subsequently sent to malaria-free [[Kherwara]] in [[Rajputana]] (now [[Rajasthan]]). Frustrated by lack of work, he threatened to resign from the service as he felt that it was a death blow to his research. It was only on the representation of Patrick Manson that the government arranged for his continued service in Calcutta on "special duty".<ref name=cdc/> On 17 February 1898, he arrived in Calcutta (now [[Kolkata]]), to work in the [[Presidency General Hospital]] (now [[IPGMER and SSKM Hospital]]).<ref name=":0">{{cite journal|last=Dutta|first=A.|title=Where Ronald Ross (1857–1932) worked: the discovery of malarial transmission and the Plasmodium life cycle|journal=Journal of Medical Biography|year=2009|volume=17|issue=2|pages=120–122|doi=10.1258/jmb.2009.009004|pmid=19401518|s2cid=207200295}}</ref>

Ross immediately carried out research in malaria and [[Visceral leishmaniasis]] (also known as kala azar), for which he was assigned. He was given the use of Surgeon-Lieutenant-General Cunningham's laboratory for his research. He had no success with malarial patients because they were always immediately given medication. He built a bungalow with a laboratory at Mahanad village, where he would stay from time to time to collect mosquitoes in and around the village. He employed Mahomed (or Muhammed) Bux and Purboona (who deserted him after the first payday). As Calcutta was not a malarious place, Manson persuaded him to use birds, as being used by other scientists such as [[Vasily Danilewsky]] in Russia and [[William George MacCallum]] in America. Ross complied but with a complaint that he "did not need to be in India to study bird malaria". By March he began to see results on bird parasites, very closely related to the [[Plasmodium vivax|human malarial parasites]].<ref>{{cite book|last=Ross|first=Ronald|title=Report on the cultivation of protesoma, Labbé, in grey mosquitoes|year=1898|publisher=Superintendent of Govt. Printing|location=Calcutta|pages=1–2|url=http://digital.nls.uk/74580818}}</ref>

Using more convenient model of birds (infected sparrows), by July 1898 Ross established the importance of culex mosquitoes as intermediate hosts in [[avian malaria]]. On 4 July he discovered that the [[salivary gland]] was the storage sites of malarial parasites in the mosquito. By 8 July he was convinced that the parasites are released from the salivary gland during biting. He later demonstrated the transmission of malarial parasite from mosquitoes (in this case ''[[Culex]]'' species) to healthy sparrows from an infected one, thus, establishing the complete life cycle of malarial parasite.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Katz |first1=Frank F |title=On the Centenary of Sir Ronald Ross's Discovery of the Role of the Mosquito in the Life Cycle of the Malaria Parasite |journal=Journal of Medical Biography |date=22 June 2016 |volume=5 |issue=4 |pages=200–204 |doi=10.1177/096777209700500403 |pmid=11619711 |s2cid=32233983 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Bynum |first1=WF |title=Ronald Ross and the malaria-mosquito cycle. |journal=Parassitologia |date=September 1999 |volume=41 |issue=1–3 |pages=49–52 |pmid=10697833 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Dutta |first1=Agneish |title=Where Ronald Ross (1857-1932) worked: the discovery of malarial transmission and the Plasmodium life cycle |journal=Journal of Medical Biography |date=28 April 2009 |volume=17 |issue=2 |pages=120–122 |doi=10.1258/jmb.2009.009004 |pmid=19401518 |s2cid=207200295 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Cook |first1=G.C. |title=Ronald Ross (1857–1932): 100 years since the demonstration of mosquito transmission of Plasmodium spp.—on 20 August 1897 |journal=Transactions of the Royal Society of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene |date=July 1997 |volume=91 |issue=4 |pages=487–488 |doi=10.1016/s0035-9203(97)90295-9 |pmid=9373663 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Capanna |first1=E |title=Grassi versus Ross: who solved the riddle of malaria? |journal=International Microbiology |date=March 2006 |volume=9 |issue=1 |pages=69–74 |pmid=16636993 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |doi=10.1016/S0065-308X(08)00401-6 |pmid=18940418 |isbn=9780123743398 |chapter=Chapter 1 Introduction |title=Reflections on a Century of Malaria Biochemistry |series=Advances in Parasitology |year=2008 |last1=Sherman |first1=Irwin W. |volume=67 |pages=1–402 }}</ref>

