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{{Short description|British learned society}}
{{About|the national academy of science in the United Kingdom|other uses}}
{{Good article}}
{{Use British English|date=August 2022}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=August 2022}}
{{Infobox organization
| name                = The Royal Society of London for Improving Natural Knowledge
| image               = Coat of arms of the Royal Society.svg
| caption             = [[#Coat of arms|Coat of arms]]
| alt                 = Sketch of the coat of arms; refer to article text for description
| size                = 200px
| remarks             = Motto: ''[[Nullius in verba]]''<br />("Take nobody's word for it")<!-- This is the RS translation; please do not change it -->
| formation           = {{Start date and age|df=yes|1660|11|28}}
| headquarters        = London, {{postcode|SW|1}}<br />United Kingdom
| coords              = {{coord|51|30|21|N|0|07|56|W|display=inline,title}}
| leader_title        = Patron
| leader_name         = [[Charles III]]
| leader_title2       = President
| leader_name2        = [[Adrian Smith (statistician)|Sir Adrian Smith]]
| leader_title3       = Foreign Secretary
| leader_name3        = [[Mark Walport]] and [[Alison Noble]] (jointly)
| leader_title4       = Treasurer
| leader_name4        = [[Jonathan Keating]]
| main_organ          = Council
| membership          = {{Plainlist|
* ~1,600 Fellows
* ~225 Foreign Members
* 4 Royal Fellows}}
| staff               = ~225
| website             = {{official URL}}
}}
[[File:Royal Society entrance.jpg|thumb|Entrance to the Royal Society at 6–9 [[Carlton House Terrace]], London]]
The '''Royal Society''', formally '''The Royal Society of London for Improving Natural Knowledge''', is a [[learned society]] and the United Kingdom's national [[academy of sciences]].<ref name="royalsociety.org">{{cite web |url=https://royalsociety.org/~/media/Royal_Society_Content/about-us/history/2012-Supplemental-Charter.pdf |title=The formal title as adopted in the royal charter |website=Royal Society |access-date=14 November 2014 |archive-date=10 April 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160410195851/https://royalsociety.org/~/media/Royal_Society_Content/about-us/history/2012-Supplemental-Charter.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref> The society fulfils a number of roles: promoting science and its benefits, recognising excellence in science, supporting outstanding science, providing scientific advice for policy, education and public engagement and fostering international and global co-operation. Founded on 28 November 1660, it was granted a [[royal charter]] by [[Charles II of England|King Charles&nbsp;II]] and is the oldest continuously existing scientific academy in the world.<ref>Ellis Rubinstein, "[https://publicacions.iec.cat/repository/pdf/00000179/00000067.pdf Science Academies in the 21st Century: Can they address the world's challenges in novel ways?]" Treballs de la SCB. Vol. 63, 2012, pp. 390. {{doi|10.2436/20.1501.02.130}}. {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230205072347/https://publicacions.iec.cat/repository/pdf/00000179/00000067.pdf |date=5 February 2023 }}.</ref>

The society is governed by its Council, which is chaired by the society's president, according to a set of statutes and standing orders. The members of Council and the president are elected from and by its Fellows, the basic members of the society, who are themselves elected by existing Fellows. {{As of|2020}}, there are about 1,700 fellows, allowed to use the postnominal title FRS ([[Fellow of the Royal Society]]), with up to 73 new fellows appointed each year from a pool of around 800 candidates.<ref name=fellow/> There are also royal fellows, honorary fellows and foreign members. Up to 24 new foreign members are appointed each year (from the same pool of 800) and they are allowed to use the postnominal title ForMemRS (Foreign Member of the Royal Society). The Royal Society president is [[Adrian Smith (statistician)|Adrian Smith]], who took up the post and started his five-year term on 30 November 2020,<ref name=fellow/> replacing the previous president, [[Venki Ramakrishnan]].

Since 1967, the society has been based at 6–9 [[Carlton House Terrace]], a Grade I [[listed building]] in [[central London]] which was previously used by the [[Embassy of Germany, London]].

==History==

===Founding and early years===
{{details|Gresham College and the formation of the Royal Society}}

The [[Invisible College]] has been described as a precursor group to the Royal Society of London, consisting of a number of [[natural philosopher]]s around [[Robert Boyle]]. The concept of "invisible college" is mentioned in German [[Rosicrucian]] pamphlets in the early 17th century. [[Ben Jonson]] in England referenced the idea, related in meaning to [[Francis Bacon]]'s [[Salomon's House|House of Solomon]], in a [[masque]] ''[[The Fortunate Isles and Their Union]]'' from 1624/5.<ref>{{Cite book |title=Collected Essays Vol. III |last=Yates |first=Frances |year=1984 |pages=253}}</ref> The term accrued currency in the exchanges of correspondence within the [[Republic of Letters]].<ref>David A. Kronick, ''The Commerce of Letters: Networks and "Invisible Colleges" in Seventeenth- and Eighteenth-Century Europe'', The Library Quarterly, Vol. 71, No. 1 (Jan. 2001), pp. 28–43; {{JSTOR|4309484}}</ref>

In letters dated 1646 and 1647, Boyle refers to "our invisible college" or "our philosophical college". The society's common theme was to acquire knowledge through experimental investigation.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www-history.mcs.st-and.ac.uk/Societies/RS.html |title=JOC/EFR: The Royal Society, August 2004 retrieved online: 2009-05-14 |access-date=20 February 2018 |archive-date=11 April 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100411052114/http://www-history.mcs.st-and.ac.uk/Societies/RS.html |url-status=live }}</ref> Three dated letters are the basic documentary evidence: Boyle sent them to Isaac Marcombes (Boyle's former tutor and a [[Huguenot]], who was then in [[Geneva]]), [[Francis Tallents]] who at that point was a fellow of [[Magdalene College, Cambridge]],<ref>{{acad|id=TLNS636F|name=Tallents, Francis}}</ref> and London-based [[Samuel Hartlib]].<ref name="Purver">Margery Purver, ''The Royal Society: Concept and Creation'' (1967), Part II Chapter 3, ''The Invisible College''.</ref>

[[File:JohnEvelyn1687.jpg|thumb|[[John Evelyn]], who helped to found the Royal Society]]

The Royal Society started from groups of physicians and [[natural philosopher]]s, meeting at a variety of locations, including [[Gresham College]] in London and [[Wadham College]] in Oxford University.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Founding the Royal Society |url=https://www.wadham.ox.ac.uk/about/founding-the-royal-society |access-date=2025-04-21 |website=www.wadham.ox.ac.uk |language=en}}</ref> They were influenced by the "[[Scientific method|new science]]", as promoted by [[Francis Bacon]] in his ''[[New Atlantis]]'', from approximately 1645 onwards.<ref>Syfret (1948) p. 75</ref> A group known as "[[Oxford_Philosophical_Club|Philosophical Society of Oxford]]" was run by [[John Wilkins|John Wilkins, Warden of Wadham College]] under a set of rules still retained by the [[Bodleian Library]].<ref name=sy1s/> After the [[English Restoration]], there were regular meetings at Gresham College.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www-groups.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~history/Societies/RS.html |title=London Royal Society |publisher=[[University of St Andrews]] |access-date=8 December 2009 |archive-date=14 April 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090414152731/http://www-groups.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~history/Societies/RS.html |url-status=live }}</ref> It is widely held that these groups were the inspiration for the foundation of the Royal Society.<ref name=sy1s>Syfret (1948) p. 78</ref>

An alternative view of the founding, held at the time, was that it was due to the influence of French scientists and the [[Montmor Academy]] in 1657, reports of which were sent back to England by English scientists attending. This view was held by [[Jean-Baptiste du Hamel]], [[Giovanni Domenico Cassini]], [[Bernard le Bovier de Fontenelle]] and [[Melchisédech Thévenot]] at the time and has some grounding in that [[Henry Oldenburg]], the society's first secretary, had attended the Montmor Academy meeting.<ref>Syfret (1948) p. 79</ref> [[Robert Hooke]], however, disputed this, writing that:

<blockquote>[Cassini] makes, then, Mr Oldenburg to have been the instrument, who inspired the English with a desire to imitate the French, in having Philosophical Clubs, or Meetings; and that this was the occasion of founding the Royal Society, and making the French the first. I will not say, that Mr Oldenburg did rather inspire the French to follow the English, or, at least, did help them, and hinder us. But 'tis well known who were the principal men that began and promoted that design, both in this city and in Oxford; and that a long while before Mr Oldenburg came into England. And not only these Philosophic Meetings were before Mr Oldenburg came from Paris; but the Society itself was begun before he came hither; and those who then knew Mr Oldenburg, understood well enough how little he himself knew of philosophic matter.<ref>Syfret (1948) p. 80</ref></blockquote>

