View source for SPSS

{{short description|Statistical analysis software}}
{{Other uses}}
{{Infobox software
| name = SPSS
| logo = IBM SPSS v23.png
| logo caption = Logo icon, v27
| caption = SPSS v27 running on [[Windows 7]]
| developer = [[Norman H. Nie]], Dale H. Bent, C. Hadlai Hull
| released = {{Start date and age|1968}}
| latest release version = {{wikidata|property|preferred|references|edit|P348|P548=Q2804309}}
| latest release date = {{wikidata|qualifier|preferred|single|P348|P548=Q2804309|P577}}
| operating system = [[Windows]] ([[x86-64]]), [[macOS]] (x86-64), [[Linux]] (x86-64, [[ppc64le]], [[Linux on IBM Z|IBM Z]])<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.ibm.com/software/reports/compatibility/clarity/index.html|title=IBM SPSS Statistics 25.0.0.2 - Detailed System Requirements|date=February 1, 2010|website=www.ibm.com}}</ref>
| platform = [[Java (programming language)|Java]]
| size = ~1.2 [[Gigabyte|GB]]
| genre = [[Statistical analysis]]<br>[[Numerical analysis]]
| license = Subscription or enterprise licensing<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.ibm.com/products/spss-statistics/pricing|title=Pricing - IBM SPSS Statistics|website=www.ibm.com}}</ref>
| website = {{URL|https://www.ibm.com/spss}}
}}

'''SPSS Statistics''' is a [[statistical software]] suite developed by [[IBM]] for [[data management]], advanced analytics, [[multivariate analysis]], [[business intelligence]], and [[criminal investigation]]. Long produced by [[SPSS Inc.]], it was acquired by [[IBM]] in 2009. Versions of the software released since 2015 have the brand name '''IBM SPSS Statistics'''.

The software name originally stood for '''Statistical Package for the Social Sciences''' ('''SPSS'''),<ref>{{Citation|last=Quintero|first=Dino|title=Workload Optimized Systems: Tuning POWER7 for Analytics|url=http://www.redbooks.ibm.com/abstracts/sg248057.html?Open&ref=wikipedia|work=Abstract|date=30 September 2016|display-authors=etal|mode=cs1}}</ref> reflecting the original market, then later changed to '''Statistical Product and Service Solutions'''.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.oit.va.gov/Services/TRM/ToolPage.aspx?tid=5730|title=Statistical Product and Service Solutions (SPSS) Statistics|website=www.oit.va.gov}}</ref><ref>Hejase, A.J., & Hejase, H.J. (2013). Research Methods, A Practical Approach for Business Students (2nd edn.). Philadelphia, PA, USA: Masadir Inc., p. 58</ref>

==Overview==
SPSS is a widely used program for [[statistics|statistical analysis]] in [[social science]].<ref>{{cite book |title=Parametric & Nonparametric Data Analysis for Social Research: IBM SPSS |first1=Hary |last1=Gunarto |publisher=LAP Academic Publishing |isbn=978-6200118721 |year=2019|author1-link=Hary Gunarto }}</ref> It is also used by market researchers, health researchers, survey companies, government, education researchers, industries, marketing organizations, data miners,<ref>{{Citation|url=http://www.kdnuggets.com/polls/2013/analytics-big-data-mining-data-science-software.html|title=KDnuggets Annual Software Poll: Analytics/Data mining software used?|work=KDnuggets|date=May 2013|mode=cs1}}</ref> and others. The original SPSS manual (Nie, Bent & Hull, 1970)<ref>{{cite book | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gKFXAAAAMAAJ | title=SPSS: Statistical package for the social sciences| last1=Nie| first1=Norman H| last2=Bent| first2=Dale H| last3=Hadlai Hull| first3=C| year=1970| publisher=McGraw-Hill| isbn=9780070465305}}</ref> has been described as one of "sociology's most influential books" for allowing ordinary researchers to do their own statistical analysis.<ref>{{Citation|title=''Wellman''|date=1998|pages=71–78|mode=cs1}}</ref> In addition to statistical analysis, data management (case selection, file reshaping and creating derived data) and data documentation (a [[metadata]] dictionary is stored in the [[data]]file) are features of the base software.

