View source for Saint Thomas Christians

{{Short description|Indian ethnoreligious group}}
{{About|the people|their denominations|Saint Thomas Christian denominations}}
{{pp-extended|small=yes}}
{{protection padlock|small=yes}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=March 2022}}
{{Use Indian English|date=October 2015}}
{{Infobox ethnic group
| group            = [[File:St Thomas Cross.svg|20px]] Saint Thomas Christians<br />{{nobold|(മാർ തോമാ നസ്രാണി)}}
<!--<br />''Syrian Christians of Kerala''<br />''Mar Thoma Nasrani'', ''Malayali Nasrani Christians''-->| image            = Nasrani cross.jpg
| caption          = [[Saint Thomas Christian cross|Mar Thoma Cross]]
| pop              = Approx. 6,000,000 (2018){{sfnp|Thomas|2018|p=4}}
| popplace         = India ([[Kerala]], [[Chennai]], [[Bangalore]], [[Mumbai]]); UAE ([[Dubai]]); [[Oman]]; [[Kuwait]]; USA ([[New York metropolitan area]], [[Chicago]], [[Houston]], [[Dallas]], [[Tampa]], [[Detroit]], [[Atlanta]], [[Philadelphia]], [[New Jersey]], [[Los Angeles]], [[San Francisco Bay Area]]); Canada ([[Toronto]], [[Edmonton]], [[Whitehorse]]); UK ([[London]], [[Birmingham]]); The Netherlands ([[Amsterdam]])<ref>{{Catholic-hierarchy|diocese|dchsm|Eparchy of Saint Thomas the Apostle of Chicago (Syro-Malabarese)|23 January 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.indianchristianity.com/html/STCEI.htm |title=The Stcei |publisher=Indianchristianity.com |access-date=24 September 2017}}</ref>
| langs            = {{ubli|Vernacular: [[Malayalam]]|Liturgical: [[Syriac language|Syriac]] ([[Aramaic]])<ref name = "Ross">{{cite journal |last=Ross |first=Israel J. |year=1979 |title=Ritual and Music in South India: Syrian Christian Liturgical Music in Kerala |journal=Asian Music |volume=11 |issue=1 |pages=80–98 |doi=10.2307/833968 |jstor=833968 }}</ref>}}
| religions        = '''[[Christianity]]'''{{plainlist|
*''[[Saint Thomas Christian denominations]]''
*'''[[Catholic]]'''
*[[Syro-Malabar Church]] ([[East Syriac Rite]])
*[[Syro-Malankara Church]] ([[West Syriac Rite]])
*'''[[Oriental Orthodox]]''' (West Syriac Rite)
**[[Malankara Orthodox Syrian Church]]
**[[Jacobite Syrian Christian Church]]
**[[Malabar Independent Syrian Church]]
*'''[[Assyrian Church of the East]]''' (East Syriac Rite)
**[[Chaldean Syrian Church]]
*'''[[Oriental Protestant Christianity]]''' ([[Reformation|Reformed]]-West Syriac Rite)
**[[Malankara Mar Thoma Syrian Church]]
**[[St. Thomas Evangelical Church of India]]
*'''[[Protestantism|Protestant]]'''
**[[Saint Thomas Anglicans]] of the [[Church of South India]] ([[Church of South India|C.S.I.]] Rite)
**[[Pentecostal Saint Thomas Christians]] (riteless/nonliturgical)}}
| related          = [[Malayalis]],<ref name="King">{{cite book |last1=King |first1=Daniel |title=The Syriac World |date=12 December 2018 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-317-48211-6 |page=784 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=e-GEDwAAQBAJ |language=en}}</ref> [[Knanaya]], [[Cochin Jews]], [[Assyrians]]<ref>{{cite web | url=https://phylogeographer.com/some-syrian-christians-of-india-descend-from-roman-era-levantine-fgc64029/ | title=J-L283 Syrian Christians of India descend from J-Y146401 that lived in the Levant 900 BC and likely Europe before that – Mygrations | date=4 November 2019 }}</ref>
| native_name      = 
| native_name_lang = 
}}
{{Nasrani people|}}
The '''Saint Thomas Christians''', also called '''Syrian Christians of India''', '''''Marthoma Suriyani Nasrani''''', '''''Malankara Nasrani''''', or '''''Nasrani Mappila''''', are an [[Ethnoreligious group|ethno-religious]] community of [[Indian Christians]] in the state of [[Kerala]] ([[Malabar region]]),{{sfnp|Perczel|2013|p=416}} who, for the most part, employ the [[East Syriac Rite|Eastern]] and [[West Syriac Rite|Western]] [[liturgical rite]]s of [[Syriac Christianity]].{{sfnp|Brock|2011a}} They trace their origins to the evangelistic activity of [[Thomas the Apostle]] in the 1st century.<ref name="Erwin Fahlbusch">{{cite book |last1=Fahlbusch |first1=Erwin |author-link1=Erwin Fahlbusch |last2=Bromiley |first2=Geoffrey William |author-link2=Geoffrey W. Bromiley |last3=Lochman |first3=Jan Milic |author-link3=Jan Milic Lochman |title=The Encyclodedia of Christianity |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lZUBZlth2qgC |year=2008 |publisher=Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing |isbn=978-0-8028-2417-2 |page=285}}</ref><ref name="Orpa Slapak">{{cite book |author=Israel Museum |author-link=Israel Museum |title=The Jews of India: A Story of Three Communities |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qhKGPprbQaYC |year=1995 |publisher=UPNE |isbn=978-965-278-179-6 |page=27}}</ref> The Saint Thomas Christians had been historically a part of the hierarchy of the [[Church of the East]] but are now divided into several different [[Eastern Catholic Church|Eastern Catholic]], [[Oriental Orthodoxy|Oriental Orthodox]], [[Protestantism|Protestant]], and independent bodies, each with their own liturgies and traditions.<ref name="Erwin Fahlbusch"/> They are based in [[Kerala]] and they speak [[Malayalam]].<ref name="King"/><ref name="Considine">{{cite book |last1=Considine |first1=John Joseph |last2=Kernan |first2=Thomas |title=Across a World |date=1942 |publisher=Longmans, Green |page=67 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LaVlAAAAMAAJ&q=saint+thomas+christians+dravidian |language=en}}</ref> ''Nasrani'' or [[Nazarene (title)|Nazarene]] is a [[Syriac term for Christians]], who were among the first converts to Christianity in the [[Near East]].

