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{{Short description|Jewish sect or group active in Judea from 2nd century BCE to 1st century CE}}
{{Infobox political party
| name = Sadducees
| native_name = {{Nobold|צְדוּקִים}}
| native_name_lang = he
| colorcode = #22A0DD
| leader1_title = Historical leaders
| leader1_name = {{plainlist|
*[[John Hyrcanus]]
*[[Alexander Jannaeus]]
*[[Aristobulus II]] }}
| foundation = 167 BCE
| dissolution = 73 CE
| headquarters = [[Jerusalem]]
| ideology = {{plainlist|
*[[Aristocracy]]
*[[Written Torah]]}}
| religion = [[Hellenistic Judaism]]
| country = Judea
}}
{{Jews and Judaism sidebar|history}}
The '''Sadducees''' ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|s|æ|dj|ə|s|iː|z}}; {{langx|he|צְדוּקִים|Ṣəḏūqīm|lit=Zadokites}}) were a [[sect]] of [[Jews]] active in [[Judea]] during the [[Second Temple period]], from the second century BCE to the destruction of the [[Second Temple]] in 70&nbsp;CE. The Sadducees are described in contemporary literary sources in contrast to the two other major sects at the time, the [[Pharisees]] and the [[Essenes]].

[[Josephus]], writing at the end of the 1st century CE, associates the sect with the upper echelons of Judean society.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://lexundria.com/j_aj/13.298/wst|title=The Antiquities of the Jews (13.298)|website=Lexundria|quote="...while the Sadducees are able to persuade none but the rich, and have not the populace obsequious to them, but the Pharisees have the multitude on their side."}}</ref> As a whole, they fulfilled various political, social, and religious roles, including maintaining the [[Temple in Jerusalem]]. The group became extinct sometime after the [[Siege of Jerusalem (70 CE)|destruction of the Second Temple in 70&nbsp;CE]].

== Etymology ==
The English term entered via Latin from {{langx|grc-x-koine|Σαδδουκαῖοι|Saddukaioi}}. The name Zadok is related to the root {{lang|he|צָדַק}}, {{transliteration|he|ṣāḏaq}} (to be right, just),<ref>{{Strong-number|צָדוֹק|H|6659}}</ref> which could be indicative of their aristocratic status in society in the initial period of their existence.<ref>Newman, p. 76</ref>

==History==
According to [[Abraham Geiger]], the Sadducee sect of Judaism derived their name from that of [[Zadok]], the first [[High Priest of Israel]] to serve in [[Solomon's Temple]]. The leaders of the sect were proposed as the [[Kohanim]] (priests, the "[[Sons of Zadok]]", descendants of [[Eleazar]], son of [[Aaron]]).<ref>Abraham Geiger, ''Urschrift'', pp. 20–</ref> The [[Aggadah|aggadic]] work [[Avot of Rabbi Natan]] tells the story of the two disciples of [[Antigonus of Sokho]] (3rd century BCE), Zadok and Boethus. Antigonus having taught the maxim, "Be not like the servants who serve their masters for the sake of the wages, but be rather like those who serve without thought of receiving wages",<ref>[[Pirkei Avot]] 1:3</ref> his students repeated this maxim to their students. Eventually, either the two teachers or their pupils understood this to express the belief that there was neither an [[afterlife]] nor a [[resurrection of the dead]], and founded the Sadducee and [[Boethusian]] sects. They lived luxuriously, using silver and golden vessels, because (as they claimed) the [[Pharisees]] led a hard life on earth and yet would have nothing to show for it in the [[world to come]].<ref>[[Avot of Rabbi Natan]] 5:2</ref> The two sects of the Sadducees and Boethusians are thus, in all later Rabbinic sources, always mentioned together, not only as being similar, but as originating at the same time.<ref>{{JewishEncyclopedia|url=https://jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/12989-sadducees|title=Sadducees}}</ref> The use of gold and silver vessels perhaps argues against a priestly association for these groups, as priests at the time would typically use [[Stone vessels in ancient Judaea|stone vessels]], to prevent transmission of [[tumah|impurity]].