[[File:RoyalSocMace20040420.jpg|thumb|Mace granted by Charles II]]
On 28 November 1660, which is considered the official foundation date of the Royal Society, a meeting at [[Gresham College]] of 12 [[natural philosopher]]s decided to commence a "Colledge for the Promoting of Physico-Mathematicall Experimentall Learning". Amongst those founders were [[Christopher Wren]], [[Robert Boyle]], [[John Wilkins]], [[William Brouncker, 2nd Viscount Brouncker|William Brouncker]] and [[Robert Moray]].<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.nma.gov.au/exhibitions/exploration-and-endeavour/royal-society-london |title=The Royal Society of London |website=[[National Museum of Australia]] |access-date=28 November 2022 |archive-date=28 November 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221128070415/https://www.nma.gov.au/exhibitions/exploration-and-endeavour/royal-society-london |url-status=live }}</ref>

At the second meeting, [[Robert Moray|Sir Robert Moray]] announced that the [[Charles II of England|King]] approved of the gatherings, and a [[royal charter]] was signed on 15 July 1662 which created the "Royal Society of London", with [[William Brouncker, 2nd Viscount Brouncker|Lord Brouncker]] serving as the first president.{{sfn|McKie|1960}} A second royal charter was signed on 23 April 1663, with the king noted as the founder and with the name of "the Royal Society of London for the Improvement of Natural Knowledge"; [[Robert Hooke]] was appointed as Curator of Experiments in November.{{sfn|McKie|1960}} This initial royal favour has continued and, since then, every monarch has been the patron of the society.<ref name="pw">{{cite web |url=http://royalsociety.org/News.aspx?id=973&terms=prince+of+wales |title=Prince of Wales opens Royal Society's refurbished building |date=7 July 2004 |publisher=The Royal Society |access-date=7 December 2009|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120520230010/https://royalsociety.org/news.aspx?id=973&terms=prince+of+wales|archive-date=20 May 2012}}</ref>

The society's early meetings included experiments performed first by Hooke and then by [[Denis Papin]], who was appointed in 1684. These experiments varied in their subject area, and were both important in some cases and trivial in others.<ref name=hen1>Henderson (1941) p. 29</ref> The society also published an English translation of ''Essays of Natural Experiments Made in the Accademia del Cimento, under the Protection of the Most Serene Prince Leopold of Tuscany'' in 1684, an Italian book documenting experiments at the [[Accademia del Cimento]].<ref>Henderson (1941) p. 28</ref> Although meeting at Gresham College, the society temporarily moved to [[Arundel House]] in 1666 after the [[Great Fire of London]], which did not harm Gresham but did lead to its appropriation by the Lord Mayor. The society returned to Gresham in 1673.<ref>Martin (1967) p. 13</ref>

There had been an attempt in 1667 to establish a permanent "college" for the society. Michael Hunter argues that this was influenced by "[[Solomon's House]]" in Bacon's ''New Atlantis'' and, to a lesser extent, by [[Johannes Valentinus Andreae|J. V. Andreae]]'s ''Christianopolis'', dedicated research institutes, rather than the colleges at [[University of Oxford|Oxford]] and [[University of Cambridge|Cambridge]], since the founders only intended for the society to act as a location for research and discussion. The first proposal was given by [[John Evelyn]] to [[Robert Boyle]] in a letter dated 3 September 1659; he suggested a grander scheme, with apartments for members and a central research institute. Similar schemes were expounded by [[Bengt Skytte]] and later [[Abraham Cowley]], who wrote in his ''Proposition for the Advancement of Experimental Philosophy'' in 1661 of a "'Philosophical College", with houses, a library and a chapel. The society's ideas were simpler and only included residences for a handful of staff, but Hunter maintains an influence from Cowley and Skytte's ideas.<ref>Hunter (1984) p. 160</ref> Henry Oldenburg and [[Thomas Sprat]] put forward plans in 1667 and Oldenburg's co-secretary, [[John Wilkins]], moved in a council meeting on 30 September 1667 to appoint a committee "for raising contributions among the members of the society, in order to build a college".<ref>Hunter (1984) p. 161</ref> These plans were progressing by November 1667, but never came to anything, given the lack of contributions from members and the "unrealised—perhaps unrealistic"—aspirations of the society.<ref>Hunter (1984) p. 179</ref>

===18th century===
[[File:GodfreyKneller-IsaacNewton-1689.jpg|right|thumb|upright|[[Sir Isaac Newton]] FRS, President of Royal Society, 1703–1727. Newton was one of the earliest Fellows of the Royal Society, elected in 1672.]]
[[File:2ndEarlOfHardwicke.jpg|right|thumb|upright|[[Philip Yorke, 2nd Earl of Hardwicke|Lord Hardwicke]], leader of the "Hardwicke Circle" that dominated society politics during the 1750s and '60s]]

During the 18th century, the gusto that had characterised the early years of the society faded; with a small number of scientific "greats" compared to other periods, little of note was done. In the second half, it became customary for [[His Majesty's Government]] to refer highly important scientific questions to the council of the society for advice, something that, despite the non-partisan nature of the society, spilled into politics in 1777 over [[lightning conductor]]s. The pointed lightning conductor had been invented by [[Benjamin Franklin]] in 1749, while [[Benjamin Wilson (painter)|Benjamin Wilson]] invented blunted ones. During the argument that occurred when deciding which to use, opponents of Franklin's invention accused supporters of being American allies rather than being British, and the debate eventually led to the resignation of the society's president, [[John Pringle (physician)|Sir John Pringle]]. During the same time period, it became customary to appoint society fellows to serve on government committees where science was concerned, something that still continues.<ref name=hend2>Henderson (1941) p.30</ref>

The 18th century featured remedies to many of the society's early problems. The number of fellows had increased from 110 to approximately 300 by 1739, the reputation of the society had increased under the presidency of [[Isaac Newton|Sir Isaac Newton]] from 1703 until his death in 1727,<ref name="newt">{{cite web |url=http://www-history.mcs.st-and.ac.uk/Biographies/Newton.html |title=Newton biography |publisher=University of St Andrews |access-date=28 December 2009 |archive-date=2 April 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190402130624/http://www-history.mcs.st-and.ac.uk/Biographies/Newton.html |url-status=live }}</ref> and editions of the ''[[Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society]]'' were appearing regularly.<ref>Lyons (April 1939) p.34</ref> During his time as president, Newton arguably abused his authority; in a dispute between himself and [[Gottfried Leibniz]] over the invention of [[infinitesimal calculus]], he used his position to appoint an "impartial" committee to decide it, eventually publishing a report written by himself in the committee's name.<ref name="newt"/> In 1705, the society was informed that it could no longer rent Gresham College and began a search for new premises. After unsuccessfully applying to [[Anne, Queen of Great Britain|Queen Anne]] for new premises, and asking the trustees of Cotton House if they could meet there, the council bought two houses in Crane Court, [[Fleet Street]], on 26 October 1710.<ref>Martin (1967) p.14</ref> This included offices, accommodation and a collection of curiosities. Although the overall fellowship contained few noted scientists, most of the council were highly regarded, and included at various times [[John Hadley]], [[William Jones (mathematician)|William Jones]] and [[Hans Sloane]].<ref>Lyons (April 1939) p.35</ref> Because of the laxness of fellows in paying their subscriptions, the society ran into financial difficulty during this time; by 1740, the society had a deficit of £240. This continued into 1741, at which point the treasurer began dealing harshly with fellows who had not paid.<ref>Lyons (April 1939) p.38</ref> The business of the society at this time continued to include the demonstration of experiments and the reading of formal and important scientific papers, along with the demonstration of new scientific devices and queries about scientific matters from both Britain and Europe.<ref>Lyons (April 1939) p.40</ref>