Historically, this community was organised as the [[India (East Syriac ecclesiastical province)|Province of India]] of the Church of the East, by [[Patriarch of the Church of the East|Patriarch]] [[Timothy I (Nestorian patriarch)|Timothy I]] (780–823 AD) in the eighth century, it was served by bishops and a local dynastic [[archdeacon]].{{sfnp|Brock|2011a}}{{sfnp|Baum|Winkler|2003|p=52}}<ref name="Bundy">{{cite encyclopedia |first=David D. |last=Bundy |title=Timotheos I |encyclopedia=Gorgias Encyclopedic Dictionary of the Syriac Heritage: Electronic Edition |editor1=Sebastian P. Brock |editor2=Aaron M. Butts |editor3=George A. Kiraz |editor4=Lucas Van Rompay |publisher=Gorgias Press|year=2011 |url=https://gedsh.bethmardutho.org/Timotheos-I |access-date=22 September 2016}}</ref> In the 14th century, the Church of the East declined in the Near East, due to [[Persecution of Christians#Timurid Empire|persecution from Tamerlane]].<ref>https://web.archive.org/web/20221212130216/https://dailyhistory.org/How_did_Timur_change_the_history_of_the_world%3F</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=https://listverse.com/2018/01/15/10-terrors-of-the-tyrant-tamerlane/ | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240915114837/https://listverse.com/2018/01/15/10-terrors-of-the-tyrant-tamerlane/ | archive-date=15 September 2024 | title=10 Terrors of the Tyrant Tamerlane | date=15 January 2018 }}</ref><ref>https://web.archive.org/web/20240902072605/https://cnewa.org/web/20240902072605/https://cnewa.org/eastern-christian-churches/the-assyrian-church-of-the-east/</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=https://eurasia.sil.org/culture-and-society/history_and_religion/forgotten-church-east | title=The Forgotten Church of the East {{pipe}} SIL in Eurasia }}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.oasiscenter.eu/en/church-east-two-thousand-years-martyrdom-and-mission | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240417053308/https://www.oasiscenter.eu/en/church-east-two-thousand-years-martyrdom-and-mission | archive-date=17 April 2024 | title=The Church of the East: Two Thousand Years of Martyrdom and Mission | date=27 January 2016 }}</ref> [[Portuguese East Indies|Portuguese]] colonial overtures to bring St Thomas Christians into the [[Latin Church]] of the [[Catholic Church]], administered by their ''[[Padroado]]'' system in the 16th century, led to the first of several rifts ([[schism]]s) in the community.{{sfnp|Frykenberg|2008|p=111}}<ref name=BritannicaIndia>[http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/115623/Christians-of-Saint-Thomas "Christians of Saint Thomas"]. ''Encyclopædia Britannica''. Retrieved 9 February 2010.</ref>{{sfnp|Frykenberg|2008|pp=134–136}} The attempts of the Portuguese culminated in the [[Synod of Diamper]], formally subjugating them to the Portuguese Padroado and imposing upon them the [[Roman Rite]] of worship. The [[Portuguese Inquisition in Goa and Bombay-Bassein|Portuguese oppression]] provoked a violent resistance among the Thomasine Christians, that took expression in the [[Coonan Cross Oath]] protest in 1653. This led to the permanent schism among the Thomas' Christians of India, leading to the formation of ''[[Puthankoor]]'' or ''Puthankūttukār'' ("New allegiance" ) and ''[[Paḻayakūṟ]]'' or ''Pazhayakūr'' ("Old allegiance") factions.<ref name=Garshuni>{{cite journal |title=Garshuni Malayalam: A Witness to an Early Stage of Indian Christian Literature|first=István|last=Perczel|author-link=István Perczel |url=https://www.academia.edu/8456992 |journal=Hugoye: Journal of Syriac Studies|date=September 2014 |page=291|volume=17|issue=2}}</ref> The ''Paḻayakūṟ'' comprise the present day [[Syro-Malabar Church]] and [[Chaldean Syrian Church]] which continue to employ the original East Syriac Rite.{{sfnp|Brock|2011a}}<ref>{{cite book |last= Encyclopedia Britannica|title=Synod of Diamper |publisher=Encyclopedia Britannica Online. Encyclopedia Britannica Inc. |url=https://www.britannica.com/event/Synod-of-Diamper|year=2011 |access-date= 23 December 2011 |language=en}}</ref><ref>For the Acts and Decrees of the Synod cf. Michael Geddes, "A Short History of the Church of Malabar Together with the Synod of Diamper &c." London, 1694; Repr. in George Menachery (ed.), Indian Church History Classics, Vol.1, Ollur 1998, pp. 33–112.</ref><ref>{{cite encyclopedia |title=Addai and Mari, Liturgy of |encyclopedia=The Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church |edition=3rd rev. |editor1=F. L. Cross |editor2=E. A. Livingstone |year=2009 |orig-year=2005 |publisher=Oxford University Press |url=https://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/acref/9780192802903.001.0001/acref-9780192802903-e-78 |isbn=9780192802903}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=India - Report on the Census of Travancore - Census 1871 |url=https://censusindia.gov.in/nada/index.php/catalog/27961/ |access-date=2024-12-08 |website=censusindia.gov.in}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=India - Cochin, Part I, II, Vol-XIX - Census 1941 |url=https://new.census.gov.in/nada/index.php/catalog/28355/ |access-date=2024-12-08 |website=new.census.gov.in}}</ref> The ''Puthankoottukar'', who continued to resist the Catholic missionaries, organized themselves as the independent Malankara Church and entered into a new communion with the [[Syriac Orthodox Church|Syriac Orthodox Church of Antioch]], inheriting from them the West Syriac Rite, replacing the old East Syriac Rite liturgy.{{sfnp|Joseph|2011}}{{sfnp|Brock|2011a}}<ref>{{Cite web |title=Kerala Syrian Christian, Apostle in India, The tomb of the Apostle, Persian Church, Syond of Diamper – Coonan Cross Oath, Subsequent divisions and the Nasrani People |url=https://www.nasrani.net/2007/02/13/kerala-syrian-christian-the-tomb-of-the-apostle-persian-church-syond-of-diamper-coonan-cross-oath-divisions/ |date=13 February 2007 |website=Nasranis}}</ref>

The Chaldean Syrian Church based in [[Thrissur]] represents the continuation of the traditional pre-sixteenth century church of Saint Thomas Christians in India.{{sfnp|Brock|2011c}}<ref name="George1977">{{cite book |last1=George |first1=V. C. |title=The Church in India Before and After the Synod of Diamper |publisher=Prakasam Publications |language=en |quote=He wished to propagate Nestorianism within the community. Misunderstanding arose between him and the Assyrian Patriarch, and from the year 1962 onwards the Chaldean Syrian Church in Malabar has had two sections within it, one known as the Patriarch party and the other as the Bishop's party.}}</ref> It forms the Indian archdiocese of the [[Iraq]]-based [[Assyrian Church of the East]], which is one of the descendant churches of the Church of the East. They were a minority faction within the Paḻayakūṟ faction, which joined with the Church of the East Bishop during the 1870s.<ref>{{cite web |title=Church of the East in India |url=http://www.nestorian.org/church_of_the_east_in_india.html |access-date=2 October 2010 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110515041838/http://www.nestorian.org/church_of_the_east_in_india.html |archive-date=15 May 2011}}</ref>

The Eastern Catholic faction is in [[full communion]] with the Holy See in Rome. This includes the aforementioned Syro-Malabar Church, which follows the East Syriac Rite, as well as the West Syriac [[Syro-Malankara Catholic Church]].{{sfnp|Brock|2011b}}{{sfnp|Brock|2011a}} The Oriental Orthodox faction includes the autocephalous [[Malankara Orthodox Syrian Church]] and [[Malabar Independent Syrian Church]] along with the [[Jacobite Syrian Christian Church]], an integral part of the Syriac Orthodox Church headed by the Patriarch of Antioch.{{sfnp|Joseph|2011}}