[[Josephus]] mentioned in ''[[Antiquities of the Jews]]'' that "one Judas, a Gaulonite, of a city whose name was [[Gamla|Gamala]], who taking with him Sadduc, a Pharisee, became zealous to draw them to a revolt".<ref>{{Cite Josephus |text=anti |bookno=18 |chap=1|sec=1|pace=1|show-translator=yes |abbr=yes}}</ref> [[Paul L. Maier]] suggests that the sect drew their name from the Sadduc mentioned by Josephus.<ref>{{Cite book |publisher=Kregel Academic |isbn=978-0-82542924-8 |last=Josephus |first=Flavius |title=The New Complete Works of Josephus |date=1999 |page=587}}</ref>

=== The Second Temple period ===
[[File:Nuremberg chronicles f 096v 3.png|thumb|A Sadducee, illustrated in the 15th-century ''[[Nuremberg Chronicle]]'']]
{{See also|Second Temple Judaism|Hellenistic Judaism}}
Throughout the [[Second Temple period]] (between the construction of the Second Temple in Jerusalem in 516&nbsp;BCE and its destruction by the Romans in 70 CE following the [[Siege of Jerusalem (70 CE) | siege of Jerusalem]]) Jerusalem saw several shifts in rule. In [[Yehud Medinata|Achaemenid Judea]] ({{circa | 539 BCE}} to {{circa}} 332 BCE), the [[Temple in Jerusalem]] became the center of worship in Judea. Its priests and attendants appear to have been powerful and influential in secular matters as well, a trend that would continue into the [[Hellenistic period]].

This power and influence also brought accusations of corruption. [[Alexander the Great#Conquest of the Achaemenid Persian Empire|Alexander's conquest of the Levant]] in 333 to 332 BCE brought an end to Achaemenid control of Jerusalem and ushered in the Hellenistic period, which saw the spread of Greek language, culture, and philosophical ideas, which intermixed with Judaism and led to [[Hellenistic Judaism]].

After the [[death of Alexander the Great]] in 323&nbsp;BCE, [[Diadochi | his generals]] divided the empire amongst themselves, and for the next 30 years they fought for control of territory. Judea was first controlled by [[Ptolemaic dynasty|Ptolemaic Egypt]] ({{reign|301|200&nbsp;BCE}}) and later by the [[Seleucid Empire]] of Syria ({{reign|200|142 BCE}}).  During this period, the [[High Priest of Israel]] was generally appointed with the direct approval of the Greek rulership, continuing the intermixing of religious politics with government.  King [[Antiochus IV Epiphanes]] ({{reign | 175 | 164 BCE}}) of the Seleucids began a persecution of traditional Jewish practices around 168&ndash;167 BCE, which set off a rebellion in Judea.  The most successful rebels, led by the [[Hasmonean dynasty|Hasmonean family]] in what became the [[Maccabean Revolt]], eventually established the independent [[Hasmonean kingdom]] around 142 BCE.  While no record of the Sadducees survives from this early period, many scholars presume that the later sects began to form during the Maccabean era (see [[#Jewish sectarianism|Jewish sectarianism]] below).<ref>Cohen, 153–154</ref>  It is often speculated that the Sadducees grew out of the Judean religious élite in the early Hasmonean period, under rulers such as [[John Hyrcanus]].

Hasmonean rule lasted until 63&nbsp;BCE, when the Roman general [[Pompey]] [[Siege of Jerusalem (63 BC)|conquered Jerusalem]], at which point the Roman period of Judean history began.  The province of [[Roman Judea]] was established in 6&nbsp;CE (see also [[Syria Palaestina]]).  While [[History of the Jews in the Roman Empire|cooperation between the Romans and the Jews]] had been strongest during the reigns of [[Herod the Great]] ({{reign | 37 | 4 BCE}}) and his grandson, [[Herod Agrippa|Agrippa I]] ({{reign | 41 | 44 CE}}), the Romans moved power out of the hands of vassal kings and into the hands of [[Jerusalem during the Second Temple Period#Roman prefects, procurators, and the destruction of the Temple |Roman administrators]], beginning with the [[Census of Quirinius]] in 6&nbsp;CE. The [[First Jewish–Roman War]] broke out in 66&nbsp;CE. After a few years of conflict, the Romans retook Jerusalem and destroyed the temple, bringing an end to the Second Temple period in 70&nbsp;CE.<ref>Cohen, 1–5, 15–16</ref>