The many features of SPSS Statistics are accessible via [[Menu (computing)|pull-down menus]] or can be programmed with a proprietary [[Fourth-generation programming language|4GL]] ''command syntax language''. Command syntax programming has the benefits of reproducible output, simplifying repetitive tasks, and handling complex data manipulations and analyses. Additionally, some complex applications can only be programmed in syntax and are not accessible through the menu structure. The pull-down menu interface also generates command syntax: this can be displayed in the output, although the [[Default (computer science)|default]] settings have to be changed to make the syntax visible to the user. They can also be pasted into a syntax file using the "paste" button present in each menu. Programs can be run interactively or unattended, using the supplied Production Job Facility.

A "macro" language can be used to write command language [[subroutines]]. A [[Python (programming language)|Python]] programmability extension can access the information in the data dictionary and data and dynamically build command syntax programs. This extension, introduced in SPSS 14, replaced the less functional [[Simple API for XML|SAX]] Basic "scripts" for most purposes, although SaxBasic remains available. In addition, the Python extension allows SPSS to run any of the statistics in the [[free software]] package [[R (programming language)|R]]. From version 14 onwards, SPSS can be driven externally by a Python or a [[Visual Basic (.NET)|VB.NET]] program using supplied "plug-ins". (From version 20 onwards, these two scripting facilities, as well as many scripts, are included on the installation media and are normally installed by default.)

SPSS Statistics places constraints on internal file structure, [[data type]]s, [[data processing]], and matching files, which together considerably simplify programming. SPSS datasets have a two-dimensional table structure, where the rows typically represent cases (such as individuals or households) and the columns represent measurements (such as age, sex, or household income). Only two data types are defined: numeric and [[String (computer science)|text]] (or "string"). All data processing occurs sequentially case-by-case through the file (dataset). Files can be matched [[One-to-one (data model)|one-to-one]] and [[One-to-many (data model)|one-to-many]], but not [[Many-to-many (data model)|many-to-many]]. In addition to the cases-by-variables structure and processing, there is a separate Matrix session where one can process data as matrices using matrix and linear algebra operations.

The [[graphical user interface]] has two views which can be toggled. The 'Data View' shows a [[spreadsheet]] view of the cases (rows) and variables (columns). Unlike spreadsheets, the data cells can only contain numbers or text, and formulas cannot be stored in these cells. The 'Variable View' displays the metadata dictionary, where each row represents a variable and shows the variable properties such as the variable name, format, measurement level, and value labels. Cells in both views can be manually edited, defining the file structure and allowing data entry without using command syntax. This may be sufficient for small datasets. Larger datasets such as [[statistical survey]]s are more often created in [[data entry]] software, or entered during [[computer-assisted personal interviewing]], by scanning and using [[optical character recognition]] and [[optical mark recognition]] software, or by direct capture from online questionnaires. These datasets are then read into SPSS.

SPSS Statistics can read and write data from [[ASCII]] text files (including hierarchical files), other statistics packages, [[spreadsheets]] and [[databases]]. It can also read and write to external [[Table (database)|relational database tables]] via [[Open Database Connectivity|ODBC]] and [[SQL]].

Statistical output is to a [[proprietary file format]] (*.spv file, supporting [[pivot table]]s) for which, in addition to the in-package viewer, a stand-alone reader can be downloaded. The proprietary output can be exported to text or [[Microsoft Word]], [[PDF]], [[Microsoft Excel|Excel]], and other formats. Alternatively, output can be captured as data (using the OMS command), as text, tab-delimited text, PDF, [[Microsoft Excel#File formats|XLS]], [[HTML]], [[XML]], SPSS dataset or a variety of graphic image formats ([[JPEG]], [[Portable Network Graphics|PNG]], [[Windows and OS/2 bitmap|BMP]] and [[Windows Metafile|EMF]]).
[[File:SPSS logo.svg|thumb|The SPSS logo used prior to the renaming in January 2010.]]