In September 1898 he went to southern [[Assam]] in ([[northeast India]]) to study an epidemic of Visceral leishmaniasis. He was invited to work there by Graham Col Ville Ramsay, the second Medical Officer of the Labac Tea Estate Hospital. (His microscope and medicals tools are still preserved, and his sketches of mosquitoes are still on display at the hospital.)<ref>{{cite web|url=http://easternpanorama.in/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=1123&Itemid=10|title=Laboc Hospital – A Noble Prize Winner's Workplace|publisher=easternpanorama.in|access-date=11 July 2013|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131105175214/http://easternpanorama.in/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=1123&Itemid=10|archive-date=5 November 2013|df=dmy-all}}</ref><ref>{{cite tweet|user=doctorsoumya|number=916517954501537792|title=Ronald Ross worked here in Silchar- his chair and microscope intact, as well as drawings of mosquitoes! Should be a museum, not working lab!|date=7 October 2017|access-date=7 October 2017}}</ref> However, he utterly failed as he believed that the kala-azar parasite (''[[Leishmania donovani]]'', the very scientific name he later gave in 1903) was transmitted by a mosquito, which he refers to as ''Anopheles rossi'' (scientific name given by G.M. Giles).<ref>{{Cite web |last=Ross |first=Ronald |date=1902-12-12 |title=Researches on malaria (Nobel Lecture) |url=https://www.nobelprize.org/uploads/2018/06/ross-lecture.pdf |access-date=2022-06-30 |website=Nobel Prize}}</ref> (It is now known that [[kala azar]] is transmitted by [[sandfly|sandflies]].)

=== England ===
[[File:Ronald Ross 18 Cavendish Square blue plaque.jpg|thumb|Blue plaque, 18 Cavendish Square, London]]

In 1899, Ross resigned from the Indian Medical Service and went to England to join the faculty of the [[Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine]] as a lecturer. He continued to work on prevention of malaria in different parts of the world, including [[West Africa]], the [[Suez Canal]] zone,<ref>{{cite web|url=https://findingaids.nlm.nih.gov/repositories/ammp/resources/ross443|title=My experiences in Panama / Sir Ronald Ross 1916|publisher=National Library of Medicine}}</ref> [[Greece]], [[Mauritius]], [[Cyprus]], and in the areas affected by the [[First World War]]. He also established organisations for fighting malaria in India and Sri Lanka. In 1902, Ross was awarded the [[Cameron Prize for Therapeutics of the University of Edinburgh]]. He was appointed as Professor and Chair of Tropical Medicine of the Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine in 1902, which he held up to 1912. In 1912 he was appointed Physician for Tropical Diseases at [[King's College Hospital]] in London, and simultaneously hold the Chair of Tropical Sanitation in Liverpool. He remained in these posts until 1917 when he became (honorary) Consultant in [[Malariology]] in [[British War Office]]. He travelled to [[Thessaloniki]] and Italy in November to advise and on the way, "in a landlocked bay close to the Leucadian Rock (where Sappho is supposed to have drowned herself)", his ship escaped a torpedo attack.<ref>{{cite journal |title=Sir Ronald Ross, 1857 - 1933 |journal=Obituary Notices of Fellows of the Royal Society |date=January 1997 |volume=1 |issue=2 |pages=108–115 |doi=10.1098/rsbm.1933.0006 |jstor=768746 |author1=G. H. F. N |doi-access=free }}</ref> Between 1918 and 1926 he worked as Consultant in Malaria in the [[Ministry of Pensions and National Insurance]].

Ross developed mathematical models for the study of malaria [[epidemiology]], which he initiated in his report on Mauritius in 1908. He elaborated the concept in his book ''The Prevention of Malaria'' in 1910<ref>{{cite book|last1=Ross|first1=Ronald|title=The Prevention of Malaria|date=1910|url=http://catalog.hathitrust.org/Record/001587831|publisher=Dutton}}</ref> (2nd edition in 1911) and further elaborated in a more generalised form in scientific papers published by the [[Royal Society]] in 1915 and 1916; some of his epidemiology work was developed with mathematician [[Hilda Phoebe Hudson|Hilda Hudson]]. These papers represented a profound mathematical interest which was not confined to epidemiology, but led him to make material contributions to both pure and applied mathematics.