Some modern research has asserted that the claims of the society's degradation during the 18th century are false. Richard Sorrenson writes that "far from having 'fared ingloriously', the society experienced a period of significant productivity and growth throughout the eighteenth century", pointing out that many of the sources critical accounts are based on are in fact written by those with an agenda.<ref>Sorrenson (1996) p. 29</ref> While [[Charles Babbage]] wrote that the practice of pure mathematics in Britain was weak, laying the blame at the doorstep of the society, the practice of mixed mathematics was strong and although there were not many eminent members of the society, some did contribute vast amounts&nbsp;– [[James Bradley]], for example, established the [[astronomical nutation|nutation of the Earth's axis]] with 20 years of detailed, meticulous astronomy.<ref>Sorrenson (1996) p. 31</ref>

Politically within the society, the mid-18th century featured a "[[Whigs (British political party)|Whig]] supremacy" as the so-called "Hardwicke Circle" of Whig-leaning scientists held the society's main Offices. Named after [[Philip Yorke, 2nd Earl of Hardwicke|Lord Hardwicke]], the group's members included [[Daniel Wray]] and [[Thomas Birch]] and was most prominent in the 1750s and '60s. The circle had Birch elected secretary and, following the resignation of [[Martin Folkes]], the circle helped oversee a smooth transition to the presidency of [[George Parker, 2nd Earl of Macclesfield|Earl Macclesfield]], whom Hardwicke helped elect.<ref>Miller (1998) p. 78</ref> Under Macclesfield, the circle reached its "zenith", with members such as Lord Willoughby and Birch serving as vice-president and secretary respectively. The circle also influenced goings-on in other learned societies, such as the [[Society of Antiquaries of London]]. After Macclesfield's retirement, the circle had [[James Douglas, 14th Earl of Morton|Lord Morton]] elected in 1764 and [[John Pringle (physician)|Sir John Pringle]] elected in 1772.<ref>Miller (1998) p. 79</ref> By this point, the previous Whig "majority" had been reduced to a "faction", with Birch and Willoughby no longer involved, and the circle declined in the same time frame as the political party did in British politics under [[George&nbsp;III]], falling apart in the 1780s.<ref>Miller (1998) p. 85</ref>

In 1780, the society moved again, this time to [[Somerset House]]. The property was offered to the society by His Majesty's Government and, as soon as [[Joseph Banks|Sir Joseph Banks]] became president in November 1778, he began planning the move. Somerset House, while larger than Crane Court, was not satisfying to the fellows; the room to store the library was too small, the accommodation was insufficient and there was not enough room to store the museum at all. As a result, the museum was handed to the [[British Museum]] in 1781 and the library was extended to two rooms, one of which was used for council meetings.<ref>Martin (1967) p. 16</ref>

===19th century===
[[File:Burlington House ILN 1873.jpg|thumb|[[Burlington House]], where the society was based between 1873 and 1967]]
The early 19th century has been seen as a time of decline for the society; of 662 fellows in 1830, only 104 had contributed to the ''[[Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society|Philosophical Transactions]]''. The same year, [[Charles Babbage]] published ''Reflections on the Decline of Science in England, and on Some of Its Causes'', which was deeply critical of the society. The scientific Fellows of the society were spurred into action by this, and eventually [[James South]] established a Charters Committee "with a view to obtaining a supplementary Charter from the Crown", aimed primarily at looking at ways to restrict membership. The Committee recommended that the election of Fellows take place on one day every year, that the Fellows be selected on consideration of their scientific achievements and that the number of Fellows elected a year be limited to 15. This limit was increased to 17 in 1930 and 20 in 1937.<ref name=hend2/> As of 2024, 85 Fellows and 24 Foreign Members are elected each year.<ref>{{cite web |title=About elections |url=https://royalsociety.org/fellows-directory/election/ |website=royalsociety.org |access-date=3 December 2024}}</ref> This had a number of effects on the society: first, the society's membership became almost entirely scientific, with few political Fellows or patrons. Second, the number of Fellows was significantly reduced—between the years 1700 and 1850, the number of Fellows rose from approximately 100 to approximately 750. From then until 1941, the total number of Fellows was always between 400 and 500.<ref>Henderson (1941) p. 31</ref>

The period did lead to some reform of internal Society statutes, such as in 1823 and 1831. The most important change there was the requirement that the Treasurer publish an annual report, along with a copy of the total income and expenditure of the society. These were to be sent to Fellows at least 14 days before the general meeting, with the intent being to ensure the election of competent Officers by making it readily apparent what existing Officers were doing. This was accompanied by a full list of Fellows standing for Council positions, where previously the names had only been announced a couple of days before. As with the other reforms, this helped ensure that Fellows had a chance to vet and properly consider candidates.<ref>Lyons (November 1939) p.92</ref> 

In 1850 the society accepted the responsibility of administering a government [[grant-in-aid]] of scientific research of £1,000 per year;<ref>{{Cite journal |date=1 June 1876 |title=Government Aid to Scientific Research |journal=Nature |language=en |volume=14 |issue=348 |pages=185–186 |doi=10.1038/014185a0 |bibcode=1876Natur..14..185. |s2cid=4116633 |issn=1476-4687|doi-access=free }}</ref> this was supplemented in the financial year 1876/1877 by a Government Fund of £4,000 per year, with the society acting as the administering body of these funds, distributing grants to scientists.<ref>{{Cite journal |date=March 1877 |title=Government Grants in Aid of Science |journal=Nature |volume=15 |issue=383 |pages=369|doi=10.1038/015369a0 |bibcode=1877Natur..15..369. |s2cid=4109319 |doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>Hall (1981) p.628</ref> The Government Fund came to an end after a period of five years, after which the Government Grant was increased to £4,000 a year in total.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=MacLeod |first=R. M. |date=1971 |title=The Royal Society and the Government Grant: Notes on the Administration of Scientific Research, 1849–1914 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/2637959 |journal=The Historical Journal |volume=14 |issue=2 |pages=337–348 |doi=10.1017/S0018246X00009638 |jstor=2637959 |s2cid=159794593 |access-date=29 April 2022 |archive-date=3 November 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231103212934/https://www.jstor.org/stable/2637959 |url-status=live |url-access=subscription }}</ref> This grant has now grown to over £47&nbsp;million, some £37&nbsp;million of which is to support around 370 fellowships and professorships.<ref name="Parliamentary Grant">{{cite web |url=https://royalsociety.org/about-us/reporting/parliamentary-grant/ |title=Parliamentary Grant |publisher=The Royal Society |access-date=28 October 2014 |archive-date=12 July 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140712130202/https://royalsociety.org/about-us/reporting/parliamentary-grant/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://royalsociety.org/~/media/Royal_Society_Content/about-us/reporting/Royal%20Society%20Delivery%20Plan%202011-15.pdf |title=Parliamentary Grant Delivery Plan 2011–15 |publisher=The Royal Society |access-date=28 October 2014 |archive-date=11 February 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170211081349/https://royalsociety.org/~/media/Royal_Society_Content/about-us/reporting/Royal%20Society%20Delivery%20Plan%202011-15.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref>

By 1852, the congestion at [[Somerset House]] had increased due to the growing number of Fellows. Therefore, the Library Committee asked the Council to petition Her Majesty's Government to find new facilities, with the advice being to bring all the scientific societies, such as the [[Linnean Society of London|Linnean]] and [[Geological Society of London|Geological]] societies, under one roof. In August 1866, the government announced their intention to refurbish [[Burlington House]] and move the [[Royal Academy]] and other societies there. The Academy moved in 1867, while other societies joined when their facilities were built. The Royal Society moved there in 1873, taking up residence in the East Wing.<ref>Martin (1967) p. 17</ref> The top floor was used as accommodation for the Assistant Secretary, while the library was scattered over every room and the old caretaker's apartment was converted into offices. One flaw was the lack of space for the office staff, which was then approximately eighty.<ref>Martin (1967) p. 18</ref>

===20th century===
On 22 March 1945, the first female Fellows were elected to the Royal Society. This followed a statutory amendment in 1944 that read "Nothing herein contained shall render women ineligible as candidates", and was contained in Chapter 1 of Statute 1. Because of the difficulty of co-ordinating all the Fellows during the [[Second World War]], a ballot on making the change was conducted via the post, with 336 Fellows supporting the change and 37 opposing.<ref name=RS1946>{{cite journal |year=1946 |title=Admission of Women into the Fellowship of the Royal Society |journal=Notes and Records of the Royal Society of London |volume=4 |issue=1 |doi=10.1098/rsnr.1946.0006 |page=39 |s2cid=202575203}}</ref> Following approval by the Council, [[Marjory Stephenson]] and [[Kathleen Lonsdale]] were elected as the first female Fellows.<ref name=RS1946/>