Several variants of SPSS Statistics exist. SPSS Statistics Gradpacks are highly discounted versions sold only to students.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-11-09 |title=IBM Products |url=https://www.ibm.com/products |access-date=2023-04-12 |website=www.ibm.com |language=en-US}}</ref> SPSS Statistics Server is a version of the software with a [[Client–server model|client/server architecture]].  Add-on packages can enhance the base software with additional features (examples include '''complex samples''', which can adjust for clustered and stratified samples, and '''custom tables''', which can create publication-ready tables). SPSS Statistics is available under either an annual or a [[Software as a service|monthly subscription]] license.

Version 25 of SPSS Statistics launched on August 8, 2017. This added new and advanced statistics, such as random effects solution results (GENLINMIXED), robust standard errors (GLM/UNIANOVA), and profile plots with error bars within the Advanced Statistics and Custom Tables add-on. V25 also introduced new [[Bayesian statistics]] capabilities, a method of statistical inference, and publication ready charts, such as powerful new charting capabilities, including new default templates and the ability to share with Microsoft Office applications.<ref>{{cite web|title=What's New in SPSS Statistics 25 & Subscription - SPSS Predictive Analytics|url=https://developer.ibm.com/predictiveanalytics/2017/07/18/spss-25-subscription-summary/|website=SPSS Predictive Analytics|access-date=15 December 2017|date=18 July 2017}}</ref>

==Versions and ownership history==

* SPSS 1 - 1968 
* SPSS 2 - 1983
* SPSS 5 - 1993
* SPSS 6.1 - 1995
* SPSS 7.5 - 1997
* SPSS 8 - 1998
* SPSS 9 - 1999
* SPSS 10 - 1999
* SPSS 11 - 2002
* SPSS 12 - 2004
* SPSS 13 - 2005
* SPSS 14 - 2006
* SPSS 15 - 2006
* SPSS 16 - 2007
* SPSS 17 - 2008
* PASW 17 - 2009
* PASW 18 - 2009
* SPSS 19 - 2010
* SPSS 20 - 2011
* SPSS 21 - 2012
* SPSS 22 - 2013
* SPSS 23 - 2015
* SPSS 24 - 2016, March<ref>{{Cite web|title=SPSS Statistics - IBM Data Science Community|url=https://community.ibm.com/community/user/datascience/blogs/douglas-stauber/2016/03/15/whats-new-in-ibm-spss-statistics-24|access-date=2021-06-30|website=community.ibm.com}}</ref>
* SPSS 25 - 2017, July<ref>{{Cite web|title=SPSS Statistics - IBM Data Science Community|url=https://community.ibm.com/community/user/datascience/blogs/douglas-stauber/2017/07/18/whats-new-in-spss-statistics-25-amp-subscription|access-date=2021-06-30|website=community.ibm.com}}</ref>
* SPSS 26 - 2018
*SPSS 27 - 2019, June<ref>{{Cite web|title=SPSS Statistics 27 - What's New {{!}} New Features, Functionality and Packaging overview|url=https://community.ibm.com/datascience/blogs/mathew-mathew1/2020/06/16/whats-new-in-spss-statistics-27,%20https://community.ibm.com/datascience/blogs/mathew-mathew1/2020/06/16/whats-new-in-spss-statistics-27|access-date=2021-06-30|website=community.ibm.com|language=en}}</ref> (and 27.0.1 in November, 2020<ref>{{Cite web|title=SPSS Statistics - IBM Data Science Community|url=https://community.ibm.com/datascience/blogs/todd-peterson1/2020/11/20/spss-statistics-on-macos-big-sur-110,%20https://community.ibm.com/datascience/blogs/todd-peterson1/2020/11/20/spss-statistics-on-macos-big-sur-110|access-date=2021-06-30|website=community.ibm.com|language=en}}</ref>)
*SPSS 28 - 2021, May<ref>{{Cite web|title=SPSS Statistics - IBM Data Science Community|url=https://community.ibm.com/datascience/blogs/brent-gardiner/2021/05/24/whats-new-in-spss-statistics-28,%20https://community.ibm.com/datascience/blogs/brent-gardiner/2021/05/24/whats-new-in-spss-statistics-28|access-date=2021-06-30|website=community.ibm.com|language=en}}</ref>
*SPSS 29 - 2022, Sept<ref>{{Cite web |date=2022-09-13 |title=IBM SPSS Statistics_29.0.x |url=https://www.ibm.com/support/pages/ibm-spss-statistics290x |access-date=2022-10-24 |website=www.ibm.com |language=en}}</ref>
*SPSS 30 - 2024, Sept<ref>{{Cite web |date=2024-09-30 |title=What's new in IBM SPSS Statistics 30.0.0 |url=https://community.ibm.com/community/user/ai-datascience/blogs/indira-kumar2/2024/09/22/whats-new-in-ibm-spss-statistics-3000 |access-date=2024-11-14 |website=community.ibm.com |language=en}}</ref>
*SPSS 31 - 2025, June<ref>{{Cite web |date=2025-06-10 |title=IBM SPSS Statistics Server_31.0.x |url=https://www.ibm.com/support/pages/ibm-spss-statistics-server310x |access-date=2025-08-22 |website=www.ibm.com |language=en}}</ref>