===After the Temple destruction===
After the destruction of the Temple of Jerusalem in 70&nbsp;CE, the Sadducees appear only in a few references in the Talmud and some Christian texts.<ref>See: Philippe Bobichon, "Autorités religieuses juives et ‘sectes’ juives dans l’œuvre de Justin Martyr", ''Revue des Études Augustiniennes'' 48/1 (2002), pp. 3–22 ([https://www.academia.edu/7279728/_Autorit%C3%A9s_religieuses_juives_et_sectes_juives_dans_l_%C5%93uvre_de_Justin_Martyr_Revue_des_%C3%89tudes_Augustiniennes_48_1_2002_p_3_22 online]).</ref> In the beginning of [[Karaite Judaism]], the followers of [[Anan ben David]] were called "Sadducees" and set a claim of the former being a historical continuity from the latter.{{citation needed|date=March 2021}}

The Sadducee concept of the mortality of the soul is reflected on by [[Uriel da Costa]], who mentions them in his writings.

== Role of the Sadducees ==

===Religious===
The religious responsibilities of the Sadducees included the maintenance of the Temple in Jerusalem. Their high social status was reinforced by their priestly responsibilities, as mandated in the Torah. The priests were responsible for performing sacrifices at the Temple, the primary method of worship in ancient Israel. This included presiding over sacrifices during the three festivals of pilgrimage to Jerusalem. Their religious beliefs and social status were mutually reinforcing, as the priesthood often represented the highest class in Judean society. However, Sadducees and the priests were not completely synonymous. Cohen writes that "not all priests, high priests, and aristocrats were Sadducees; many were Pharisees, and many were not members of any group at all."<ref>Cohen p. 155</ref>

===Political===
The Sadducees oversaw many formal affairs of the state.<ref>Wellhausen, p. 45</ref> Members of the Sadducees:
* Administered the state domestically
* Represented the state internationally
* Participated in the [[Sanhedrin]], and often encountered the Pharisees there.
* Collected taxes. These also came in the form of international tribute from Jews in the Diaspora.
* Equipped and led the army
* Regulated relations with the Roman Empire
* Mediated domestic grievances

==Beliefs==
Knowledge about the beliefs of the Sadducees is limited by the fact that not a single line of their own writings has survived out of antiquity, as the destruction of Jerusalem and much of the Judean elite in 70&nbsp;CE seems to have broken them. Extant writings on the Sadducees are often from sources hostile to them; Josephus was a rival Pharisee, Christian records were generally not sympathetic, and the rabbinic tradition (descended from the Pharisees) is uniformly hostile.<ref name="grabbe">{{cite book |last=Grabbe |first=Lester L.  |authorlink=Lester L. Grabbe |date=2020 |title=A History of the Jews and Judaism in the Second Temple Period: The Maccabean Revolt, Hasmonaean Rule, and Herod the Great (174&ndash;4 BCE) |location= |publisher=T&T Clark |volume=95 |series=Library of Second Temple Studies |isbn=978-0-5676-9294-8 |pages=137–143}}</ref>

=== General ===
The Sadducees rejected the [[Oral Torah]] as proposed by the Pharisees. Rather, they saw the [[Written Torah]] as the sole source of divine authority.<ref name="aj13.10.6">{{Cite Josephus|text=anti|bookno=13|chap=10|sec=6|pace=1}}</ref> Later writings of the Pharisees criticized this belief as one that strengthened the Sadducees' own power.

According to Josephus, the Sadducees beliefs included:
* Rejection of the idea of fate or a pre-ordained future.
* God does not commit or even think evil.
* Man has free will; "man has the free choice of good or evil".
* The soul is not immortal and there is no afterlife, and no rewards or penalties after death.
* It is a virtue to debate and dispute with philosophy teachers.<ref name="grabbe" /><ref>{{cite book|translator-last=Thackeray |translator-first=Henry St. John |url=https://archive.org/details/josephus0000jose_c9t0/page/386/mode/2up |url-access=registration |author=Josephus |title=The Jewish War |year=1966 |publisher=Cambridge, Harvard University Press |at=2.162}}<br/>{{cite book|author=Josephus, Titus Flavius|title=Antiquities of the Jews 18 §1.2}}</ref>