[[Protestant Eastern Christianity|Oriental Protestant]] denominations include the [[Mar Thoma Syrian Church]] and the [[St. Thomas Evangelical Church of India]].<ref>{{cite book |title=South Asia |year=1980 |publisher=Missions Advanced Research and Communication Center |isbn=978-0-912552-33-0 |page=114 |language=en |quote=The Mar Thoma Syrian Church, which represents the Protestant Reform movement, broke away from the Syrian Orthodox Church in the 19th century.}}</ref> Being a [[Reformed Christianity|Reformed]] church influenced by [[Anglicanism|Anglican missionaries]] in the 1800s, the Mar Thoma Church employs a Reformed variant of the liturgical West Syriac Rite.{{sfnp|Fenwick|2011b}}<ref name="marthomanae.org">{{cite web |title=Ecumenical Relations |url=https://www.marthomanae.org/website/portaltemplate.php?mainmenu=MAR%20THOMA%20CHURCH&submenu=Ecumenical%20Relations&subsubmenu=&subsubsubmenu= |work=marthomanae.org|date=9 May 2016|access-date=26 June 2017|archive-date=1 July 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170701175743/https://www.marthomanae.org/website/portaltemplate.php?mainmenu=MAR%20THOMA%20CHURCH&submenu=Ecumenical%20Relations&subsubmenu=&subsubsubmenu=|url-status=dead}}</ref> The St. Thomas Evangelical Church of India is an [[Evangelicalism|evangelical]] faction that split off from the Marthoma Church in 1961.<ref>{{cite web |title=Mission & Vision |url=http://steci.org/mission-vision/ |website=St. Thomas Evangelical Church of India (steci) is an episcopal Church |access-date=27 April 2020 |archive-date=18 January 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210118143751/http://steci.org/mission-vision/ |url-status=dead }}</ref> Meanwhile, the [[CSI Syrian Christians]] represents those [[Malankara Syrian Church|Malankara Syrian Christians]], who joined the [[Anglican Church]] in 1836 and eventually became part of the [[Church of South India]], a [[United Protestant]] denomination. The C.S.I. is in full communion with the Mar Thoma Syrian Church.<ref name="Dalal2014">{{cite book |last1=Dalal |first1=Roshen |title=The Religions of India: A Concise Guide to Nine Major Faiths |date=18 April 2014 |publisher=[[Penguin Books]] |isbn=978-81-8475-396-7 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=87k0AwAAQBAJ&dq=%22Church+of+South+India%22+united+Protestant&pg=PT363 |language=English}}</ref>{{sfnp|Neill|2002|pp=247–251}}<ref name="Encyclopedia1999">{{cite book |last1=Fahlbusch |first1=Erwin |last2=Lochman |first2=Jan Milic |last3=Bromiley |first3=Geoffrey William |last4=Mbiti |first4=John |last5=Pelikan |first5=Jaroslav |last6=Vischer |first6=Lukas |title=The Encyclopedia of Christianity |year=1999 |publisher=Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing |isbn=978-90-04-11695-5 |pages=687–688 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yaecVMhMWaEC&pg=PA688 |language=en}}</ref><ref name="MeltonBaumann2010">{{cite book |last1=Melton |first1=J. Gordon |last2=Baumann |first2=Martin |title=Religions of the World: A Comprehensive Encyclopedia of Beliefs and Practices, 2nd Edition [6 volumes] |date=21 September 2010 |publisher=ABC-CLIO |isbn=978-1-59884-204-3 |page=707 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=v2yiyLLOj88C&pg=PA707 |language=en}}</ref> By the 20th century, various Syrian Christians joined [[Pentecostalism|Pentecostal]] and other evangelical denominations like the [[Kerala Brethren]], [[Indian Pentecostal Church of God]], [[Assemblies of God]], among others. They are known as [[Pentecostal Saint Thomas Christians]].<ref name="Syrianpentecostals1">{{cite book |last1=Anderson |first1=Allan |last2=Tang |first2=Edmond |title=Asian and Pentecostal: The Charismatic Face of Christianity in Asia |year=2005 |publisher=OCMS |isbn=978-1-870345-43-9 |pages=192–193, 195–196, 203–204 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LDZgKELq7AoC&q=pentecostalism+kerala+syrian+christian&pg=PA196 |language=en}}</ref><ref name="Syrianpentecostals2">{{cite book |last1=Bergunder |first1=Michael |title=The South Indian Pentecostal Movement in the Twentieth Century |date=6 June 2008 |publisher=Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing |isbn=978-0-8028-2734-0 |pages=15–16, 26–30, 37–57 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XGiv3riaunQC&q=Pentecostal+evangelical+saint+thomas+syrian+christian |language=en}}</ref>

== Terminology ==
The Saint Thomas Christians have also been nicknamed such due to their reverence for Saint [[Thomas the Apostle]], who is said to have brought Christianity to India. The name dates back to the period of [[Portuguese India|Portuguese colonisation]]. They are also known, especially locally, as ''Nasrani'' or ''Nasrani Mappila''. The former means ''Christian''; it appears to have been derived from the Hebrew word Netzer or the Aramaic Nasraya from Isaiah 11:1. ''[[Nasrani (Arabic term for Christian)|Nasrani]]'' is evolved from the Syriac term for "Christian" that emerges from the Greek word ''Nazōraioi'', [[Nazarene (sect)|Nazarene]] in English. ''Mappila'' is an [[honorific]] applied to members of non-Indian faiths and descendants of immigrants from the middle east who had intermarried with the local population, including Muslims (''[[Jonaka Mappila]]'') and Jews (''[[Yuda Mappila]]'').<ref name=Zupanov>{{cite book|last=Županov|first=Ines G.|author-link=Ines G. Županov|year=2005 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Nix4M4dy7nQC|title=Missionary Tropics: The Catholic Frontier in India (16th–17th centuries)|page=99 and note|publisher=University of Michigan|isbn=0-472-11490-5}}</ref><ref name="BMalieckal">{{cite journal |first=Bindu |last=Malieckal  |year=2005 |title=Muslims, Matriliny, and A Midsummer Night's Dream: European Encounters with the Mappilas of Malabar, India |journal=The Muslim World |volume=95 |issue=2 |page=300|doi=10.1111/j.1478-1913.2005.00092.x }}</ref> Some Syrian Christians of [[Travancore]] continue to attach this honorific title to their names.<ref>{{cite book |title=The Mappila fisherfolk of Kerala: a study in inter-relationship between habitat, technology, economy, society, and culture |year=1977 |first=P. R. G. |last=Mathur |publisher=Kerala Historical Society |page=1}}</ref> The [[Government of India]] designates members of the community as ''Syrian Christians'', a term originating with the [[Dutch India|Dutch colonial authority]] that distinguishes the Saint Thomas Christians, who used Syriac (within [[East Syriac Rite]] or [[West Syriac Rite]]) as their liturgical language, from newly evangelised Christians who followed the [[Roman Rite]].{{sfnp|Vadakkekara|2007|p=52}} The terms ''Syrian'' or ''Syriac'' relate not to their ethnicity but to their historical, religious and liturgical connection to the [[Church of the East]], or East Syriac Church.<ref name=Zupanov />

==Ethnic divisions==
Internally the Saint Thomas Christian community is divided into two ethnic groups, the majority ''Vadakkumbhagar'' or Northist and the minority ''Tekkumbhagar'' or Southist. Saint Thomas Christian tradition traces the origin of these ethno-geographical epithets to the city of [[Kodungallur]], the historic capital of the medieval [[Chera dynasty]]. The early converts of Saint Thomas the Apostle and those who later joined the faith in India are believed to have initially resided on the northern side of the city of Kodungallur and for that reason became known as Vadakkumbhagar or Northist.{{sfnp|Vellian|1986|p=0-1}}{{sfnp|Malekandathil|2003|pp=19–20}}{{sfnp|Podipara|1971|p=2}}{{sfnp|Frykenberg|2010|p=113}}

In either the 4th or 8th century, the Syriac Christian merchant magnate [[Knai Thoma]] is noted to have arrived and settled in southern Kodungallur with a cohort of merchants and clergymen. Because they dwelled on the southern side, the descendants of Thoma's migration became known as Tekkumbhagar or Southist.{{sfnp|Vellian|1986|p=0-1}}{{sfnp|Malekandathil|2003|pp=19–20}}{{sfnp|Podipara|1971|p=2}}{{sfnp|Frykenberg|2010|p=113}} The Southist community is primarily known by the appellation ''K'nā'nāya'' (Syriac for Canaanite), an adjectival epithet of Knai Thoma.{{sfnp|Kollaparambil|1992|pp=84–85}}

The ''Oxford History of the Christian Church'' summarizes the division of the community in the following quote:  
<blockquote>"In time, Jewish Christians of the most exclusive communities descended from settlers who accompanied Knayil Thomma (Kanayi) became known as 'Southists' (Tekkumbha ̄gar)...They distinguished between themselves and 'Northists' (Vatakkumbha ̄gar). The 'Northists', on the other hand, claimed direct descent from the very oldest Christians of the country, those who had been won to Christ by the Apostle Thomas himself. They had already long inhabited northern parts of Kodungallur. They had been there even before various waves of newcomers had arrived from the Babylonian or Mesopotamian provinces of Sassanian Persia."