SPSS was released in its first version in 1968 as the Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS) after being developed by [[Norman H. Nie]], Dale H. Bent, and C. Hadlai Hull. Those principals incorporated as [[SPSS Inc.]] in 1975. Early versions of SPSS Statistics were written in [[Fortran]] and designed for [[batch processing]] on [[mainframes]], including for example [[IBM System/370|IBM]] and [[ICL 2900 Series|ICL]] versions, originally using [[punched cards]] for data and program input. A processing run read a command file of SPSS commands and either a raw input file of fixed-format data with a single record type, or a 'getfile' of data saved by a previous run. To save precious computer time an 'edit' run could be done to check command syntax without analysing the data. From version 10 (SPSS-X) in 1983, data files could contain multiple record types.

Prior to SPSS 16.0, different versions of SPSS were available for [[Microsoft Windows|Windows]], [[Mac OS X]] and [[Unix]].

SPSS Statistics version 13.0 for [[Mac OS X]] was not compatible with [[Intel]]-based Macintosh computers, due to the [[Rosetta (software)|Rosetta emulation software]] causing errors in calculations. SPSS Statistics 15.0 for Windows needed a downloadable hotfix to be installed in order to be compatible with [[Windows Vista]].

From version 16.0, the same version runs under Windows, Mac, and Linux. The [[graphical user interface]] is written in [[Java (programming language)|Java]]. The Mac OS version is provided as a [[Universal binary]], making it fully compatible with both PowerPC and Intel-based Mac hardware.

SPSS Inc announced on July 28, 2009, that it was being acquired by [[IBM]] for US$1.2 billion.<ref>{{Citation|url=https://www.zdnet.com/article/ibm-to-pay-us1-2-billion-for-spss/|title=IBM to pay US$1.2 billion for SPSS|date=July 28, 2009|author=Larry Dignan|website=[[ZDNet]]}}</ref> Because of a dispute about ownership of the name "SPSS", between 2009 and 2010, the product was referred to as PASW (Predictive Analytics SoftWare).<ref>{{Citation|last=Sachdev|first=Ameet|url=http://articles.chicagotribune.com/2009-09-27/business/0909250481_1_predictive-analytics-software-spss-norman-nie|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120206165217/http://articles.chicagotribune.com/2009-09-27/business/0909250481_1_predictive-analytics-software-spss-norman-nie|url-status=dead|archive-date=February 6, 2012|title=IBM's $1.2 billion bid for SPSS Inc. helps resolve trademark dispute|work=Chicago Tribune|date=September 27, 2009|mode=cs1}}</ref> As of January 2010, it became "SPSS: An IBM Company". Complete transfer of business to IBM was done by October 1, 2010. By that date, SPSS: An IBM Company ceased to exist. IBM SPSS is now fully integrated into the IBM Corporation, and is one of the brands under IBM Software Group's Business Analytics Portfolio, together with [[Algorithmics Inc.|IBM Algorithmics]], [[Cognos|IBM Cognos]] and [[OpenPages|IBM OpenPages]].

Companion software in the "IBM SPSS" family are used for [[data mining]] and [[text mining|text analytics]] ([[SPSS Modeler|IBM SPSS Modeler]]), realtime [[credit score|credit scoring services]] ([[IBM SPSS Collaboration and Deployment Services]]), and structural equation modeling ([[IBM SPSS Amos]]).