The Sadducees did not believe in [[resurrection of the dead]], but believed (contrary to the claim of Josephus) in the traditional Jewish concept of [[Sheol]] for those who had died.<ref>Manson, T.W.: [https://www.escholar.manchester.ac.uk/api/datastream?publicationPid=uk-ac-man-scw:1m1352&datastreamId=POST-PEER-REVIEW-PUBLISHERS-DOCUMENT.PDF Sadducee and Pharisee - The Origin and Significance of the Names] John Rylands Library, p. 154.</ref> Josephus also includes a claim that the Sadducees are rude compared to loving and compassionate Pharisees, but this is generally considered more of a sectarian insult rather than an unbiased judgment of the Sadducees on their own terms.<ref name="grabbe" /> Similarly, Josephus brags that the Sadducees were often forced to back down if their judgments clashed with the Pharisees, as he says that the Pharisees were more popular with the multitude.<ref name="grabbe" />

The Sadducees occasionally show up in the Christian [[gospel]]s, but without much detail: usually merely as parts of a list of opponents of Jesus. The Christian [[Acts of the Apostles]] contains somewhat more information:<ref name="grabbe" />
* The Sadducees were associated with the party of the high priest of the era, and seem to have had a majority of the Sanhedrin, if not all ([[Gamaliel]] is a Pharisee member).<ref>{{bibleverse|Acts|4:1}}; {{bibleverse|Acts|5:17}}</ref>
* The Sadducees did not believe in resurrection, whereas the Pharisees did. In Acts, [[Paul the Apostle|Paul of Tarsus]] chose this point of division to attempt to gain the protection of the Pharisees (around 59 CE).<ref name="acts23">{{bibleverse|Acts|23:6–9}}</ref>
* The Sadducees rejected the notion of spirits or [[angel]]s, whereas the Pharisees acknowledged them.<ref name="acts23" />

=== Disputes with the Pharisees ===
* According to the Sadducees, spilt water becomes ritually impure through its pouring. The Pharisees denied that this was sufficient grounds for impurity in Mishnah Yadaim 4:7. Many Pharisee–Sadducee disputes revolved around issues of [[tumah and taharah|ritual purity]].
*  According to the Jewish laws of inheritance, the property of a deceased man is inherited by his sons. If the man had only daughters, his property would be inherited by his daughters upon his death, according to [[Pinechas (parashah)#Fourth reading—Numbers 27:6–23|Numbers 27:8]]. The Sadducees, however, whenever dividing the inheritance among the relatives of the deceased, such as when the deceased left no issue, would perfunctorily seek familial ties so that the near of kin to the deceased and who inherits his property could, hypothetically, be his [[paternal aunt]]. The Sadducees would justify their practice by ''[[a fortiori]]'', an inference from minor to major premise, saying: "If the daughter of his son's son can inherit him (i.e., such as when her father left no male issue), is it not then fitting that his own daughter inherit him?!" (i.e., who is more closely related to him than his great-granddaughter), according to the [[Jerusalem Talmud]] (''Baba Bathra'' 21b). The [[chazal|early Jewish sage]] [[Yohanan ben Zakkai]] argued against them that the only reason the daughter was empowered to inherit her father was because her father left no male issue. However, a man's daughter – where there are sons, has no power to inherit her father's estate. Moreover, a deceased man who leaves no issue always has a distant male relative to whom his estate can be given. The Sadducees eventually agreed with the Pharisaic teaching. The vindication of Yohanan ben Zakkai and the Pharisees over the Sadducees gave rise to this date being held in honor in the ''[[Megillat Taanit]]'' according to the [[Rashbam]] in the [[Babylonian Talmud]], ''Baba Bathra'' 115b–116a); [[Jerusalem Talmud]] (''Baba Bathra'' 8:1 [21b–22a])
* The Sadducees demanded that a master pay for damages caused by his slave. The Pharisees imposed no such obligation, viewing that a slave could intentionally cause damage to see the liability for it brought on his master in Mishnah Yadaim 4:7
* The Pharisees posited that false witnesses should be executed if the verdict was pronounced based on their testimony—even if not yet carried out. The Sadducees argued that false witnesses should be executed only if the death penalty had already been carried out on the falsely accused in Mishnah Makot 1.6.

Later rabbinic literature took a dim view of both the Sadducees and [[Boethusians]], not only due to their perceived carefree approach to keeping to the Torah and the [[Oral Torah]] but also due to their attempts to persuade the common folk to join their ranks according to [[Sifri]] to Deuteronomy (p. 233, Torah Ve'Hamitzvah edition).{{verify source|date=April 2023}} [[Maimonides]] viewed the Sadducees as rejecting the Oral Torah as an excuse to interpret the Written Torah in a lenient, personally convenient manner in his commentary to ''[[Pirkei Avot]]'', 1.3.1 1:3. He described the Sadducees as "harming Israel and causing the nation to stray from following God" in the ''[[Mishneh Torah]]'', Hilchoth Avodah Zarah 10:2.