In 1947, [[Mary Cartwright]] became the first female [[mathematician]] elected to be a Fellow of the Royal Society.<ref name="frs">{{Cite journal|last1=Hayman|first1=Walter K.|doi=10.1098/rsbm.1999.0070|title=Dame Mary (Lucy) Cartwright, D.B.E. 17 December 1900 – 3 April 1998: Elected F.R.S. 1947|journal=[[Biographical Memoirs of Fellows of the Royal Society]]|volume=46|page=19|year=2000|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref name="obituary">{{cite web|url=http://cwp.library.ucla.edu/articles/ebcart11.html|title=Mistress of Girton whose mathematical work formed the basis of chaos theory|work=Obituaries Electronic Telegraph|date=11 April 1998|access-date=8 March 2017|archive-date=6 November 2004|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20041106094152/http://cwp.library.ucla.edu/articles/ebcart11.html|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="hayman">{{cite journal|url=http://rsbm.royalsocietypublishing.org/content/46/19|author=Walter Hayman|author-link=Walter Hayman|title=Dame Mary (Lucy) Cartwright, D.B.E. 17 December 1900 – 3 April 1998|journal=Biographical Memoirs of Fellows of the Royal Society|volume=46|pages=19–35|date=1 November 2000|access-date=8 March 2017|doi=10.1098/rsbm.1999.0070|doi-access=free|archive-date=8 March 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170308221335/http://rsbm.royalsocietypublishing.org/content/46/19|url-status=live}}</ref> Cartwright was also the first woman to serve on the Council of the Royal Society.<ref name="frs"/>

Due to overcrowding at Burlington House, the society moved to [[Carlton House Terrace]] in 1967.

===21st century===
In October 2020, the Royal Society’s “Science in Emergencies Tasking – COVID” group (SET-C) published a report titled ''COVID-19 vaccine deployment: Behaviour, ethics, misinformation and policy strategies'', led by sociologist [[Melinda Mills]].<ref name="sksav">{{cite news |last1=Knapton |first1=Sarah |title=Spreading anti-vaxx myths 'should be made a criminal offence' |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/2020/11/10/spreading-anti-vaxx-myths-should-made-criminal-offence/ |publisher=Telegraph Media Group Limited |date=10 November 2020 |access-date=7 January 2021 |archive-date=19 March 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210319170040/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/2020/11/10/spreading-anti-vaxx-myths-should-made-criminal-offence/ |url-status=live }}</ref>
The report examined behavioural and policy issues surrounding vaccine uptake, including how governments might respond to misinformation online.<ref>{{cite report|title=COVID-19 vaccine deployment: Behaviour, ethics, misinformation and policy strategies|publisher=The Royal Society|date=October 2020|url=https://royalsociety.org/topics-policy/projects/set-c-covid-19-vaccine-behaviour-ethics-misinformation-policy-strategies/}}</ref>
Commentators such as former Supreme Court Justice [[Jonathan Sumption]] subsequently discussed the limits of regulating online content, arguing in a 2021 opinion column that “science advances by confronting contrary arguments, not by suppressing them.”<ref name="jsyoutube">{{cite news |last1=Sumption |first1=Jonathan |title=YouTube censorship is a symptom of a corrosive philosophy |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/2021/01/07/youtube-censorship-symptom-corrosive-philosophy/ |publisher=Telegraph Media Group Limited |date=7 January 2021 |access-date=7 January 2021 |archive-date=8 January 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210108033405/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/2021/01/07/youtube-censorship-symptom-corrosive-philosophy/ |url-status=live }}</ref>

==== Elon Musk fellowship controversy ====
In October 2025, the ''[[Financial Times]]'' reported that the Royal Society had discussed the fellowship status of [[Elon Musk]]. According to the Society's statement to the newspaper, its incoming president [[Sir Paul Nurse]] had written to Musk, asking him to consider resigning his fellowship if he felt unable to promote or support science. The Society told the ''FT'' that Musk did not respond on that point and that staff concluded it was not in the Society's interests to pursue disciplinary action.<ref>{{cite news |last=Ahuja |first=Anjana |author-link=Anjana Ahuja |date=October 2025 |title=The Royal Society should be protecting science, not Musk |url=https://www.ft.com/content/d4eb987a-a3df-4c81-8675-d4005bd6c1b7 |access-date=8 October 2025 |work=[[Financial Times]] |type=Opinion}}</ref>

==Coat of arms==
[[File:Arms of the Royal Society.svg|thumb|right|upright|Detail of the [[Escutcheon (heraldry)|escutcheon]] of the Royal Society's arms]]
The blazon for the [[coat of arms]] of the Royal Society is ''in a dexter corner of a shield argent our three Lions of England, and for crest a helm adorned with a crown studded with florets, surmounted by an eagle of proper colour holding in one foot a shield charged with our lions: supporters two white hounds gorged with crowns'', with the motto of ''[[nullius in verba]]''. John Evelyn, interested in the early structure of the society, had sketched out at least six possible designs, but in August 1662 [[Charles II of England|Charles&nbsp;II]] told the society that it was allowed to use the arms of England as part of its coat and the society "now resolv'd that the armes of the Society should be, ''a field Argent, with a canton of the armes of England; the supporters two talbots Argent''; Crest, ''an eagle Or holding a shield with the like armes of England, viz. 3 lions''. The words ''Nullius in verba''". This was approved by Charles, who asked [[Garter King of Arms]] to create a diploma for it, and when the second charter was signed on 22 April 1663 the arms were granted to the president, council and fellows of the society along with their successors.<ref>J.D.G.D. (1938) p.37</ref>

The helmet of the arms was not specified in the charter, but the engraver sketched out a [[Helmet (heraldry)#United Kingdom|peer's helmet]] (barred helmet) on the final design, which is used. This is contrary to the heraldic rules, as a society or corporation normally has an esquire's helmet (closed helmet); it is thought that either the engraver was ignorant of this rule, which was not strictly adhered to until around 1615, or that he used the peer's helmet as a compliment to [[William Brouncker, 2nd Viscount Brouncker|Lord Brouncker]], a peer and the first President of the Royal Society.<ref>J.D.G.D. (1938) p.38</ref>

== Charter book ==
Fellows and foreign members are required to sign a book when they join the Royal Society. This book is known as the Charter Book, which has been signed continuously since 1663. All British monarchs have signed the book since then, apart from William and Mary, and Queen Anne.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |title=Turning a new page in the Charter Book |date=8 July 2019 |first1=Louisiane |last1=Ferlier |url=https://royalsociety.org/blog/2019/07/turning-a-new-page-in-the-charter-book/ |access-date=2023-08-02 |website=Royal Society |archive-date=7 June 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230607031755/https://royalsociety.org/blog/2019/07/turning-a-new-page-in-the-charter-book/ |url-status=live }}</ref> In 2019, the book was digitised.<ref name=":0" />

==Motto==
The society's motto, ''[[Nullius in verba]]'', is [[Latin]] for "Take nobody's word for it". It was adopted to signify the fellows' determination to establish facts via experiments and comes from [[Horace]]'s ''[[Epistles (Horace)|Epistles]]'', where he compares himself to a [[gladiator]] who, having retired, is free from control.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://royalsociety.org/about-us/history/ |title=History |publisher=The Royal Society |access-date=29 October 2015 |archive-date=19 May 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200519184323/https://royalsociety.org/about-us/history/ |url-status=live }}</ref>

==Fellows of the Royal Society (FRS)==
{{main|Fellow of the Royal Society|List of Fellows of the Royal Society|List of female Fellows of the Royal Society}}
[[File:J.J Thomson.jpg|right|thumb|upright|[[J. J. Thomson]] was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society in 1884.]]
The society's core members are the fellows: scientists and engineers from the United Kingdom and the Commonwealth selected based on having made "a substantial contribution to the improvement of natural knowledge, including mathematics, engineering science and medical science".<ref>{{cite web |url=http://royalsociety.org/Criteria-for-candidates/ |title=Criteria for candidates |publisher=The Royal Society |access-date=5 December 2009 |archive-date=7 December 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091207124145/http://royalsociety.org/Criteria-for-candidates/ |url-status=dead }}</ref> Fellows are elected for life and gain the right to use the [[Post-nominal letters|postnominal]] [[Fellow of the Royal Society]] (FRS). The rights and responsibilities of fellows also include a duty to financially contribute to the society, the right to stand for council posts and the right to elect new fellows.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://royalsociety.org/rights-and-responsibilities/ |title=The rights and responsibilities of Fellows of the Royal Society |publisher=The Royal Society |access-date=5 December 2009 |archive-date=7 December 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091207124239/http://royalsociety.org/rights-and-responsibilities/ |url-status=dead }}</ref> Up to 52 fellows are elected each year and in 2014 there were about 1,450 living members in total.<ref name=fellow>{{cite web |url=http://royalsociety.org/Fellows/ |title=Fellows |publisher=The Royal Society |access-date=24 March 2014 |archive-date=5 September 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150905100644/https://royalsociety.org/fellows/ |url-status=dead }}</ref> Election to the fellowship is decided by ten sectional committees (each covering a subject area or set of subjects areas) which consist of existing fellows.