SPSS Data Collection and SPSS Dimensions were sold in 2015 to UNICOM Systems, Inc., a division of [[UNICOM Global]], and merged into the integrated software suite [[UNICOM Intelligence]] (survey design, survey deployment, data collection, data management and reporting).<ref>{{cite web|title=IBM SPSS Data Collection Divestiture|url=https://www-01.ibm.com/software/analytics/announce/spss-data-collection/|access-date=7 June 2017|date=2 February 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=UNICOM Global Acquires IBM Data Collection Suite from IBM Corp|url=https://teamblue.unicomsi.com/news-and-events/news/unicom-global-acquires-ibm-data-collection-suite-ibm-corp/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160813112537/http://teamblue.unicomsi.com/news-and-events/news/unicom-global-acquires-ibm-data-collection-suite-ibm-corp/|url-status=dead|archive-date=August 13, 2016|access-date=7 June 2017|date=31 October 2015}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.teamblue.unicomsi.com/products/unicom-intelligence/|title=UNICOM Systems TeamBLUE: UNICOM Intelligence|website=Teamblue.unicomsi.com|access-date=19 August 2019}}</ref>

==={{Visible anchor|IDA}} (Interactive Data Analysis)===
'''IDA (Interactive Data Analysis)'''<ref>or Analyzer</ref> was a software package that originated at what was formerly the National Opinion Research Center ([[NORC at the University of Chicago|NORC]]), at the [[University of Chicago]]. Initially offered on the [[HP-2000]],<ref name=IDA.JSTOR>{{Cite journal
   |title=IDA: An Approach to Interactive Data Analysis in Teaching |journal=The Journal of Business |volume=48 |issue=3 |pages=411–451
   |jstor=2352233  |last1=Ling  |first1=Robert F  |last2=Roberts  |first2=Harry V  |year=1975  |doi=10.1086/295765}}</ref> somewhat later, under the ownership of SPSS, it was also available on [[MUSIC/SP]].<ref>{{cite magazine |magazine=Benchmarks|title=IDA Statistical Package Available on MUSIC|date=May 1985|volume=6|number=5|publisher=North Texas State University
|url=https://it.unt.edu/sites/default/files/benchmarks-05-1985.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180808140054/https://it.unt.edu/sites/default/files/benchmarks-05-1985.pdf|archive-date=2018-08-08}}</ref> [[Regression analysis]] was one of ''IDA''<nowiki/>'s strong points.<ref name=IDA.JSTOR/>

==={{Visible anchor|SCSS}} - Conversational / Columnar SPSS===
'''SCSS''' was a software product intended for online use of IBM mainframes.
<ref>{{cite book
|title=SCSS: A User's Guide to the SPSS Conversational Statistical System
|isbn=978-0070465336
|year=1980
|last1=Nie
|first1=Norman H.
|publisher=McGraw-Hill
}}</ref>

Although the "C" was for "conversational", it also represented a distinction regarding how the data was stored: it used a [[column-oriented DBMS|column-oriented]] rather than a row-oriented (internal) database.{{citation needed|date=August 2018}}

This gave good interactive response time for the SPSS Conversational Statistical System (SCSS), whose strong point, as with SPSS, was Cross-tabulation.<ref>{{cite news
|newspaper=ComputerWorld  |date=September 26, 1977  |page=28
|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uz8cDDHy64IC
|title=SCSS from SPSS, Inc}}</ref>

=== Project NX ===
In October 2020, IBM announced the start of an Early Access Program for the "New SPSS Statistics", codenamed '''Project NX.'''<ref>{{Cite web|title=SPSS Statistics - IBM Data Science Community|url=https://community.ibm.com/datascience/blogs/angela-jamerson1/2020/10/07/experience-the-new-spss-statistics,%20https://community.ibm.com/datascience/blogs/angela-jamerson1/2020/10/07/experience-the-new-spss-statistics|access-date=2021-06-30|website=community.ibm.com|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=IBM SPSS Statistics Subscription Early Access - Project NX|url=https://www.surveygizmo.com/s3/5534919/305ecb1bc849?ob=yes|access-date=2021-06-30|website=www.surveygizmo.com|language=en-us}}</ref> It contains "many of your favorite SPSS capabilities presented in a new easy to use interface, with integrated guidance, multiple tabs, improved graphs and much more".