Ross was one of the supporters of [[Sir William Osler]] in the founding of the [[History of Medicine Society]] in 1912, and in 1913 was the history of medicine section's vice-president.<ref>{{Cite book|title=The History of The Royal Society of Medicine|last=Hunting|first=Penelope|publisher=Royal Society of Medicine Press|year=2002|isbn=1853154970|pages=330–333}}</ref> Between 1913 and 1917, he received some financial support from [[Edwin Durning-Lawrence|Sir Edwin Durning-Lawrence]], and led experiments at the Marcus Beck laboratory in the [[Royal Society of Medicine]] building at 1 Wimpole Street, London.<ref name=Nye1997>{{cite book |last1=Nye |first1=E. |last2=Gibson |first2=M. |title=Ronald Ross: Malariologist and Polymath: A Biography |date=1997 |publisher=Springer |location=Basingstoke |isbn=978-0-230-37754-7 |pages=261–276 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=oDNaCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA263 |language=en |chapter=16. Ross and the Royal Society of Medicine}}</ref>

==== Ross Institute and Hospital for Tropical Diseases ====

The Ross Institute and Hospital for Tropical Diseases was founded in 1926 and established at Bath House, a grand house with keeper's lodge and large grounds adjacent to Tibbet's Corner at [[Putney Heath#Putney Heath|Putney Heath]]. The hospital was opened by the then [[Prince of Wales]], the future King Edward VIII.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://timeline.lshtm.ac.uk/1920.html |title=1920 History Timeline &#124; London School of Hygiene & Tropical Medicine &#124; LSHTM |publisher=Timeline.lshtm.ac.uk |access-date=2 December 2012}}</ref> Ross assumed the post of Director-in-Chief until his death.<ref name=london/> The institute was later incorporated into the [[London School of Hygiene & Tropical Medicine]] in Keppel Street. Bath House was later demolished and mansion flats built on the property. In memory of its history and owner the block was named Ross Court. Within the grounds an older dwelling, Ross Cottage, remains.

== Nobel Prize  ==
{{Main|Nobel Prize controversies}}
[[File:Ronald Ross 4.jpg|thumb|Ronald Ross]]
Ronald Ross was awarded a Nobel Prize for his discovery of the [[Plasmodium|life cycle of the malarial parasite]] in birds. He did not build his concept of malarial transmission in humans, but in birds.<ref name=rajkumar/> Ross was the first to show that malarial parasite was transmitted by the bite of infected mosquitoes, in his case the avian ''[[Plasmodium relictum]]''. In 1897, an Italian physician and zoologist [[Giovanni Battista Grassi]], along with his colleagues, had established the [[Life cycle of a malarial parasite|developmental stages of malaria parasites in anopheline mosquitoes]]; and they described the complete life cycles of ''[[Plasmodium falciparum|P. falciparum]]'', ''P. vivax'' and ''[[Plasmodium malariae|P. malariae]]'' the following year.<ref>{{cite journal|author=Baccetti B|year=2008 |title=History of the early dipteran systematics in Italy: from Lyncei to Battista Grassi| journal=Parassitologia |volume=50| issue=3–4|pages=167–172 |pmid= 20055226}}</ref><ref name="Cox 2010">{{cite journal |last1=Cox |first1=Francis E.G. |year=2010 |title=History of the discovery of the malaria parasites and their vectors|journal=Parasites & Vectors |volume=3 |issue=1 |pages=5 |doi=10.1186/1756-3305-3-5 |pmid=20205846 |pmc=2825508 |doi-access=free }}</ref>

When the 1902 Nobel Prize for Physiology or Medicine was considered, the [[Nobel Committee for Physiology or Medicine|Nobel Committee]] initially intended the prize to be shared between Ross and Grassi, however Ross accused Grassi of deliberate fraud. The weight of favour ultimately fell on Ross, largely due to the influences of [[Robert Koch]], the appointed neutral arbitrator in the committee; as reported, "Koch threw the full weight of his considerable authority in insisting that Grassi did not deserve the honor".<ref>{{cite book| author= Esch GW|title=Parasites and Infectious Disease: Discovery by Serendipity and Otherwise|year= 2007| url= https://books.google.com/books?id=88RH-7br9OAC|pages= 137–138| publisher= Cambridge University Press|isbn= 978-1-1394-6-4109}}</ref>