==Jewish sectarianism==
[[File:Brooklyn Museum - The Pharisees and the Saduccees Come to Tempt Jesus (Les pharisiens et les saducéens viennent pour tenter Jésus) - James Tissot - overall.jpg|upright=1.35|thumb|''The Pharisees and the Sadducees Come to Tempt Jesus'' by [[James Tissot]] ([[Brooklyn Museum]])]]
The Jewish community of the Second Temple period is often defined by its sectarian and fragmented attributes. Josephus, in ''Antiquities'', contextualizes the Sadducees as opposed to the Pharisees and the [[Essenes]]. The Sadducees are also notably distinguishable from the growing Jesus movement, which later evolved into [[Christianity]]. These groups differed in their beliefs, social statuses, and sacred texts. Though the Sadducees produced no primary works themselves, their attributes can be derived from other contemporaneous texts, including the [[New Testament]], the [[Dead Sea Scrolls]], and later, the [[Mishnah]] and [[Talmud]]. Overall, the Sadducees represented an aristocratic, wealthy, and traditional elite within the hierarchy.

===Opposition to the Essenes===
The [[Dead Sea Scrolls]], which are often attributed to the Essenes, suggest clashing ideologies and social positions between the Essenes and the Sadducees. In fact, some scholars suggest that the Essenes originated as a sect of [[Sons of Zadok|Zadokites]], which would indicate that the group itself had priestly, and thus Sadducaic origins. Within the Dead Sea Scrolls, the Sadducees are often referred to as Manasseh. The scrolls suggest that the Sadducees (Manasseh) and the Pharisees (Ephraim) became religious communities that were distinct from the Essenes, the true Judah. Clashes between the Essenes and the Sadducees are depicted in the ''Pesher on Nahum'', which states "They [Manasseh] are the wicked ones ... whose reign over Israel will be brought down ... his wives, his children, and his infant will go into captivity. His warriors and his honored ones [will perish] by the sword."<ref>''Pesher on Nahum'' in Eshol, 40</ref> The reference to the Sadducees as those who reign over Israel corroborates their aristocratic status as opposed to the more fringe group of Essenes. Furthermore, it suggests that the Essenes challenged the authenticity of the rule of the Sadducees, blaming the downfall of ancient Israel and the siege of Jerusalem on their impiety. The Dead Sea Scrolls specify the Sadducaic elite as those who broke the [[New Covenant|covenant]] with God in their rule of the Judean state, and thus became targets of divine vengeance.

===Opposition to the early Christian church===
{{see also|Early Christianity}}
The [[New Testament]], in the books of [[Gospel of Mark|Mark]], [[Gospel of Matthew|Matthew]], and [[Gospel of Luke|Luke]], describe anecdotes which hint at hostility between Jesus and the Sadducaic establishment. A [[pericope]] in [[Mark 12]], [[Luke 20]] and [[Matthew 22]] recounts a dispute between Jesus and a group of Sadducees who challenged the [[resurrection of the dead]] by asking who the husband of a resurrected woman would be who had been married, one after the other, to each of seven brothers. Jesus responds by charging the Sadducees with ignorance of the power of God, saying that the resurrected "neither marry nor are given in marriage, but are like angels in heaven." He also rebukes them for not knowing the Scriptures, citing a Torahic episode as his proof text. This was significant given that the Sadducees regarded the Torah alone as Scripture and would therefore have regarded themselves as experts in its interpretation.<ref>{{bibleverse|Mark|12:18-27}}; {{bibleverse|Luke|20:27-40}}; {{bibleverse|Matthew|22:23-33}}</ref><ref>[http://biblehub.com/commentaries/pulpit/matthew/22.htm Pulpit Commentary on Matthew 22], accessed 14 February 2017; Commentary, New Oxford Annotated Bible</ref>

Matthew records [[John the Baptist]] calling the Sadducees (and the Pharisees) a "brood of vipers".<ref>{{bibleverse|Matthew|3:7}}</ref>

===Opposition to the Pharisees===
Josephus, the author of the most extensive historical account of the Second Temple Period, gives a lengthy account of Jewish sectarianism in both ''[[The Jewish War]]'' and ''[[Jewish Antiquities]]''. In ''Antiquities'', he describes "the Pharisees have delivered to the people a great many observances by succession from their fathers, which are not written in the law of Moses, and for that reason it is that the Sadducees reject them and say that we are to esteem those observance to be obligatory which are in the written word, but are not to observe what are derived from the tradition of our forefathers."<ref name="aj13.10.6"/> The Sadducees rejected the Pharisaic use of the Oral Torah to enforce their claims to power, citing the Written Torah as the sole manifestation of divinity.