In December, 2021, IBM opened up the Early Access Program for the next generation of SPSS Statistics for more users and shared more visuals about it.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2021-12-13|title=Experience the next generation: IBM SPSS Statistics Early Access Program|url=https://community.ibm.com/datascience/blogs/hafsah-lakhany1/2021/12/13/experience-the-next-generation|access-date=2021-12-15|website=community.ibm.com|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=SPSS Statistics Early Access Program - Overview|url=https://mediacenter.ibm.com/media/SPSS+Statistics+Early+Access+Program+-+Overview/1_t9yd70iu|access-date=2021-12-15|website=IBM MediaCenter|language=en}}</ref>

==See also==
* [[Comparison of statistical packages]]
* [[JASP]] and [[jamovi]], both open-source and free of charge alternatives, offering frequentist and Bayesian models
* [[PSPP]], a free SPSS replacement from the [[GNU Project]]
* [[SPSS Modeler]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==Further reading==
* {{Cite book |last=Argyrous|first=G.|title=Statistics for Research: With a Guide to SPSS|publisher=SAGE|place=London|isbn=978-1-4129-1948-7|date=2005-11-23}}
* {{cite book |first1=Alan |last1=Bryman |first2=Duncan |last2=Cramer |title=Quantitative Data Analysis with IBM SPSS 17, 18 and 19: A Guide for Social Scientists |location=New York |publisher=Routledge |year=2011 |isbn=978-0-415-57918-6 }}
* {{Cite book |last=Levesque|first=R.|title=SPSS Programming and Data Management: A Guide for SPSS and SAS Users|edition=4th|date=2007|publisher=SPSS Inc.|place=Chicago, Illinois|isbn=978-1-56827-390-7}}
* {{Cite book |title=SPSS 15.0 Command Syntax Reference|date=2006|publisher=SPSS Inc.|place=Chicago, Illinois}}
* {{Cite book |last=Wellman|first=B.|author-link=Barry Wellman|chapter=Doing It Ourselves: The SPSS Manual as Sociology's Most Influential Recent Book|pages=71–78|title=Required Reading: Sociology's Most Influential Books|editor-last=Clawson|editor-first=Dan|place=Amherst|publisher=[[University of Massachusetts Press]]|date=1998|isbn=978-1-55849-153-3}}

==External links==
{{Commons category|SPSS}}
{{Wikiversity}}
* {{Official website|https://www.ibm.com/products/spss-statistics}}
* [https://developer.ibm.com/predictiveanalytics Official SPSS User Community]
* [https://developer.ibm.com/predictiveanalytics/2018/04/05/spss-50-years-innovation 50 years of SPSS history]
* [http://www.spsstools.net Raynald Levesque's SPSS Tools]&nbsp;– library of worked solutions for SPSS programmers ([[FAQ]], command syntax; macros; scripts; Python)
* [http://listserv.uga.edu/archives/spssx-l.html Archives of SPSSX-L Discussion]&nbsp;– SPSS [[Listserv]] active since 1996. Discusses programming, statistics and analysis
* [http://www.ats.ucla.edu/stat/spss/ UCLA ATS Resources to help you learn SPSS] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101231011644/http://www.ats.ucla.edu/stat/spss/ |date=2010-12-31 }}&nbsp;– Resources for learning SPSS
* [http://www.ats.ucla.edu/stat/technicalreports/ UCLA ATS Technical Reports] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060207140503/http://www.ats.ucla.edu/stat/technicalreports/ |date=2006-02-07 }}&nbsp;– Report 1 compares Stata, SAS, and SPSS against R ([[R (programming language)|R]] is a language and environment for statistical computing and graphics).
* [http://www.ibm.com/developerworks/spssdevcentral SPSS Community?ref=wikipedia]&nbsp;– Support for developers of applications using SPSS products, including materials and examples of the Python and R programmability features
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20150314152626/http://www.biomedicalstatistics.info/en Biomedical Statistics - An educational website dedicated to statistical evaluation of biomedical data using SPSS software]

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