The society also elects royal fellows, honorary fellows and foreign members. Royal fellows are those members of the [[British royal family]], representing the [[Monarchy of the United Kingdom|British monarchy]]'s role in promoting and supporting the society, who are recommended by the society's council and elected via postal vote. There are currently four royal fellows: [[Charles III|The King of the United Kingdom]], [[Prince Edward, Duke of Kent|The Duke of Kent]], [[Anne, Princess Royal|The Princess Royal]], and [[William, Prince of Wales|The Prince of Wales]].<ref name=fellow/> Honorary fellows are people who are ineligible to be elected as fellows but nevertheless have "rendered signal service to the cause of science, or whose election would significantly benefit the Society by their great experience in other walks of life". Six honorary fellows have been elected to date, including [[Onora O'Neill, Baroness O'Neill of Bengarve|Baroness O'Neill of Bengarve]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://royalsociety.org/Honorary-Fellows/ |title=Honorary Fellows |publisher=The Royal Society |access-date=5 December 2009 |archive-date=7 December 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091207124540/http://royalsociety.org/Honorary-Fellows/ |url-status=dead }}</ref> Foreign members are scientists from non-Commonwealth nations "who are eminent for their scientific discoveries and attainments". Eight are elected each year by the society and also hold their membership for life. Foreign members are permitted to use the post-nominal ForMemRS (Foreign Member of the Royal Society) and as of August 2020 number about 185.<ref name="ForMemRS">{{cite web |url=http://royalsociety.org/about-us/fellowship/foreign-members/ |title=Foreign Members |publisher=The Royal Society |access-date=16 May 2013 |archive-date=27 September 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100927085642/http://royalsociety.org/about-us/fellowship/foreign-members/ |url-status=dead }}</ref>

[[File:Stephen_Hawking.StarChild.jpg|right|thumb|upright|[[Stephen Hawking]] was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society in 1974.]]
The appointment of fellows was first authorised in the second charter, issued on 22 April 1663, which allowed the president and council, in the two months following the signing, to appoint as fellows any individual they saw fit. This saw the appointment of 94 fellows on 20 May and 4 on 22 June; these 98 are known as the "Original Fellows". After the expiration of this two-month period, any appointments were to be made by the president, council and existing fellows.<ref>de Beer (1950) p.172</ref> Many early fellows were not scientists or particularly eminent intellectuals; it was clear that the early society could not rely on financial assistance from the king, and scientifically trained fellows were few and far between. It was, therefore, necessary to secure the favour of wealthy or important individuals for the society's survival.<ref>Lyons (1939) p.109</ref> While the entrance fee of £4 and the subscription rate of one [[shilling]] a week should have produced £600 a year for the society, many fellows paid neither regularly nor on time.<ref>Lyons (1939) p.110</ref> Two-thirds of the fellows in 1663 were non-scientists; this rose to 71.6% in 1800 before dropping to 47.4% in 1860 as the financial security of the society became more certain.<ref>Lyons (1939) p.112</ref> In May 1846, a committee recommended limiting the annual intake of members to 15 and insisting on scientific eminence; this was implemented, with the result being that the society now consists exclusively of scientific fellows.<ref>Lyons (1938) p.45</ref>

==Structure and governance==
The society is governed by its council, which is chaired by the society's [[List of Presidents of the Royal Society|president]], according to a set of statutes and standing orders. The members of council, the president, and the other officers are elected from and by its fellowship.

===Council===
The council is a body consisting of 20 to 24 fellows,<ref>{{cite web |title=Statutes of the Royal Society |url=https://royalsociety.org/~/media/about-us/governance/royal-society-statutes-290115.pdf |publisher=The Royal Society |access-date=9 March 2023 |archive-date=7 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230307155827/https://royalsociety.org/~/media/about-us/governance/royal-society-statutes-290115.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> including the officers (the president, the treasurer, two secretaries—one from the physical sciences, one from life sciences—and the foreign secretary),<ref>{{cite web |last1=Poliakoff |first1=Martyn |title=The Royal Society, the Foreign Secretary, and International Relations |url=http://www.sciencediplomacy.org/letter-field/2015/royal-society-foreign-secretary-and-international-relations |website=sciencediplomacy.org |publisher=Science & Diplomacy |access-date=24 March 2015 |archive-date=16 May 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190516191053/http://www.sciencediplomacy.org/letter-field/2015/royal-society-foreign-secretary-and-international-relations |url-status=dead }}</ref> one fellow to represent each sectional committee and seven other fellows.<ref name=con>{{cite web |url=http://www2.royalsociety.org/page.asp?id=1026 |title=How is the Society governed? |publisher=The Royal Society |access-date=6 December 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080609015141/http://royalsociety.org/page.asp?id=1026 |archive-date=9 June 2008}}</ref> The council is tasked with directing the society's overall policy, managing all business related to the society, amending, making or repealing the society's standing orders and acting as trustees for the society's possessions and estates. Members are elected annually via a postal ballot, and current standing orders mean that at least ten seats must change hands each year.<ref name=so>{{cite web |url=http://www2.royalsociety.org/page.asp?id=2233 |title=The Council |publisher=The Royal Society |access-date=6 December 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080609051042/http://royalsociety.org/page.asp?id=2233 |archive-date=9 June 2008}}</ref> The council may establish (and is assisted by) a variety of committees,<ref name=so/> which can include not only fellows but also outside scientists.<ref name=con/> Under the charter, the president, two secretaries and the treasurer are collectively the officers of the society.<ref>Lyons (1940) p. 115</ref> The current officers<ref>{{cite web |title=Council |url=https://royalsociety.org/about-us/committees/council-37/ |website=The Royal Society |access-date=2 December 2020 |archive-date=12 November 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201112110737/https://royalsociety.org/about-us/committees/council-37/ |url-status=live }}</ref> are:
* President: [[Adrian Smith (statistician)|Sir Adrian Smith]]
* Treasurer: [[Jonathan Keating]]
* Biological Secretary: [[Linda Partridge]]
* Physical Secretary: [[Sheila Rowan (physicist)|Sheila Rowan]]
* Foreign Secretary: [[Sir Mark Walport]] and [[Alison Noble]] (jointly)

===President===
{{main|List of presidents of the Royal Society}}

The president of the Royal Society is the head of both the society and the council. The details for the presidency were set out in the second charter and initially had no limit on how long a president could serve; under current society statute, the term is five years.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://royalsociety.org/blog/2015/08/misogallus-on-the-warpath/ |title=Misogallus on the warpath |publisher=The Royal Society |access-date=2 December 2020 |archive-date=27 October 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201027091628/https://royalsociety.org/blog/2015/08/misogallus-on-the-warpath/ |url-status=live }}</ref>

The current president is [[Adrian Smith (statistician)|Adrian Smith]], who took over from [[Venki Ramakrishnan]] on 30 November 2020.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://royalsociety.org/news/2020/05/sir-adrian-smith-prs-elect/ |title=Sir Adrian Smith confirmed as President-Elect of the Royal Society |publisher=The Royal Society |access-date=2 December 2020 |archive-date=24 October 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201024035124/https://royalsociety.org/news/2020/05/sir-adrian-smith-prs-elect/ |url-status=live }}</ref> Historically, the duties of the president have been both formal and social. The [[Cruelty to Animals Act, 1876]] left the president as one of the few individuals capable of certifying that a particular experiment on an animal was justified. In addition, the president is to act as the government's chief (albeit informal) advisor on scientific matters. Yet another task is that of entertaining distinguished foreign guests and scientists.<ref>{{cite journal |year=1885 |title=The Presidency of the Royal Society of London |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_science_1885-11-20_6_146/page/442 |journal=Science |volume=6 |issue=146 |doi=10.1126/science.ns-6.146.442 |pmid=17749567 |bibcode=1885Sci.....6..442. |pages=442–3}}</ref>