== Personal life and death ==
Ronald Ross was noted to be eccentric and egocentric, described as an "impulsive man"<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Bynum |first=W. F. |date=1998 |title=Review of Ronald Ross: Malariologist and Polymath—A Biography |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/44445103 |journal=Bulletin of the History of Medicine |volume=72 |issue=3 |pages=562–564 |jstor=44445103 |issn=0007-5140}}</ref> or an "impulsive genius."<ref>{{Cite web |last=Choudhury |first=Rakin |date=2020-02-05 |title=An Impulsive Genius: Sir Ronald Ross |url=https://www.blcircadian.com/articles/an-impulsive-genius-sir-ronald-ross |access-date=2022-06-30 |website=Circadian |language=en-GB}}</ref> His professional life appeared to be in constant feud with his students, colleagues, and fellow scientists.<ref>{{cite book |last=McCallum |first=Jack E. |title=Military Medicine: From Ancient Times to the 21st Century |url=https://archive.org/details/militarymedicine00mcca_205 |url-access=limited|publisher=Abc-Clio |location=Santa Barbara |isbn=978-1-8510-9693-0 |pages=273–274, [https://archive.org/details/militarymedicine00mcca_205/page/n295 295] |edition=1st|year=2007}}</ref> His personal vendetta with G. B. Grassi became a legendary tale in science. He was openly envious of his mentor Patrick Manson's affluence from private practices. His ''Memories of Sir Patrick Manson'' (1930) was a direct attempt to belittle Manson's influences on his works on malaria.<ref name=lavery/> He hardly had good ties with the administration of Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine, complaining of being underpaid. He resigned twice, and was eventually discharged without any pension.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Bynum |first1=William F. |title=Ronald Ross: Malariologist and Polymath: A Biography |journal=Bulletin of the History of Medicine |date=1998 |volume=72 |issue=3 |pages=562–564 |doi=10.1353/bhm.1998.0144 |s2cid=73351882 }}</ref>

[[File:Ronald Ross grave Putney Vale 2014.jpg|thumb|right|alt=A horizontal gravestone, badly dilapidated and with grass growing among the cracks|Ross's grave at [[Putney Vale Cemetery]], London in 2014]]
Ross was frequently embittered by lack of government support (what he called "administrative barbarism")<ref name=kakk/> for scientists in medical research. In 1928 he advertised his papers for sale in the journal ''Science Progress in the Twentieth Century'' (1919–1933), with a statement that the money was for financial support of his wife and family. Lady Houston bought them for £2000, and offered them to the [[British Museum]], which turned her down for various reasons. The papers are now preserved by the [[London School of Hygiene & Tropical Medicine|London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine]]<ref name=cdc/><ref name="O">{{Cite web|url=https://www.lshtm.ac.uk/research/library-archives-service/archives|title=LSHTM Archives Service Homepage|website=www.lshtm.ac.uk|language=en|access-date=2017-10-04}}</ref> and the [[Royal College of Physicians and Surgeons of Glasgow]].<ref name=rcpsg>{{cite web |url=https://heritage.rcpsg.ac.uk/tld-rcpsg009 |title=RCPSG/9 - Sir Ronald Ross (1857-1932), surgeon |access-date=13 August 2018 }}{{Dead link|date=May 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref>

In 1889 Ross married Rosa Bessie Bloxam (d.1931). They had two daughters, Dorothy (1891–1947) and Sylvia (1893–1925), and two sons, Ronald Campbell (1895–1914) and Charles Claye (1901–1966). His wife died in 1931. Ronald and Sylvia pre-deceased him too: Ronald was killed at the [[Battle of Le Cateau]] on 26 August 1914.<ref>[https://www.flickr.com/photos/98140820@N03/9342544138/in/photolist-feyYTd Sherborne School Book of Remembrance on Flickr]</ref> Ross died at the hospital of his namesake after a long illness and [[asthma]] attack. He was buried at the nearby [[Putney Vale Cemetery]], next to his wife.<ref>{{cite web|title=Ronald Ross|url=http://www.nndb.com/people/339/000094057/|work=NNDB|access-date=13 December 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=RONALD ROSS (1857–1932)|url=http://www.zephyrus.co.uk/ronaldross.html|work=zephyrus|access-date=13 December 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last1=Cook|first1=GC|title=The grave of Sir Ronald Ross FRS (1857–1932)|journal=The Lancet|year=1999|volume=354|issue=9184|pages=1128|doi=10.1016/S0140-6736(05)76928-2|pmid=10509539|s2cid=5106342|doi-access=free}}</ref>

== Legacy ==
[[File:Ronald Ross Memorial.jpg|thumb|right| Ronald Ross Memorial, [[IPGMER and SSKM Hospital|SSKM Hospital]], [[Kolkata]]]]
[[File:Ronald Ross 5a.jpg|thumb|Ronald Ross Plaque at PG Hospital]]
[[File:Ronald Ross 1.jpg|thumb|Plaque of the discovery of transmission of [[Malaria]] at [[Sir Ronald Ross Institute of Parasitology]]]]