– Historian of South Asian Studies, Robert E. Frykenberg (2010){{sfnp|Frykenberg|2010|p=113}}</blockquote>

== History ==

=== Origin ===

{{see also|Acts of Thomas}}According to tradition, Thomas the Apostle came to [[Muziris]] on the Kerala coast in AD 52<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.smithsonianmag.com/travel/how-christianity-came-to-india-kerala-180958117/|title=The Surprisingly Early History of Christianity in India|first=Paul|last=Zacharia|author2=Lynn Johnson|website=Smithsonian Magazine}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://stthoma.com/|title=Thomas The Apostole|date=8 February 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110208073816/http://stthoma.com/|archive-date=8 February 2011}}</ref><ref name="Erwin Fahlbusch"/> which is in present-day [[Pattanam]], near [[Kodungallur]], [[Kerala]].<ref>{{Cite news |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/4970452.stm|title = Search for India's ancient city|date = 11 June 2006}}</ref> However, the visit of St. Thomas is still a matter of dispute among historians.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Arrival of St. Thomas-The visit of St. Thomas is still a matter of dispute among historians. There are only very limited details about him in the Bible. |url=https://www.keralatourism.org/christianity/arrival-stthomas/6 |website=Kerala Tourism (Archived) |publisher=Government of Kerala |access-date=2025-07-10 |archive-date=14 January 2025 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250114231100/https://www.keralatourism.org/christianity/arrival-stthomas/6 |url-status=bot: unknown }}</ref>

The [[Cochin Jews]] are known to have existed in Kerala in the 1st century AD,<ref name="Orpa Slapak"/>{{sfnp|Bayly|2004|p=244}} and it was possible for an [[Aramaic]]-speaking [[Jew]], such as St. Thomas from [[Galilee]], to make a trip to Kerala then.<ref name="Puthiakunnel">Thomas Puthiakunnel, (1973) "Jewish colonies of India paved the way for St. Thomas", The Saint Thomas Christian Encyclopedia of India, ed. George Menachery, Vol. II., Trichur.</ref> The earliest known source connecting the Apostle to Northwest India, specifically the [[Indo-Parthian Kingdom]], is the ''[[Acts of Thomas]]'', likely written in the early 3rd century, perhaps in [[Edessa, Mesopotamia|Edessa]].{{sfnmp|Frykenberg|2008|1p=99|Klijn|2003|2p=15|3a1=Childers|3y=2011|4a1=Medlycott|4y=1912}}

A number of 3rd and 4th century Roman writers also mention Thomas' trip to India, including [[Ambrose of Milan]], [[Gregory of Nazianzus]], [[Jerome]], and [[Ephrem the Syrian]], while [[Eusebius of Caesarea]] records that St. Clement of Alexandria's teacher [[Pantaenus]] from [[Alexandria]] visited a Christian community in India using the [[Gospel of Matthew]] in [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]] in the 2nd century.{{sfnmp|1a1=Eusebius|1loc=Book V Chapter 10 |2a1=Frykenberg|2y=2008|2p=103 |3a1=Baum|3a2=Winkler|3y=2003|3p=52 |4a1=Medlycott|4y=1912 |5a1=Whitehouse|5y=1873|5pp=12–20}}<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.indianchristianity.com/html/chap4/chapter4g.htm |title=Indian Christianity}}</ref>

The tradition of origin of the Christians in Kerala is found in a version of the Songs of Thomas or ''Thomma Parvam'', written in 1601 and believed to be a summary of a larger and older work.{{sfnp|Frykenberg|2008|p=92}}<ref name="Ramban">"The Song of Thomas Ramban" in Menachery G (ed); (1998) ''The Indian Church History Classics'', Vol. I, ''The Nazranies'', Ollur, 1998. {{ISBN|81-87133-05-8}}</ref> Thomas is described as arriving in or around [[Maliankara]] and founding ''[[Ēḻarappaḷḷikaḷ]]'' (Seven great churches): [[Kodungallur]], [[Kottakkavu Mar Thoma Syro-Malabar Church, North Paravur|Kottakavu]], [[St. Thomas Syro-Malabar Church, Palayoor|Palayoor]], [[St. Thomas Church, Kokkamangalam|Kokkamangalam]], [[St. Thomas Church, Angamoozhy|Nilackal]], [[St. Mary's Church, Niranam|Niranam]] and [[Kollam]].<ref>{{cite book |last=Whitehouse |first=Thomas |title=Lingerings of light in a dark land: Researches into the Syrian church of Malabar|date=1873 |publisher=William Brown and Co. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Ie4CAAAAQAAJ |language=en|pages=23–42}}</ref> Some other churches, namely [[Thiruvithamcode Arappally]] (a "half church"),<ref>{{cite book |title=The pastoral care of the Syro-Malabar Catholic migrants |author=James Arampulickal |publisher=Oriental Institute of Religious Studies, India Publications |year=1994 |page=40}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |title=Orientalia christiana periodica: Commentaril de re orientali ...: Volumes 17–18 |publisher=Pontificium Institutum Orientalium Studiorum |year=1951 |page=233}}</ref><ref>{{cite book| author=Adrian Hastings| title=A World History of Christianity| date=15 August 2000| publisher=Wm. B. Eerdmans| isbn=978-0-8028-4875-8| page=149}}</ref> [[St. Thomas Syro-Malabar Church, Malayattoor|Malayattoor]] and [[St. George's Syro-Malabar Catholic Forane Church, Aruvithura|Aruvithura]] are often called ''Arappallikal''.<ref>{{Cite web|author=Department of Tourism|title=Seven and half Churches (Ezhara Pallikal)|url=https://www.keralatourism.org/christianity/seven-half-churches/7}}</ref> The ''Thomma Parvam'' also narrates the conversion of Jews, natives, and the local King at Kodungallur by St Thomas. It is possible that the [[Jewish Christian|Jews who became Christians]] at that time were absorbed by what became the Nasrani Community in Kerala.<ref name="Puthiakunnel"/><ref>{{cite book |last=Muthiah |first=S. |title=Madras Rediscovered: A Historical Guide to Looking Around, Supplemented with Tales of 'Once Upon a City' |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zl8MAQAAMAAJ&q=%22long-settled+Jews%22 |publisher=East West Books|isbn=818-685-222-0|year=1999|page=113}}</ref> The ''Thomma Parvam'' further narrates St Thomas's mission in the rest of South India and his martyrdom at [[Mylapore]] in present-day [[Chennai]], Tamil Nadu.{{sfnp|Frykenberg|2008|p=99}}{{sfnp|Mundadan|Thekkedath|1982|pp=30–32}} According to legend, the community began with Thomas's conversion of 32 [[Brahmin]] families, namely [[Pakalomattom family|Pakalomattom]], Sankarapuri, Kalli, Kaliyankal, Koikara, Madapoor, Muttodal, Kottakara, Nedumpilly, Palackal, Panakkamattom, Kunnappilly, Vazhappilly, Payyappilly, Maliakkal, Pattamukku, Thaiyil, etc.<ref>{{cite book |last=Mani |first=Thattunkal Zachariah |year=2016 |title=ThomaaSleehaayude Kerala ChristhavaSabha Onnaam Noottaandil |page=14 |publisher=T.Z.Mani}}{{ISBN?|date=July 2024}}{{full citation needed|date=July 2024|reason=I can find the cite, but I can't find the book.}}</ref><ref name="Ayyar 1926 3">{{cite book |last=Ayyar |first=L. K. Anantakrishna |year=1926 |title=Anthropology of the Syrian Christians |page=3 |publisher=Cochin Government Press |url=https://archive.org/details/AnthropologyOfTheSyrianChristians/page/n39/mode/2up}}</ref>{{sfnp|Frykenberg|2008|pp=101–102}}