===Permanent staff===
The society is assisted by a number of full-time paid staff. The original charter provided for "two or more Operators of Experiments, and two or more clerks"; as the number of books in the society's collection grew, it also became necessary to employ a curator. The staff grew as the financial position of the society improved, mainly consisting of outsiders, along with a small number of scientists who were required to resign their fellowship on employment.<ref>Robinson (1946) p.193</ref> The current executive director is [[Julie Maxton|Dame Julie Maxton DBE]].<ref name="ss">{{cite web |url=https://royalsociety.org/about-us/governance/staff/ |title=Staff |publisher=The Royal Society |access-date=1 October 2017 |archive-date=1 October 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171001212911/https://royalsociety.org/about-us/governance/staff/ |url-status=live }}</ref>

==Functions and activities==
[[File:The Royal Society - Senate House History Day 2019.jpg|thumb|The Royal Society Collections at the University of London History Day, 2019]]
The society has a variety of functions and activities. It supports modern science by disbursing over £100&nbsp;million to fund almost 1,000 research fellowships for both early and late-career scientists, along with innovation, mobility and research capacity grants.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://royalsociety.org/grants/ |title=Grants |publisher=The Royal Society |access-date=28 October 2014 |archive-date=9 October 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141009213258/https://royalsociety.org/grants/ |url-status=live }}</ref> Its [[Awards, lectures and medals of the Royal Society|awards, prize lectures and medals]] all come with prize money intended to finance research,<ref name="prs">{{cite web |url=http://royalsociety.org/Awards/ |title=Awards, medals and prize lectures |publisher=The Royal Society |access-date=7 December 2009 |archive-date=15 June 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130615004534/http://royalsociety.org/awards/ |url-status=live }}</ref> and it provides subsidised communications and media skills courses for research scientists.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://royalsociety.org/Communication-and-Media-Training/ |title=Communication skills and Media training courses |publisher=The Royal Society |access-date=7 December 2009 |archive-date=3 December 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091203165431/http://royalsociety.org/Communication-and-Media-Training/ |url-status=live }}</ref> Much of this activity is supported by a grant from the [[Department for Business, Innovation and Skills]], most of which is channelled to the [[Royal Society University Research Fellowship|University Research Fellowships (URF)]].<ref name="Parliamentary Grant"/> In 2008, the society opened the Royal Society Enterprise Fund, intended to invest in new scientific companies and be self-sustaining, funded (after an initial set of donations on the 350th anniversary of the society) by the returns from its investments.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www2.royalsociety.org/enterprisefund/index.htm |title=The Royal Society Enterprise Fund |publisher=The Royal Society Enterprise Fund |access-date=7 December 2009 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100619082943/http://royalsociety.org/enterprisefund/index.htm |archive-date=19 June 2010 }}</ref>

Through its Science Policy Centre, the society acts as an advisor to the [[Government of the United Kingdom|UK Government]], the [[European Commission]] and the [[United Nations]] on matters of science. It publishes several reports a year, and serves as the [[Academy of Sciences]] of the United Kingdom.<ref>{{cite book |title=Science Policy Centre&nbsp;– 2010 and beyond |publisher=The Royal Society |year=2009 |page=3}}</ref> Since the middle of the 18th century, government problems involving science were irregularly referred to the society, and by 1800 it was done regularly.<ref>Hall (1981) p.629</ref>

==Carlton House Terrace==
[[File:Royal Society 20040420.jpg|thumb|The current premises of the Royal Society, 6–9 [[Carlton House Terrace]], London (first four properties only)]]
The premises at 6–9 [[Carlton House Terrace]] is a Grade I listed building and the current headquarters of the Royal Society, which had moved there from [[Burlington House]] in 1967.<ref name=general>{{cite web |url=http://royalsociety.org/History-of-the-Royal-Society/ |title=General |publisher=The Royal Society |access-date=7 December 2009 |archive-date=18 December 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091218075650/http://royalsociety.org/History-of-the-Royal-Society/ |url-status=live }}</ref> The ground floor and basement are used for ceremonies, social and publicity events, the first floor hosts facilities for Fellows and Officers of the society, and the second and third floors are divided between offices and accommodation for the President, Executive Director and Fellows.<ref name=fish1>Fischer (2005) p.66</ref>

Carlton House Terrace was designed by [[John Nash (architect)|John Nash]] as two blocks of houses, with a space in between them.<ref>Summerson (1967) p.20</ref> The building is still owned by the [[Crown Estates]] and leased by the society; it underwent a major renovation from 2001 to 2004 at the cost of £9.8&nbsp;million, and was reopened by [[Charles, Prince of Wales|the Prince of Wales]] on 7 July 2004.<ref name="pw"/>

Carlton House Terrace underwent a series of renovations between 1999 and November 2003 to improve and standardise the property. New waiting, exhibition and reception rooms were created in the house at No.7, using the Magna Boschi marble found in No.8, and greenish grey Statuario Venato marble was used in other areas to standardise the design.<ref name=fish1/> An effort was also made to make the layout of the buildings easier, consolidating all the offices on one floor, Fellows' Rooms on another and all the accommodation on a third.<ref>Fischer (2005) p.67</ref>

==Kavli Royal Society International Centre==
In 2009 [[Chicheley Hall]], a Grade I listed building located near [[Milton Keynes]], was bought by the Royal Society for £6.5&nbsp;million, funded in part by the [[Kavli Foundation (United States)|Kavli Foundation]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/uk/science/article5993113.ece |title="Royal Society snaps up a stately hothouse", Times Online, 29 March 2009 |publisher=Timesonline.co.uk |access-date=17 August 2012 |archive-date=12 November 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231112152353/https://www.thetimes.co.uk/ |url-status=dead }}</ref> The Royal Society spent several million on renovations adapting it to become the Kavli Royal Society International Centre, a venue for residential science seminars. The centre held its first scientific meeting on 1 June 2010 and was formally opened on 21 June 2010.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://royalsociety.org/news/2010/kavli-opening/ |title=Opening of The Kavli Royal Society Centre for the Advancement of Science |publisher=The Royal Society |date=15 September 2010 |access-date=18 May 2021 |archive-date=18 May 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210518161135/https://royalsociety.org/news/2010/kavli-opening/ |url-status=live }}</ref> The centre was permanently closed on 18 June 2020<ref>{{cite news |author=<!--Staff writer(s); no by-line.--> |title=Milton Keynes wedding venue 'to close permanently' due to impact from coronavirus lockdown |url=https://www.mkfm.com/news/local-news/milton-keynes-wedding-venue-to-close-permanently-due-to-impact-from-coronavirus-lockdown |date=19 June 2020 |access-date=18 May 2021 |archive-date=22 June 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210622150144/https://www.mkfm.com/news/local-news/milton-keynes-wedding-venue-to-close-permanently-due-to-impact-from-coronavirus-lockdown/ |url-status=live }}</ref> and the building was sold in 2021.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.thecaterer.com/news/chicheley-hall-sold-7-million-pyrrho-investments |title=Chicheley Hall sold for £7m to Pyrrho Investments |author=Katherine Price |publisher=The Caterer |date=17 March 2021 |access-date=18 May 2021 |archive-date=18 May 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210518161815/https://www.thecaterer.com/news/chicheley-hall-sold-7-million-pyrrho-investments |url-status=live }}</ref>

==Publishing==
[[File:Philosophical Transactions Volume 1 frontispiece.jpg|thumb|Title page of the first edition of the ''[[Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society]]'' published in 1665|alt=Title page of the first edition of the Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society published in 1665|205x205px]]
[[File:Royal Society (Great Britain)-2.jpg|alt=Title page to volume I of Miscellanea curiosa: Being a collection of some of the principal phaenomena in nature, published by the Royal Society (1705)|thumb|249x249px|Title page to volume I of ''Miscellanea curiosa: Being a collection of some of the principal phaenomena in nature'', published by the Royal Society (1705)]]
Through Royal Society Publishing, the society publishes the following journals:<ref>{{cite web |url=http://royalsocietypublishing.org/ |title=Royal Society Publishing |publisher=Royal Society Publishing |access-date=27 December 2009 |archive-date=23 August 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150823112903/http://royalsocietypublishing.org/ |url-status=live }}</ref>
* [[Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society|''Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society A'']] (mathematics and the physical sciences)
* [[Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society|''Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B'']] (biological sciences)
* [[Proceedings of the Royal Society|''Proceedings of the Royal Society A'']]
* [[Proceedings of the Royal Society|''Proceedings of the Royal Society B'']]
* ''[[Biology Letters]]''
* ''[[Open Biology]]''
* ''[[Royal Society Open Science]]''
* ''[[Journal of the Royal Society Interface]]''
* ''[[Interface Focus]]''
* ''[[Notes and Records]]''
* ''[[Biographical Memoirs of Fellows of the Royal Society]]''