A small memorial on the walls of [[IPGMER and SSKM Hospital|SSKM Hospital, Calcutta]] commemorates Ross's discovery. The memorial was unveiled by Ross himself, in the presence of Lord Lytton, on 7 January 1927.<ref>{{cite news|last1=Our Bureau|title=Malaria Poser Sting in Court|url=http://www.telegraphindia.com/1140704/jsp/calcutta/story_18580152.jsp#.VPHjYixGQr0|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150402153459/http://www.telegraphindia.com/1140704/jsp/calcutta/story_18580152.jsp#.VPHjYixGQr0|url-status=dead|archive-date=2 April 2015|access-date=28 February 2015|issue=My Kolkata|publisher=The Telegraph|date=4 July 2014}}</ref> The laboratory where Ross worked has been transferred into a malaria clinic named after him. There is also a plaque on the outer wall.<ref name="Datta">{{cite news |last1=Datta |first1=Rangan |title=How Ronald Ross linked the mosquito bite to malaria parasites |url=https://www.telegraphindia.com/my-kolkata/people/how-ronald-ross-linked-the-mosquito-bite-to-malaria-parasites/cid/1960055 |access-date=21 August 2023 |issue=My Kolkata|publisher=The Telegraph|date=20 August 2023}}</ref>
[[File:Sir Ronald Ross .jpg|alt=Sir Ronald Ross's name on LSHTM|thumb|Sir Ronald Ross's name on LSHTM]]
Sir Ronald Ross is one of 23 names to feature on the frieze of [[London School of Hygiene & Tropical Medicine]], pioneers chosen for their contributions to public health.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.lshtm.ac.uk/aboutus/introducing/history/frieze/sir-ronald-ross|title=Sir Ronald Ross (1857-1932) {{!}} LSHTM|website=LSHTM|language=en|access-date=2018-11-09}}</ref>

A novel, ''[[The Calcutta Chromosome]]'' by [[Amitav Ghosh]], published in 1995 is based on the life of Ross in Calcutta.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Goyal |first=Kritika |date=2013 |title=The Calcutta Chromosome |journal=Annals of Neurosciences |volume=20 |issue=1 |pages=36 |doi=10.5214/ans.0972.7531.200112 |pmc=4117097}}</ref>

[[Sir Ronald Ross Institute of Parasitology]] is the building in [[Begumpet]] where Ross made the discovery that malaria was transmitted by the female [[anopheles mosquito]] on 20 August. 20 August later came to known as the [[World Mosquito Day]]. The lab has been transformed into a small museum exhibiting photos of Ross and his family. Various charts and diagrams explain Ross' work on malaria and its transmission.<ref name="Datta"/>

== Books ==

*''Report on Cholera, General Sanitation, and the Sanitary Department and Regulations, in the C. & M. Station of Bangalore'' (1896)
*''Report on the Cultivation of Proteosoma Labbé, in Grey Mosquitoes'' (1898).  Digitised version available from [[National Library of Scotland]].
*''Report on the Nature of Kala-azar'' (1899). Digitised version available from National Library of Scotland.
*''Malarial Fever: Its Cause, Prevention and Treatment; Containing Full Details for the Use of Travellers, Sportsmen, Soldiers, and Residents in Malarious Places'' (1902)
*''First Progress Report of the Campaign Against Mosquitoes in Sierra Leone'' (with Charles Wilberforce Daniels) (1902)
*''Notes on the Parasites of Mosquitoes Found in India Between 1895 and 1899''
*''Hygiene for Indian Scholars''
*''Note on the Bodies Recently Described by Leishman and Donovan'' (1903)
*''Further Notes on Leishman's Bodies'' (1903)
*''Report on Malaria at Ismailia and Suez'' (1903)
*''Leishmania Donovani Found in Kala-azar'' (1904)
*''Researches on Malaria'' (1905)
*''Note on a Flagellate Parasite Found in Culex Fatigans'' (1906)
*''Malaria in Greece'' (1909)
*''Missionaries and the Campaign Against Malaria'' (1910)
*''A Case of Sleeping Sickness Studied by Precise Enumerative Methods: Regular Periodical Increase of the Parasites Disclosed'' (with David Thomson) (1910)
*''Discussion on the Treatment of Malaria'' (1918)
*''Mosquitoes and Malaria in Britain'' (1918)
*''Suggestions for the Care of Malaria Patients'' (1919)
*''Observations on malaria'' (1919)
*[http://catalog.hathitrust.org/Record/009023853 ''Memoirs, with a Full Account of the Great Malaria Problem and Its Solution''] (1923)
*''Malaria-control in Ceylon Plantations'' (1926)
*''Solid Space-algebra: The Systems of Hamilton and Grassmann Combined'' (1929)
*''A Summary of Facts Regarding Malaria Suitable for Public Instruction'' (with [[Malcolm Watson]]) (1930)
*''Memories of Sir Patrick Manson'' (1930)
*''The solution of equations by iteration'' (with William Stott) (1930)
*''A Priori Pathometry'' (with [[Hilda Phoebe Hudson]]) (1931)
*''Mosquito Brigades and How to Organise Them'' {{ISBN|978-1-2905-5311-7}}