While there is much doubt on the cultural background of early Christians, there is evidence that some members of the St Thomas Christian community observed Brahmin customs in the Middle Ages, such as the wearing of the [[Upanayana]] (sacred thread) and having a [[kudumi]].{{refn|{{sfnp|Malekandathil|2010|pp=38–61}}{{sfnp|Menachery|2000}}{{sfnp|Brown|1956|p={{page needed|date=July 2024}}}}{{sfnp|Malekandathil|2014}}}} The medieval historian [[Pius Malekandathil]] believes these were customs adopted and privileges won during the beginning of the Brahmin dominance of medieval Kerala. He argues that the Syrian Christians in Kerala, integrated with Persian Christian migrant merchants, in the 9th century to become a powerful trading community and were granted the privileges by the local rulers to promote revenue generation and to undermine Buddhist and Jain traders who rivaled the Brahmins for religious and political hegemony in Kerala at the time.{{sfnp|Malekandathil|2010|pp=38-61}}{{sfnp|Malekandathil|2014}}

[[File:Mar Knai Thoma.jpg|thumb|Icon of Mar Knai Thoma the Merchant]]
An organized Christian presence in India dates to the arrival of [[East Syriac Rite|East Syriac]] settlers and missionaries from [[Persia]], members of what would become the Church of the East, in around the 3rd century.{{sfnp|Medlycott|1912}}{{sfnp|Frykenberg|2008|pp=102–107,115}} Saint Thomas Christians trace the further growth of their community to the arrival of Jewish-Christians (early East Syriac Christians) from the region of Mesopotamia led by [[Thomas of Cana|Knāi Thoma]] ([[Anglicisation|anglicized]] as Thomas of Cana), which is said to have occurred either in the 4th or 8th century.{{sfnmp|1a1=Medlycott|1y=1912 |2a1=Kollaparambil|2y=1992|2pp=1–20 |3a1=Frykenberg|3y=2010|3p=113 |4a1=Fahlbusch|4a2=Bromiley|4a3=Lochman|4y=2008|4p=286}} The subgroup of the Saint Thomas Christians known as the [[Knanaya]] or Southists trace their lineage to Thomas of Cana, while the group known as the [[Northists]] claim descent from the early Christians evangelized by Thomas the Apostle.{{sfnmp|Frykenberg|2010|1p=113 |2a1=Baum|2a2=Winkler|2y=2003|2p=52 |3a1=Swiderski|3y=1988a}} The traditional histories of the Thomas Christians note that the immigration of the Knanites reinvigorated the church of India, which was at the moment of their arrival deprived of ecclesial leadership.{{sfnp|Kollaparambil|2015|p=129}} The arrival of the migrants is also associated with connecting the native Church of St. Thomas with the Syriac Christian tradition of the [[Church of the East]].{{sfnp|Thomas|2018|p=4}}{{sfnp|Neill|2004|pp=42–43}}{{sfnp|Nedungatt|2001|p=41|ps=: Related with East Syriac Church: The spatial separateness of the St Thomas Christians from Christian centres in other lands was not in every way absolute, as at an early stage of their history they found themselves in rapport with the East Syriac Church. Neither their traditions nor their posterior documents exhibit any sign of constraint or bad blood occasioned by such a relationship. On the other hand everything goes to show that it was a happy working arrangement. Their being in dire straits early on in their history and the arrival on the scene of the progenitors of the present-day "Southists" as benefactors, appears to coincide with the Community's acceptance of fellowship with the East Syriac Church. – Dr. Benedict Vadakkekara}}

During this time period Thomas of Cana received copper plates of socio-economic and religious rights for his relations, his party, and all people of his religion. The granting of these plates is noted to have enhanced the social position of all the ancient Christians of India and secured for them royal protection from the Chera dynasty. The [[Thomas of Cana copper plates]] were extant in Kerala until the 17th century after which point they were lost.<ref name=":12">D'Aguiar, Rev. J. Monteiro. 'The Magna Carta of St. Thomas Christians', ''K. S. P.'', no. 4, p. 172 and 195.</ref>{{sfnp|Kollaparambil|2015|p=129}}{{sfnp|Medlycott|1912}}

=== Classical period ===
[[File:Quilon Syrian copper plates (849 CE) plates 1 and 4.jpg|thumb|upright=1.15|[[Tharisapalli plates|Tharisapalli Copper plate grant]] (9th century) – One of the reliable documentary evidences of the privileges and influence that Saint Thomas Christians enjoyed in early Malabar.<ref>Burjor Avari – India, the ancient past, Taylor & Francis, 2007, p.221, {{ISBN|0-415-35615-6}}</ref> The document contains signatures of the witnesses in [[Pahlavi script|Pahlavi]], [[Kufic]] and [[Hebrew]] scripts.{{sfnp|Pothan|1963|pp=102–105}} It is the oldest documentary evidence from India that attest the presence of a Persian Christian community in South India.<ref name="SundermannHintze2009">{{cite book|author1=Werner Sundermann|author2=Almut Hintze|author3=François de Blois|title=Exegisti Monumenta: Festschrift in Honour of Nicholas Sims-Williams |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=b3gOdaiXNKkC&pg=PA31|year=2009|publisher=Otto Harrassowitz Verlag|isbn=978-3-447-05937-4|page=38}}</ref>]]

As the community grew and immigration by [[East Syriac Rite|East Syriac]] Christians increased, the connection with the Church of the East, centred in the Persian capital of [[Seleucia-Ctesiphon]], strengthened. From the early 4th century the [[Patriarch of the Church of the East]] provided India with clergy, holy texts, and ecclesiastical infrastructure, and around 650 Patriarch [[Ishoyahb III]] solidified the Church of the East's jurisdiction over the Saint Thomas Christian community.{{sfnp|Baum|Winkler|2003|p=53}}{{sfnp|Walker|2011}} In the 8th century Patriarch [[Timothy I (Nestorian Patriarch)|Timothy I]] organised the community as the [[India (East Syrian Ecclesiastical Province)|Ecclesiastical Province of India]], one of the church's Provinces of the Exterior.<ref name="Bundy"/> After this point the Province of India was headed by a [[metropolitan bishop]], dispatched from Persia, the "Metropolitan-Bishop of the Seat of Saint Thomas and the Whole Christian Church of India".{{sfnp|Brock|2011a}}{{sfnp|Baum|Winkler|2003|p=52}} His [[metropolitan see]] was probably in [[Cranganore]], or (perhaps nominally) in [[Mylapore]], where the shrine of Thomas was located.{{sfnp|Baum|Winkler|2003|p=52}} Under him were a varying number of bishops, as well as a native [[Archdeacon]], who had authority over the clergy and who wielded a great amount of secular power.{{sfnp|Baum|Winkler|2003|p=52}}