The society introduced the world's first journal exclusively devoted to science in 1665, ''[[Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society|Philosophical Transactions]]'', and in so doing originated the [[peer review]] process now widespread in scientific journals. Its founding editor was [[Henry Oldenburg]], the society's first secretary.<ref>Wagner (2006) p. 220-1</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://eprints.soton.ac.uk/263105/1/399we23.htm |title=The Origin of the Scientific Journal and the Process of Peer Review |last=Select Committee on Science and Technology |publisher=Parliament of the United Kingdom |access-date=5 December 2014 |archive-date=27 January 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150127033415/http://eprints.soton.ac.uk/263105/1/399we23.htm |url-status=live }}</ref>
It remains the oldest and longest-running scientific journal in the world. It now publishes themed issues on specific topics and, since 1886,<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://rstl.royalsocietypublishing.org/ |title=Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London |website=rstl.royalsocietypublishing.org |access-date=14 December 2016 |archive-date=6 November 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181106193718/http://rstl.royalsocietypublishing.org/ |url-status=live }}</ref> has been divided into two parts; A, which deals with mathematics and the physical sciences,<ref>{{cite web |url=http://rsta.royalsocietypublishing.org/site/misc/about.xhtml#question4 |title=Philosophical Transactions A&nbsp;– About the journal |publisher=The Royal Society |access-date=11 December 2009 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130703131535/http://rsta.royalsocietypublishing.org/site/misc/about.xhtml#question4 |archive-date=3 July 2013 }}</ref> and B, which deals with the biological sciences.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://rstb.royalsocietypublishing.org/ |title=Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B |publisher=The Royal Society |access-date=11 December 2009 |archive-date=10 May 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090510165346/http://rstb.royalsocietypublishing.org/ |url-status=live }}</ref> 

''[[Proceedings of the Royal Society]]'' consists of freely submitted research articles and is similarly divided into two parts.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://rspa.royalsocietypublishing.org/site/misc/about.xhtml |title=Proceedings A&nbsp;– about the journal |publisher=The Royal Society |access-date=11 December 2009 |archive-date=3 May 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130503180530/http://rspa.royalsocietypublishing.org/site/misc/about.xhtml |url-status=live }}</ref> ''[[Biology Letters]]'' publishes short research articles and opinion pieces on all areas of biology and was launched in 2005.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://rsbl.royalsocietypublishing.org/site/misc/about.xhtml |title=Biology Letters&nbsp;– about this journal |publisher=The Royal Society |access-date=11 December 2009 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130503225507/http://rsbl.royalsocietypublishing.org/site/misc/about.xhtml |archive-date=3 May 2013 }}</ref> ''[[Journal of the Royal Society Interface]]'' publishes cross-disciplinary research at the boundary between the physical and life sciences,<ref>{{cite web |url=http://rsif.royalsocietypublishing.org/site/misc/About.xhtml |title=Journal of the Royal Society Interface&nbsp;– About |publisher=The Royal Society |access-date=11 December 2009 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130522220730/http://rsif.royalsocietypublishing.org/site/misc/About.xhtml |archive-date=22 May 2013 }}</ref> while ''[[Interface Focus]]'',<ref>{{cite web |url=http://rsfs.royalsocietypublishing.org/site/misc/About.xhtml |title=Interface Focus&nbsp;– About |publisher=The Royal Society |access-date=24 February 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111223233454/http://rsfs.royalsocietypublishing.org/site/misc/About.xhtml |archive-date=23 December 2011 }}</ref> publishes themed issue in the same areas. ''[[Notes and Records]]'' is the society's journal of the history of science.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://rsnr.royalsocietypublishing.org/site/misc/about.xhtml |title=About Notes and Records |publisher=The Royal Society |access-date=11 December 2009 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://archive.today/20120719031921/http://rsnr.royalsocietypublishing.org/site/misc/about.xhtml |archive-date=19 July 2012 }}</ref> [[Biographical Memoirs of Fellows of the Royal Society|''Biographical Memoirs'']] is published twice annually and contains extended obituaries of deceased Fellows.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://rsbm.royalsocietypublishing.org/ |title=Biographical Memoirs of Fellows of the Royal Society |publisher=The Royal Society |access-date=11 December 2009 |archive-date=18 March 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110318100710/http://rsbm.royalsocietypublishing.org/ |url-status=live }}</ref> ''[[Open Biology]]'' is an [[open access journal]] covering [[biology]] at the [[Molecular biology|molecular]] and [[Cell biology|cellular level]]. ''[[Royal Society Open Science]]'' is an [[open access journal]] publishing high-quality original research across the entire range of science on the basis of objective peer-review.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://rsos.royalsocietypublishing.org/ |title=ROYAL SOCIETY OPEN SCIENCE {{!}} Open Science |website=rsos.royalsocietypublishing.org |access-date=14 December 2016 |archive-date=1 December 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161201040917/http://rsos.royalsocietypublishing.org/ |url-status=live }}</ref> All the society's journals are [[Peer review|peer-reviewed]].

In May 2021, the society announced plans to transition its four [[Hybrid_open-access_journal|hybrid research journals]] to [[open access]]<ref>{{cite web |url=https://royalsociety.org/news/2021/05/royal-society-open-access-plans/ |title=The Royal Society sets 75% threshold to 'flip' its research journals to Open Access over the next five years |publisher=The Royal Society |access-date=3 June 2021 |date=13 May 2021 |archive-date=3 June 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210603095309/https://royalsociety.org/news/2021/05/royal-society-open-access-plans/ |url-status=live }}</ref>

==Honours==
{{main|Awards, lectures and medals of the Royal Society}}

The Royal Society presents numerous awards, lectures, and medals to recognise scientific achievement.<ref name="prs"/> The oldest is the [[Croonian Lecture]], created in 1701 at the request of the widow of [[William Croone]], one of the founding members of the Royal Society. The Croonian Lecture is still awarded on an annual basis and is considered the most important Royal Society prize for the biological sciences.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://royalsociety.org/grants-schemes-awards/awards/croonian-lecture/ |title=The Croonian Lecture (1738) |publisher=The Royal Society |access-date=7 February 2009 |archive-date=23 June 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200623104625/https://royalsociety.org/grants-schemes-awards/awards/croonian-lecture/ |url-status=live }}</ref> Although the Croonian Lecture was created in 1701, it was first awarded in 1738, seven years after the [[Copley Medal]]. The Copley Medal is the oldest Royal Society medal still in use and is awarded for "outstanding achievements in research in any branch of science".<ref>{{cite web |url=https://royalsociety.org/grants-schemes-awards/awards/copley-medal/ |title=The Copley Medal (1731) |publisher=The Royal Society |access-date=4 February 2009 |archive-date=6 September 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150906190948/https://royalsociety.org/grants-schemes-awards/awards/copley-medal/ |url-status=live }}</ref>