== Literary works ==

Ross was a prolific writer. He habitually wrote poems on most of the important events in his life. His poetic works gained him wide acclaim and they reflect his medical service, [[travel literature|travelogue]], philosophical and scientific thoughts. Many of his poems are collected in his ''Selected Poems'' (1928) and ''In Exile'' (1931). Some of his notable books are ''The Child of Ocean'' (1899 and 1932), ''The Revels of Orsera'', ''The Spirit of Storm'', ''Fables and Satires'' (1930), ''Lyra Modulatu'' (1931), and five mathematical works (1929–1931). He also compiled an extensive account ''The Prevention of Malaria'' in 1910 and another ''Studies on Malaria'' in 1928. He published his autobiography ''Memoirs, with a Full Account of the Great Malaria Problem and its Solution'' (547 pages long) in 1923. He carefully saved virtually everything about himself: correspondence, telegrams, newspaper cuttings, drafts of published and unpublished material, and all manner of ephemera.<ref name=kakk/>

== Awards and recognition ==
[[File:Ronald Ross plaque, Johnston Building, Liverpool.jpg|thumb|Plaque at Liverpool University – on the Johnston Building, formerly the Johnston Laboratories, near Ashton Street, [[Liverpool]]]]
[[File:Ross's name remembered on the London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine.JPG|thumb|Ross's name remembered on the London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine]]

Ronald Ross was awarded the Nobel Prize for Physiology or Medicine in 1902 "for his work on malaria, by which he has shown how it enters the organism and thereby has laid the foundation for successful research on this disease and methods of combating it".<ref>{{cite web|title=Ronald Ross – Facts|url=https://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medicine/laureates/1902/ross-facts.html|publisher=Nobel Media AB|access-date=31 January 2014}}</ref>

20 August is celebrated by [[London School of Hygiene & Tropical Medicine]] as ''[[World Mosquito Day]]'' to commemorate Ross's discovery in 1897.<ref>{{cite web|title=World Mosquito Day|url=http://malarianomore.org.uk/world-mosquito-day|publisher=Malaria No More UK|access-date=31 January 2014|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140202095757/http://malarianomore.org.uk/world-mosquito-day|archive-date=2 February 2014|df=dmy-all}}</ref> Additionally, Ross's name, along with 22 other pioneers of public health and tropical medicine, appears on the School's Frieze.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.lshtm.ac.uk/library/archives/history/frieze/|title=Behind the Frieze {{!}} London School of Hygiene & Tropical Medicine {{!}} LSHTM.|website=www.lshtm.ac.uk|language=en|access-date=2017-03-21|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170202001531/http://www.lshtm.ac.uk/library/archives/history/frieze/|archive-date=2 February 2017|df=dmy-all}}</ref> The papers of Sir Ronald Ross are now preserved by the [[London School of Hygiene & Tropical Medicine|London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine]]<ref name="cdc" /><ref name="O" /> and the [[Royal College of Physicians and Surgeons of Glasgow]].<ref name="rcpsg" />

He was elected a [[List of Fellows of the Royal Society elected in 1901|Fellow of the Royal Society (FRS) in 1901]] and of the [[Royal College of Surgeons of England|Royal College of Surgeons]] in the same year. He was appointed vice-president of the [[Royal Society]] from 1911 to 1913. In 1902 he was appointed a Companion of the Most Honourable [[Order of the Bath]] by King Edward VII. In 1911 he was promoted to the rank of [[Knight Commander of the Bath|Knight Commander of the same Order]]. He was also decorated with the title Officer of the [[Order of Leopold II]] of Belgium.<ref name="cdc" />

Ross received honorary membership of learned societies of most countries in Europe, and elsewhere. He got an honorary M.D. degree in [[Stockholm]] in 1910 at the centenary celebration of the [[Caroline Institute]] and his 1923 autobiography ''Memoirs ''was awarded that year's [[James Tait Black Memorial Prize]]. While his vivacity and single-minded search for truth caused friction with some people, he enjoyed a vast circle of friends in Europe, Asia and the United States who respected him for his personality as well as for his genius.<ref name="cdc" />

In India, Ross is remembered with great respect as a result of his work on malaria, the deadly epidemic which used to claim thousands of lives every year. There are roads named after him in many Indian towns and cities. In [[Calcutta]] the road linking [[Presidency General Hospital]] with [[Kidderpore]] Road has been renamed after him as Sir Ronald Ross Sarani. Earlier this road was known as Hospital Road. In his memory, the regional infectious disease hospital at [[Hyderabad, Telangana|Hyderabad]] was named [[Sir Ronald Ross Institute of Tropical and Communicable Diseases]]. The building where he worked and actually discovered the malarial parasite, located in Secunderabad near the [[Begumpet Airport]], is a declared a heritage site and the road leading up to the building is named Sir Ronald Ross Road.