Some contact and transmission of knowledge of the Saint Thomas Christians managed to reach the Christian West, even after the rise of the [[Islamic empires]].{{sfnp|Frykenberg|2008|p=112}} [[Byzantine]] traveller [[Cosmas Indicopleustes]] wrote of Syrian Christians he met in India and [[Sri Lanka]] in the 6th century.<ref name="Indicopleustes2010">{{cite book|author=Cosmas Indicopleustes|editor=J. W. McCrindle|title=The Christian Topography of Cosmas, an Egyptian Monk: Translated from the Greek, and Edited with Notes and Introduction|date=24 June 2010 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Cp9S9o5lj5oC&pg=PA119 |access-date=3 November 2012|edition=2010|publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-108-01295-9|pages=48, 119–120, 365–366}}</ref>{{sfnp|Walker|2011}}{{sfnp|Frykenberg|2008|pp=105,110}} In 883 the English king [[Alfred the Great]] reportedly sent a mission and gifts to Saint Thomas' tomb in India.{{sfnp|Frykenberg|2008|p=112}} During the [[Crusades]], distorted accounts of the Saint Thomas Christians and the Nestorian Church gave rise to the European legend of [[Prester John]].<ref>Silverberg, Robert (1996). ''The Realm of Prester John'', pp. 29–34. Ohio University Press. {{ISBN|1-84212-409-9}}.</ref>

[[File:King_of_Colombo_(Kollam),_Catalan_Atlas_1375.jpg|thumb|left|The "King of Colombo" ([[Kollam]], flags: [[File:Flag_of_the_Kigdom_of_Colombo,_Catalan_Atlas_1375.png |30x15px]], identified as Christian due to the Christian presence there) in the contemporary [[Catalan Atlas]] of 1375.{{sfnp|Liščák|2018|pp=4–5}}<ref>{{cite book |last1=Massing |first1=Jean Michel |last2=Albuquerque |first2=Luís de |last3=Brown |first3=Jonathan |last4=González |first4=J. J. Martín |title=Circa 1492: Art in the Age of Exploration |date=1 January 1991 |publisher=Yale University Press |isbn=978-0-300-05167-4 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wMK-Ba0-RG4C&pg=PA30 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |title=Cartography between Christian Europe and the Arabic-Islamic World, 1100-1500: Divergent Traditions |date=17 June 2021 |publisher=BRILL |isbn=978-90-04-44603-8 |page=176 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=eq0zEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA176 |language=en}}</ref> The caption above the king of [[Kollam]] reads: ''Here rules the king of Colombo, a Christian''.{{sfnp|Liščák|2018|p=5}} The black flags ([[File:Sultan of Delhi Flag according to the Catalan Atlas (1375).png|30x15px]]) on the coast belong to the [[Delhi Sultanate]].]]
The port at [[Kollam]], then known as Quilon, was founded in 825 by Maruvān Sapir Iso, a Persian Christian merchant, with sanction from Ayyanadikal Thiruvadikal, the king of the independent [[Venad]] or the State of Quilon, a feudatory under [[Sthanu Ravi Varma]] ''[[Chera Perumals of Makotai|Perumal]]'' of the [[Chera dynasty|Chera]] kingdom.<ref>Kerala Charithram P.59 Sridhara Menon.{{full citation needed|date=July 2024}}</ref><ref name="Travancore Manual page 244">V. Nagam Aiya (1906), [[Travancore State Manual]], p. 244.</ref> Sapir Iso is usually identified either as the East Syriac Christian merchant who led the East Syriac bishops [[Mar Sabor and Mar Proth]] to the Christians of Malabar or as the first of those two bishops. This accompanied the second Assyrian migration into the Malabar coast other than the [[Knanaya]] migration. The two bishops were instrumental in founding many Christian churches with Syrian liturgy along the Malabar coast and were venerated as ''[[Kantheesangal|Qandishangal]]'' (saints) since then by the Thomas Christians.{{sfnp|Perczel|2018}} It is believed that Sapir Iso also proposed that the Chera king create a new seaport near Kollam in lieu of his request that he rebuild the almost vanished inland seaport at Kollam (kore-ke-ni) near Backare (Thevalakara), also known as Nelcynda and Tyndis to the Romans and Greeks and as Thondi to the Tamils, which had been without trade for several centuries because the Cheras were overrun by the [[Pallava dynasty|Pallavas]] in the 6th century, ending the spice trade from the Malabar coast.<ref>{{cite web |title=History |url=https://www.quilon.com/history.htm |website=Quilon.com}}</ref> The Tharisapalli plates presented to Maruvan Sapor Iso by Ayyanadikal Thiruvadikal granted the Christians the privilege of overseeing foreign trade in the city as well as control over its weights and measures in a move designed to increase Quilon's trade and wealth.<ref name="Sharma2010">{{cite book |author=Yogesh Sharma |title=Coastal Histories: Society and Ecology in Pre-modern India |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FTTGWSme30YC |year=2010 |publisher=Primus Books|page=78|isbn=978-93-80607-00-9}}</ref>

Thus began the Malayalam Era, known as [[Kollavarsham]] after the city, indicating the importance of Kollam in the 9th century.{{sfnp|Malekandathil|2010|p=43}}
[[File:Church of the East in the Middle Ages.svg|thumb|right |upright=1.15|[[Church of the East]] and its [[Dioceses of the Church of the East, 1318–1552|dioceses]] and missions throughout [[Asia]], including [[India (East Syriac ecclesiastical province)|India]]]]
The great distances involved and the geopolitical turmoil of the period caused India to be cut off from the church's heartland in Mesopotamia at several points. In the 11th century the province was suppressed by the church entirely, as it had become impossible to reach,<ref>Fiey, J. M. (1993). ''Pour un Oriens Christianus novus; répertoire des diocèses Syriaques orientaux et occidentaux'', p. 96. Beirut: Orient-Institut.</ref> but effective relations were restored by 1301.{{sfnp|Wilmshurst|2000|p=343, 391}} However, following the collapse of the Church of the East's hierarchy in most of Asia later in the 14th century, India was effectively cut off from the church, and formal contact was severed. By the late 15th century India had had no metropolitan for several generations, and the authority traditionally associated with him had been vested in the archdeacon.{{sfnp|Baum|Winkler|2003|p=105}}

MS Vatican Syriac 22 is the oldest known Syriac manuscript copied in India.{{sfnp|Brock|2011a}}{{sfnp|Van der Ploeg|1983|p=3}} It is a lectionary of [[Pauline Epistles]] copied on AD 1301 (1612 [[Seleucid era|AG]]) in [[Kodungallur|Kodungallūr]] (Cranganore, {{langx|syc|ܫܸܢܓܲܲܠܐ|Shengala}}) at the Church dedicated to [[Quiricus and Julietta|Mar Quriaqos]].{{sfnp|Van der Ploeg|1983|p=3}}<ref name="MS Vatican Syriac 22" />{{sfnp|Perczel|2018}}{{sfnp|Mingana|1926|p=451-452}}

MS Vatican Syriac 22 has the following passage about the "Catholicos-Patriarch of the East" and the "Metropolitan of India" in folio 93r- 94v:
{{blockquote
 |This holy book has been copied in the royal, renowned and famous town Shengala, which is in Malabar in the land of India, in the holy Church  dedicated to the Mar Quriaqos, the glorious martyr... whilst our blessed and holy father Mar Yahballaha the fifth, the Turk, qatoliqa Patriakis of the East, the head of all the countries, was great governor, holding the offices of the Catholic Church of East, the shining lamp which illuminates its regions, the head of the pastors and Pontiff of the pontiffs, Head of great high priests, Father of the fathers... The Lord may make long his life and protect his days in order that he may govern her, a long time, for her glory and for the exaltation of her sons. Amen...<br>
And when Mar Jacob, Metropolitan Bishop was the overseer and governor of the holy see of Saint Thomas the Apostle, that is to say governor of us and of all the holy Church of the Christian India. May God grant him strength and help that he may govern us with zeal and direct us according to the will of his Lord, and that he may teach us His commandments and make us walk in His ways, till the end of time, through the intercession of the holy Apostle St. Thomas and all his colleagues ! Amen!..
 |source = [https://digi.vatlib.it/view/MSS_Vat.sir.22 MS Vatican Syriac 22]
}}
This manuscript is written in [[Estrangela]] script by a very young deacon named Zakharya bar Joseph bar Zakharya who was just 14 at the time of writing.{{sfnp|Brock|2011a}}{{sfnp|Wilmshurst|2000|p=378}}{{sfnp|Van der Ploeg|1983|p=3}}<ref name="MS Vatican Syriac 22">{{Cite web |website=Nasranis |url=https://www.nasrani.net/2012/04/07/ms-vatican-syriac-22-ms-vatican-syriac-17-copied-in-south-india/|title=MS Vatican Syriac 22 & MS Vatican Syriac 17: Syriac Manuscripts copied in South India|date=6 April 2012}}</ref> The scribe refers Catholicos-Patriarch of the East [[Yahballaha III]] as Yahaballaha ''the fifth''.{{sfnp|Brock|2011a}} [[Johannes P. M. van der Ploeg]] comments that this may indicate that the patriarch was not well known among the Indian Christians.{{sfnp|Van der Ploeg|1983|p=4}}