==See also==
* [[Royal Fellow of the Royal Society|Royal Fellows of the Royal Society]]
* [[List of Fellows of the Royal Society]]
* [[List of female Fellows of the Royal Society]]
* [[List of presidents of the Royal Society]]
* [[Academy of Medical Sciences]]
* [[British Academy]]
* [[British Association for the Advancement of Science]]
* [[Laputa]], a fictional island full of absurd inventions put by [[Jonathan Swift]] in ''[[Gulliver's Travels]]'' to mock the Royal Society.
* [[List of British professional bodies]]
* [[List of Royal Societies]]
* [[Royal Institution]]
* [[Royal Academy of Engineering]]
* [[Society Islands]]
* ''[[The Baroque Cycle]]'', a series of historical novels by [[Neal Stephenson]], in which many of the founders of the Royal Society appear.
* The [[Royal Society Range]], a mountain range in [[Antarctica]] named after the society
* [[UK Young Academy]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==Bibliography==
{{refbegin|30em}}
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* {{cite journal |last=Bluhm |first=R.K. |year=1958 |title=Remarks on the Royal Society's Finances, 1660–1768 |journal=Notes and Records of the Royal Society of London |volume=13 |issue=2 |doi=10.1098/rsnr.1958.0012 |page=82 |s2cid=144772434}}
* {{cite journal |last=de Beer |first=E.S. |year=1950 |title=The Earliest Fellows of the Royal Society |journal=Notes and Records of the Royal Society of London |volume=7 |issue=2 |doi=10.1098/rsnr.1950.0014 |page=172|s2cid=202574293 |doi-access=free }}
* Carré, Meyrick H. "The Formation of the Royal Society" ''History Today'' (Aug 1960) 10#8 pp 564–571.
* {{cite journal |author=J.D.G.D. |year=1938 |title=The Arms of the Society |journal=Notes and Records of the Royal Society of London |volume=1 |issue=1 |doi=10.1098/rsnr.1938.0007 |page=37 |doi-access=}}
* {{cite journal |last=Fischer |first=Stephanie |year=2005 |title=Report: The Royal Society Redevelopment |journal=Notes and Records of the Royal Society of London |volume=59 |issue=1 |doi=10.1098/rsnr.2004.0077 |page=65 |s2cid=71782293 |doi-access=}}
* {{cite journal |doi=10.1086/352847 |last=Hall |first=Marie Boas |year=1981 |title=Public Science in Britain: The Role of the Royal Society |journal=[[Isis (journal)|Isis]] |volume=72 |issue=4 |jstor=231253 |pages=627–629 |s2cid=143667490}}
* Hart, Vaughan (2020). ''Christopher Wren: In Search of Eastern Antiquity'', Yale University Press {{ISBN|978-1913107079}}
* {{cite journal |year=1941 |first=L.J. |last=Henderson |title=The Royal Society |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_science_1941-01-10_93_2402/page/26 |journal=[[Science (journal)|Science]] |volume=93 |issue=2402 |doi=10.1126/science.93.2402.27 |pmid=17772875 |bibcode=1941Sci....93...27H |pages=27–32}}
* {{cite journal |last=Hunter |first=Michael |year=1984 |title=A 'College' for the Royal Society: The Abortive Plan of 1667–1668 |journal=Notes and Records of the Royal Society of London |volume=38 |issue=2 |doi=10.1098/rsnr.1984.0011 |page=159 |s2cid=144483080}}
* {{cite journal |last=Lyons |first=H.G. |year=1938 |title=The Growth of the Fellowship |journal=Notes and Records of the Royal Society of London |volume=1 |issue=1 |doi=10.1098/rsnr.1938.0008 |page=40 |doi-access=}}
* {{cite journal |last=Lyons |first=H.G. |date=April 1939 |title=Two Hundred Years Ago. 1739 |journal=Notes and Records of the Royal Society of London |volume=2 |issue=1 |doi=10.1098/rsnr.1939.0007 |page=34 |doi-access=free}}
* {{cite journal |last=Lyons |first=H.G. |date=November 1939 |title=One Hundred Years Ago. 1839 |journal=Notes and Records of the Royal Society of London |volume=2 |issue=2 |doi=10.1098/rsnr.1939.0016 |page=92 |doi-access=}}
* {{cite journal |last=Lyons |first=H.G. |year=1939 |title=The Composition of the Fellowship and the Council of the Society |journal=Notes and Records of the Royal Society of London |volume=2 |issue=2 |doi=10.1098/rsnr.1939.0017 |page=108}}
* {{cite journal |last=Lyons |first=H.G. |year=1940 |title=The Officers of the Society (1662–1860) |journal=Notes and Records of the Royal Society of London |volume=3 |issue=1 |doi=10.1098/rsnr.1940.0017 |page=116 |s2cid=71384634 |doi-access=}}
* {{cite journal |last=Martin |first=D.C. |year=1967 |title=Former Homes of the Royal Society |journal=Notes and Records of the Royal Society of London |volume=22 |issue=1/2 |doi=10.1098/rsnr.1967.0002 |page=12 |s2cid=145126489}}
* {{Cite journal |last1=McKie |first1=Douglas |date=1960-07-31 |title=The origins and foundation of the Royal Society of London |url=https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rsnr.1960.0001 |journal=Notes and Records of the Royal Society of London |volume=15 |issue=1 |pages=1–37 |doi=10.1098/rsnr.1960.0001 |issn=0035-9149|url-access=subscription }}
* {{cite journal |last=Miller |first=David Philip |year=1998 |title=The 'Hardwicke Circle': The Whig Supremacy and Its Demise in the 18th-Century Royal Society |volume=52 |issue=1 |doi=10.1098/rsnr.1998.0036 |journal=Notes and Records of the Royal Society |page=73 |s2cid=145249420 |doi-access=}}
* {{cite journal |last=Robinson |first=H.W. |year=1946 |title=The Administrative Staff of the Royal Society, 1663–1861 |journal=Notes and Records of the Royal Society of London |volume=4 |issue=2 |doi=10.1098/rsnr.1946.0029 |page=193 |doi-access=free}}
* {{cite journal |last=Sorrenson |first=Richard |year=1996 |title=Towards a History of the Royal Society in the Eighteenth Century |journal=Notes and Records of the Royal Society of London |volume=50 |issue=1 |doi=10.1098/rsnr.1996.0003 |page=29 |s2cid=144386127}}
* {{cite book |last=Sprat |first=Thomas |title=The history of the Royal Society of London: for the improving of natural knowledge. By Tho. Sprat |publisher=Samuel Chapman |year=1722 |oclc=475095951}}
* Stark, Ryan. "Language Reform in the Late Seventeenth Century", in ''Rhetoric, Science, and Magic in Seventeenth-Century England'' (Washington, DC: The Catholic University of America Press, 2009), 9–46.
* {{cite journal |last=Summerson |first=John |year=1967 |title=Carlton House Terrace |journal=Notes and Records of the Royal Society of London |volume=22 |issue=1 |doi=10.1098/rsnr.1967.0003 |page=20 |s2cid=72906527}}
* {{cite journal |last=Syfret |first=R.H. |year=1948 |title=The Origins of the Royal Society |journal=Notes and Records of the Royal Society of London |volume=5 |issue=2 |pages=75–137 |jstor=531306 |doi=10.1098/rsnr.1948.0017 |doi-access=free}}
* {{cite book |last=Wagner |first=Wendy Elizabeth |title=Rescuing Science from Politics: Regulation and the Distortion of Scientific Research |publisher=Cambridge University Press |date=2006 |isbn=9780521855204}}
{{refend}}

==External links==
{{EB1911 Poster|Royal Society, The|Royal Society}}
{{Commons category}}
* {{Official website|https://royalsociety.org/ }}
** [https://royalsociety.org/fellows/fellows-directory/ List of Fellows of the Royal Society]
** [http://royalsociety.org/uploadedFiles/Royal_Society_Content/about-us/fellowship/Fellows1660-2007.pdf Complete list of Royal Society Fellows 1660–2007] in PDF
** [https://web.archive.org/web/20100119184509/http://royalsociety.org/seefurther/ The Royal Society's 350th anniversary]
* [https://archive.org/search.php?query=Philosophical%20transactions%20of%20the%20Royal%20Society%20of%20London ''Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London''] public domain @Archive.org
* [http://royalsocietypublishing.org/ The Royal Society Publishing website]
* [http://www-groups.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~history/Societies/RS.html The Royal Society of London] (a brief history)
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20060703160103/http://www.scholarly-societies.org/history/1660rs.html Scholarly Societies Project: Royal Society of London]
* [http://chrisharrison.net/index.php/Visualizations/RoyalSociety A visualisation of the Royal Society's publications from 1665 to 2005]
* [https://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/p003hyds The Royal Society], BBC Radio 4 discussion with Stephen Pumphrey, Lisa Jardine & Michael Hunter (''In Our Time'', 23 March 2006)
* [http://ttp.royalsociety.org/ttp/ttp.html?id=6ec9b461-5cc0-46eb-bd5a-54fb7ea8b2dd&type=book Digitised copy of the Charter Book] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231205044930/https://ttp.royalsociety.org//ttp/ttp.html?id=6ec9b461-5cc0-46eb-bd5a-54fb7ea8b2dd&type=book |date=5 December 2023 }}

{{Fellows of the Royal Society}}
{{Royal Society presidents}}
{{International Science Council}}
{{Science and technology in the United Kingdom}}
{{Prince of Asturias Award for Communication and Humanities}}
{{Glossaries of science and engineering}}
{{Authority control}}

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