In [[Ludhiana]], [[Christian Medical College Ludhiana|Christian Medical College]] has named its hostel as "Ross Hostel". The young medics often refer to themselves as "Rossians".

The [[University of Surrey]], UK, has named a road after him in its Manor Park Residences.<ref>{{cite web|title=Manor Park Residences|publisher=University of Surrey|url=http://portal.surrey.ac.uk/pls/portal/docs/PAGE/ACCOM/UG/ARRIVAL/MANOR_PARK_WIDE.PDF|access-date=31 August 2009|archive-date=19 February 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120219205531/http://portal.surrey.ac.uk/pls/portal/docs/PAGE/ACCOM/UG/ARRIVAL/MANOR_PARK_WIDE.PDF|url-status=dead}}</ref>

Ronald Ross Primary School near [[Wimbledon Common]] is named after him. The school's crest includes a mosquito in one quarter.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ronaldross.org.uk/ |title=Ronald Ross Primary School – Home |publisher=Ronaldross.org.uk |date=22 November 2012 |access-date=2 December 2012}}</ref>

[[Sir Ronald Ross Institute of Parasitology]] was established in memory of Ronald Ross in Hyderabad, under [[Osmania University]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.osmania.ac.in/srrip/ |title=Sir Ronald Ross Institute of Parasitoloy |publisher=Osmania.ac.in |access-date=2 December 2012}}</ref>

In 2010 the [[University of Liverpool]] named its new biological science building "The Ronald Ross Building" in his honour. His grandson David Ross inaugurated it. The building is home to the university's facility for the Institute of Infection and Global Health.<ref>{{cite web|title=Opening of The Ronald Ross Building|url=http://www.liv.ac.uk/infection-and-global-health/news/articles/gallery-opening-of-the-ronald-ross-building/|access-date=31 January 2014|date=10 October 2010|publisher=Institute of Infection and Global Health, University of Liverpool}}</ref>

== See also ==
{{portal bar|Poetry|Biography}}

*[[Mosquito-malaria theory]]
* [[Albert Freeman Africanus King]]
* [[Paul de Kruif]]
* ''[[Plasmodium]]''
* [[History of malaria]]

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

== Further reading ==

*{{cite book|last1=Ross|first1=Ronald|title=Memoirs, with a full account of the great malaria problem and its solution|orig-year=1923|publisher=Nabu Press (originally John Murray, London)|location=South Carolina|isbn=978-1179199481|year=2011|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8oJvRAAACAAJ}}
*{{cite book|last1=de Kruif|first1=Paul|title=Microbe Hunters|year=1996|publisher=A Harvest Book|location=San Diego|isbn=978-0-15-602777-9|pages=256–285|orig-year=1926|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pH24vLpivRgC}}
*Malcolm Watson (1930). ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=SQ77MgEACAAJ&dq Ronald Ross, 1857–1932]''. Reprinted from ''Science Progress.''
*James Oram Dobson (1934). ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=IXwXAQAAMAAJ&q Ronald Ross, dragon slayer: a short account of a great discovery and of the man who made it]''. Student Christian Movement Press, p.&nbsp;112
*{{cite book|last=Nye|first=Edwin R.|title=Ronald Ross : Malariologist and Polymath : a Biography|year=1997|publisher=St. Martin's Press, Inc.|location=New York|isbn=0-312-16296-0|author2=Gibson, Mary E.}}
*{{cite book|last1=Bynum|first1=William F.|last2=Overy|first2=Caroline|title=The Beast in the Mosquito: the Correspondence of Ronald Ross and Patrick Manson|year=1998|publisher=Rodopi|location=Amsterdam|isbn=978-9-0420-0731-4|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7VJUrOwWO7UC}}
*{{cite book|last1=Cook|first1=G.C.|title=Tropical Medicine an Illustrated History of the Pioneers|year=2007|publisher=Academic Press|location=London|isbn=978-0-08-055939-1|pages=68–81|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iB_ibIXxhOMC}}