[[File:Jordanus, on Saint-Thomas Chrsitians in India (Mirabilia Descripta, 1329–1338).jpg|thumb|upright=1.35|Catholic critical account of Saint-Thomas Christians in India, written by traveller and missionary [[Jordan Catala|Jordanus]] in 1329–1338 in ''Mirabilia Descripta''<ref>{{cite book |last1=Jordanus |first1=Catalani |last2=Yule |first2=Henry |last3=Parr |first3=Charles McKew donor |last4=Parr |first4=Ruth |date=1863 |title=Mirabilia descripta: the wonders of the East |page=23, para. 31 |publisher=London: Printed for the Hakluyt Society |url=https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_wQUVAAAAQAAJ/page/n52/mode/1up}}</ref>]]
In 1490, a delegation from the Saint Thomas Christians visited the [[Patriarch of the East]], [[Shemon IV]], to bring a bishop for India.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Antony|first=Martin Thomas|date=5 June 2010|title=The Story of Joseph, the Indian; A Historical Appraisal of the Affairs of St Thomas' Christians in the Pre Portuguese period|website=Nasranis |url=https://www.nasrani.net/2010/06/05/the-story-of-joseph-the-indian-with-a-historical-appraisal-of-the-affairs-of-st-thomas-christians/}}</ref> One among them was Joseph the Indian, who later became famous for his visit to Rome and the account of Malabar in Book VI of ''Paesi novamente retrovati'' (1507) by Fracanzano da Montalboddo.{{sfnp|Brock|2011a}} The patriarch responded positively to the request of Saint Thomas Christians, and appointed two bishops, Mar Thoma and Mar [[Yohannan (Yoseph of Awgin)|Yohannan]], dispatching them to India. These bishops, and three more (Mar Yahballaha, Mar Dinkha and Mar [[Yaqob Abuna|Yaqov]]) who followed them in 1503–1504, reaffirmed and strengthened traditional ties between [[India (East Syriac ecclesiastical province)|India]] and the Patriarchate. They were later followed by another bishop, Mar [[Abraham of Angamaly|Abraham]], who died in 1597. By that time, Christians of the [[Malabar Coast]] were facing new challenges, caused by the establishment of [[Portuguese India|Portuguese]] presence in India.{{sfnp|Wilmshurst|2000|pp=20, 347, 398, 406–407}}{{sfnp|Brock|2011a}}{{sfnp|Baum|Winkler|2003|pp=106–111}}

=== Portuguese contact ===
{{Further|Goa Inquisition|Portuguese Inquisition}}

The Saint Thomas Christians first encountered the [[Portugal|Portuguese]] in 1498, during the expedition of [[Vasco da Gama]]. At the time the community was in a tenuous position: though thriving in the [[spice trade]] and protected by their own militia, the local political sphere was volatile and the Saint Thomas Christians found themselves under pressure from the [[raja]]s of [[Kozhikode|Calicut]] and [[Kingdom of Cochin|Cochin]] and other small kingdoms in the area. The Saint Thomas Christians and the Portuguese newcomers quickly formed an alliance.{{sfnp|Frykenberg|2008|pp=122–124}}

The Portuguese had a keen interest in implanting themselves in the spice trade and in spreading their version of Christianity, which had been forged during several centuries of warfare in the [[Reconquista]].{{sfnp|Frykenberg|2008|pp=125–127}} Facilitating their goals was the ''[[Padroado Real]]'', a series of treaties and decrees in which the Pope conferred upon the Portuguese government certain authority in ecclesiastical matters in the foreign territories they conquered. They set up in [[Goa]], forming a [[Portuguese India|colonial government]] and a [[Latin church]] hierarchy under the [[Archbishop of Goa]], and quickly set to bringing the Saint Thomas Christians under his authority.{{sfnp|Frykenberg|2008|pp=127–128}}

The Portuguese subjection of the Saint Thomas Christians was relatively measured at first, but they became more aggressive after 1552, the year of the death of Metropolitan Mar Jacob and of a [[Schism of 1552|schism in the Church of the East]], which resulted in there being two rival Patriarchs—one of whom entered communion with the Catholic Church. Both patriarchs sent bishops to India, but the Portuguese consistently managed to outmaneuver them, and effectively cut off the Saint Thomas Christians from their hierarchy in 1575, when the Padroado legislated that neither patriarch could send representatives to India without Portuguese approval.{{sfnp|Frykenberg|2008|pp=130–134}}

By 1599 the last Metropolitan, [[Abraham of Angamaly|Abraham]], had died, and the Archbishop of Goa, [[Aleixo de Menezes]], had secured the submission of the young [[Givargis of the Cross|Archdeacon Givargis]], the highest remaining representative of the native church hierarchy.{{sfnp|Neill|2004|pp=208–210}} The Archbishop convened the [[Synod of Diamper]], which implemented various liturgical and structural reforms in the Indian church. The Synod brought the parishes directly under the Archbishop's purview; anathematised certain "superstitious" social customs characteristic of their Hindu neighbors, including [[untouchability]] and a [[caste]] hierarchy; and purged the liturgy, the [[East Syriac Rite]], of elements deemed unacceptable according to the Latin protocol.{{sfnmp|1a1=Medlycott|1y=1912 |2a1=Takahashi|2y=2011 |3a1=Neill|3y=2004|3pp=208–214 |4a1=Vadakkekara|4y=2007|4p=78 |5a1=Prasad|5y=2009|5p=484}} A number of Syriac texts were condemned and ordered burnt,<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/tp-national/tp-kerala/tracing-the-heritage-of-syrian-christians/article1476371.ece |url-access=subscription |title=Tracing the heritage of Syrian Christians |work=The Hindu |date=21 February 2011}}</ref> including the [[Peshitta]], the Syriac version of the Bible.{{sfnp|Van der Ploeg|1983|p={{Page needed|date=May 2012}}}} Some of the reforms, especially the elimination of caste status, reduced the Saint Thomas Christians' standing with their socially stratified Hindu neighbors.{{sfnp|Prasad|2009|p=484}} The Synod formally brought the Saint Thomas Christians into the Catholic Church but the actions of the Portuguese over the ensuing years fueled resentment in segments of the community, and ultimately led to open resistance to their power.{{sfnp|Frykenberg|2008|p=136}}{{sfnp|Takahashi|2011}}{{sfnp|Medlycott|1912}}

=== Division and defiance ===
Over the next several decades, tensions seethed between the Portuguese and the remaining native hierarchy, and after 1641 Archdeacon [[Mar Thoma I|Thomas]], the nephew and successor to Archdeacon George of Cross, was often at odds with the Latin prelates.{{sfnp|Frykenberg|2008|p=367}} In 1652, the escalating situation was further complicated by the appearance in [[Mylapore]] of a mysterious figure named [[Ahatallah]], who claimed to have been sent by the [[Pope]], from the [[Church of Antioch]] to serve as "Patriarch of the Whole of India and of China".{{sfnp|Frykenberg|2008|p=367}}{{sfnp|Neill|2004|pp=316–317}}