The [[rabbi]]s, who are traditionally seen as the descendants of the Pharisees, describe the similarities and differences between the two sects in [[Yadaim|Mishnah Yadaim]]. The [[Mishnah]] explains that the Sadducees state, "So too, regarding the Holy Scriptures, their impurity is according to (our) love for them. But the books of Homer, which are not beloved, do not defile the hands."<ref>Mishnah Yadaim 4:6–8</ref> A passage from the book of Acts suggests that both Pharisees and Sadducees collaborated in the [[Sanhedrin]], the high Jewish court.<ref name="acts23" />

==References==
{{Reflist|2}}

===Primary===
* {{cite book | editor-last = Coogan | editor-first = Michael | title = The New Oxford Annotated Bible with the Apocrypha | publisher = Oxford University Press | location = US | year = 2007 | isbn = 978-0-19-528882-7}}
* {{cite book | editor-last = Tenney | editor-first = Merrill | first = Titus Josephus | last = Flavius | title = Complete Works | publisher = Nelson Reference | year = 1998 | isbn = 978-0-7852-1427-4}}
* {{cite book | editor-last = Vermes | editor-first = Geza | title = The Complete Dead Sea Scrolls in English | publisher = Penguin | location = Harmondsworth, ENG | year = 2004 | isbn = 978-0-14-044952-5}}

===Secondary===
* {{cite book | last = Cohen | first = Shaye | title = From the Maccabees to the Mishnah | publisher = Westminster John Knox Press | location = Louisville | year = 2006 | isbn = 978-0-664-22743-2 }}
* {{cite book | last = Eshel | first = Hanan | title = The Dead Sea Scrolls and the Hasmonean State | publisher = Wm.B. Eerdmans | location = City | year = 2008 | isbn = 978-0-8028-6285-3 }}
* {{cite book | last = Johnson | first = Paul | title = A History of the Jews | publisher = Perennial Library | location = San Francisco | year = 1988 | isbn = 978-0-06-091533-9 | url-access = registration | url = https://archive.org/details/historyofjews00john }}
* {{cite book | last = Newman | first = Hillel | title = Proximity to Power and Jewish Sectarian Groups of the Ancient Period: a Review of Lifestyle, Values, and Halakha in the Pharisees, Sadducees, Essenes, and Qumran | publisher = Brill | location = Leiden | year = 2006 | isbn = 978-90-04-14699-0 }}
* {{cite book | last = Stemberger | first = Günter | title = Jewish Contemporaries of Jesus | publisher = Fortress Press | location = Minneapolis | year = 1995 | isbn = 978-0-8006-2624-2}}
* {{cite book | last = Vermes | first = Geza | title = Jesus in His Jewish Context | publisher = Fortress Press | location = Minneapolis | year = 2003 | isbn = 978-0-8006-3623-4}}
* {{cite book | last = Wellhausen | first = Julius | title = The Pharisees and the Sadducees | publisher = Mercer University Press | location = Macon | year = 2001 | isbn = 978-0-86554-729-2}}

==External links==
* {{Cite NIE|wstitle=Sadducees |year=1905 |short=x}}
* [https://jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/12989-sadducees "Sadducees" by Kaufmann Kohler] from the ''Jewish Encyclopedia'' (1901–1906)
* [https://www.encyclopedia.com/philosophy-and-religion/judaism/judaism/sadducees#2587517261 Two entries from Encyclopedia.com] (The first is "Sadducees" from the ''Encyclopedia of Religion'' by Lawrence H. Schiffman; The second is "Sadducees" from the ''Encyclopaedia Judaica'' by Menahem Mansoor)
* [http://cojs.org/Mishnah_Yadayim_4:6–8:_The_Pharisee-Sadducee_Debate ''Mishnah Yadayim'' 4:6–8, The Pharisee–Sadducee Debate], COJS.{{Dead link|date=September 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}

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