== External links ==
{{commons category|Ronald Ross}}
{{wikisource|works=or}}
* {{Gutenberg author|id=44647}}
* {{FadedPage|id=Ross, Ronald|name=Ronald Ross|author=yes}}
* [http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9064138/Sir-Ronald-Ross Biography] in The Britannica Encyclopedia
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20110324212653/http://www.liv.ac.uk/precinct/jan2002/9.html Unveiling of a 'Blue Plaque' memorial to Ross at the University of Liverpool's Johnston Laboratories where he had worked]
* [http://www.greatmirror.com/index.cfm?countryid=580&chapterid=181&picid=8&picturesize=medium Commemorative inscription]
* [http://www.zephyrus.co.uk/ronaldross.html Anecdotes from Ronald Ross' life]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20060614023439/http://stevenlehrer.com/explorers/chapter_6-5.htm Ross and the Birds] in Steven Lehrer's website (archive)
* [http://www.royalsoc.ac.uk/DServe/dserve.exe?dsqIni=Dserve.ini&dsqApp=Archive&dsqCmd=Show.tcl&dsqSearch=RefNo=='EC/1901/10'&dsqDb=Catalog Royal Society citation (1901)]
* {{Nobelprize}}
* [https://www.cdc.gov/malaria/history/ross.htm Ross and the Discovery that Mosquitoes Transmit Malaria Parasites]
* Ross's three part paper on the theory of epidemics is available on the web
** {{Cite journal | last1 = Ross | first1 = R. | title = An Application of the Theory of Probabilities to the Study of a priori Pathometry. Part I | doi = 10.1098/rspa.1916.0007 | journal = Proceedings of the Royal Society A: Mathematical, Physical and Engineering Sciences | volume = 92 | issue = 638 | pages = 204–226 | year = 1916 |bibcode = 1916RSPSA..92..204R | doi-access = free }}
** {{Cite journal | last1 = Ross | first1 = R. | last2 = Hudson | first2 = H. P. | doi = 10.1098/rspa.1917.0014 | title = An Application of the Theory of Probabilities to the Study of a priori Pathometry. Part II | journal = Proceedings of the Royal Society A: Mathematical, Physical and Engineering Sciences | volume = 93 | issue = 650 | pages = 212–225 | year = 1917 |bibcode = 1917RSPSA..93..212R | doi-access = free }}
** {{Cite journal | last1 = Ross | first1 = R. | last2 = Hudson | first2 = H. P. | doi = 10.1098/rspb.1917.0008 | title = An Application of the Theory of Probabilities to the Study of a Priori Pathometry.--Part III | journal = Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences | volume = 89 | issue = 621 | pages = 507 | year = 1917 | url = https://zenodo.org/record/1432021 | bibcode = 1917RSPSB..89R.507R | doi-access = free }}
* {{Librivox author}}
* {{PM20}}

{{Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine Laureates 1901-1925}}
{{1902 Nobel Prize winners}}

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Ross, Ronald}}
[[Category:1857 births]]
[[Category:1932 deaths]]
[[Category:19th-century British mathematicians]]
[[Category:19th-century British poets]]
[[Category:20th-century British mathematicians]]
[[Category:20th-century British medical doctors]]
[[Category:20th-century British novelists]]
[[Category:20th-century British poets]]
[[Category:Alumni of the Medical College of St Bartholomew's Hospital]]
[[Category:Alumni of Queen Mary University of London]]
[[Category:British Nobel laureates]]
[[Category:British parasitologists]]
[[Category:British public health doctors]]
[[Category:Fellows of the Royal Society]]
[[Category:Fellows of the Royal College of Surgeons of England]]
[[Category:Indian Medical Service officers]]
[[Category:British people in colonial India]]
[[Category:James Tait Black Memorial Prize recipients]]
[[Category:Knights Commander of the Order of the Bath]]
[[Category:Malariologists]]
[[Category:Nobel laureates in Physiology or Medicine]]
[[Category:People from Almora]]
[[Category:People from the Bengal Presidency]]
[[Category:Royal Medal winners]]
[[Category:Scottish Nobel laureates]]
[[Category:Manson medal winners]]
[[Category:British tropical physicians]]
[[Category:British male poets]]
[[Category:British male novelists]]
[[Category:Knights Commander of the Order of St Michael and St George]]
[[Category:19th-century Indian male writers]]
[[Category:Presidents of the Poetry Society]]
[[Category:Presidents of the Royal Society of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene]]
[[Category:Academics of the Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine]]
[[Category:People from Bombay Presidency]]