Ahatallah made a strong impression on the native clergy, but the Portuguese quickly decided he was an impostor, and put him on a ship bound for Europe by way of Goa. Archdeacon Thomas, desperate for a new ecclesiastical leader to free his people from the Padroado, travelled to Cochin and demanded to meet Ahatallah and examine his credentials. The Portuguese refused, stating the ship had already left for Goa.{{sfnp|Neill|2004|pp=316–317}} Ahatallah was never heard from in India again, inspiring false rumours that the Portuguese had murdered him and inflaming anti-Portuguese sentiments even more.{{sfnp|Neill|2004|p=319}}{{sfnp|Brock|2011a}}

This was the last straw for the Saint Thomas Christians; in 1653, Thomas and community representatives met at the Church of Our Lady in [[Mattancherry]] to take bold action. In a great ceremony before a crucifix and lighted candles, they swore a solemn oath that they would never obey Padroado Archbishop Francisco Garcia or the Portuguese again, and that they accepted only the Archdeacon as their shepherd.{{sfnp|Neill|2004|p=319}} 
There are various versions about the wording of oath, one version being that the oath was directed against the Portuguese, another that it was directed against Jesuits, yet another version that it was directed against the authority of Catholic [[Latin Church]].<ref name=Gazette>{{cite book |title=Census of India (1961: Kerala)|year=1965 |publisher=Office of the Registrar General|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0JCaAAAAIAAJ|language=en|page=111|quote="There are various versions about the wording of swearing, one version being that it was directed against the Portuguese, another that it was directed against Jesuits, yet another that it was directed against the authority of church of Rome."}}</ref> The independent [[Malankara Church]] regards the [[Coonan Cross Oath]] as the moment their Church regained its independence from the Catholic Church, which they lost during the [[Synod of Diamper]].<ref>{{harvp|Neill|2004|p=319}}: "...which to this day all members of the independent Malankara church of Kerala regard as the moment at which their church recovered its independence and returned to its own true nature."</ref>

After the events of Coonan Cross Oath three letters were circulated claiming that they had been sent by [[Ahathalla]]. One such letter was read at a meeting at Edappally on 5 February 1653. This letter granted to the archdeacon some powers of the archbishop. On hearing it, a vast crowd enthusiastically welcomed Archdeacon Thomas as the governor of their Church{{sfnp|Neill|2004|p=320}} and four senior priests were appointed as his counsilors, namely, [[Anjilimoottil Itty Thommen Kathanar|Anjilimoottil Itty Thommen]] of Kallisseri, Kuravilangad Parambil [[Palliveettil Mar Chandy|Palliveettil Chandy]], Kaduthuruthi [[Kadavil Chandy]], Angamali Vengur Giwargis Kathanar. At a further meeting held at Alangat, on 23 May 1653, another letter was read stating that it was from Ahathalla. It instructed the Saint Thomas Christians in the absence of a bishop, twelve of the cattanars (priests) might lay their hands on Thomas, and that this would be adequate as episcopal consecration.{{sfnp|Neill|2004|p=320}} The authenticity of these letters is not clear. Some are of the opinion that these letters might be forged by [[Anjilimoottil Itty Thommen Kathanar]] who was a skilled Syriac writer.{{sfnp|Neill|2004|p=320}} The letters were read with enthusiasm in the churches of the Thomas Christians and Archdeacon Thomas was later proclaimed bishop in a ceremony in which twelve priests [[laying on of hands|laid hands]] on him, elevating him as Metropolitan with the title ''[[Thoma I]]''<ref name="Frykenberg_on_ADeaconAsHighMetran">{{harvp|Frykenberg|2008|p=368}}: "Archdeacon Thomas, having been elevated to High Metran by the laying on of hands by twelve cattanars, took the title of Mar Thoma I."</ref>{{sfnp|Neill|2004|pp=320–321}} and he added such ancient titles as 'Metran of All India', 'Gate of India'.<ref name="Frkbrg_MetranGateOfIndia1_Thoma">{{harvp|Frykenberg|2008|p=361}}: "At the beginning, most remained with the old Archdeacon who, after his elevation at Koonen Cross to the position of Metran, took the title Mar Thoma I and added such ancient titles as 'Metran of All India', 'Gate of India'."</ref>

At this point, the Portuguese missionaries attempted reconciliation with Saint Thomas Christians but were not successful. Later, in 1657, [[Pope Alexander VII]] sent the Italian priest Joseph Sebastiani as the head of a [[Carmelite]] mission of the ''[[Propaganda Fide]]'' to regain the trust of the dissident St. Thomas Christians.{{sfnp|Mundadan|Thekkedath|1982|pp=96–100}} Sebastiani and other Carmelites pressed that the ordination of the archdeacon as metropolitan by the priests in the absence of another bishop was not in accordance with Church laws.{{sfnp|Neill|2004|p=323}} They succeeded in convincing a large group of Saint Thomas Christians, including [[Kadavil Chandy]], [[Palliveettil Chandy]] and Vengur Giwargis, and Thoma I began to lose his followers. In the meantime, Sebastiani returned to Rome and was consecrated as bishop on 15 December 1659. He reached Kerala again in 1661, being appointed as the Vicar Apostolic of Malabar by the pope. Within a short time period he restored majority of the churches that had been with Thoma I to Catholic Church. However, in 1663, with the conquest of Cochin by the Dutch, the control of the Portuguese on the Malabar coast was lost. The Dutch declared that all the European missionaries had to leave Kerala. Before leaving Kerala, on 1 February 1663, Sebastiani consecrated Palliveettil Chandy was consecrated as the bishop of the Thomas Christians who adhered to Catholic Church. He soon also designated himself as 'Metran of All India' and 'Gate of India'.<ref name="Frkbrg_MetranGateOfIndia2_Chandy">{{harvp|Frykenberg|2008|p=361}}: "...the Dutch permitted 'old party' Catholics to be placed under the 'guidance' of the Carmelites and allowed them to keep Mar Alexander Parampil (aka Alexander de Campos) as Vicar Apostolate. He soon also designated himself as 'Metran of All India' and 'Gate of India'."</ref>

[[File:Branches & Denominations of Saint Thomas Christians.svg |thumb|upright=1.8|A diagram showing the history of the divisions among the Saint Thomas Christians]]
Thoma I, meanwhile sent requests to various Oriental Churches to receive canonical consecration as bishop. In 1665, [[Gregorios Abdal Jaleel]], a bishop sent by the Syrian Orthodox Patriarch of Antioch Ignatius ʿAbdulmasīḥ I, arrived in India and the faction under the leadership of Thoma I welcomed him.{{sfnp|Brock|2011a}} The bishop was sent in correspondence to the letter sent by Thoma I to the [[Syriac Orthodox Church|Oriental Orthodox Patriarchate of Antioch]]. Bishop Abdul Jaleel consecrated Thoma I canonically as a bishop and regularised his episcopal succession.{{refn|{{sfnp|Joseph|2011}}<ref name=M3>{{harvs|txt|last1=Menachery|year1=1973|year2=1982|year3=1998}}</ref>{{sfnp|Podipara|1970}}{{sfnp|Brown|1956}}{{sfnp|Tisserant|1957}}{{sfnp|Mundadan|Thekkedath|1982|p={{page needed|date=July 2019}}}}}} This led to the first lasting formal schism in the Saint Thomas Christian community. Thereafter, the faction affiliated with the Catholic Church under Bishop [[Palliveettil Chandy]] came to be known as ''[[Pazhayakoor|Paḻayakūṟ]]'' (or "Old Allegiance"), and the branch affiliated with [[Thoma I]] came to be known as ''[[Malankara Church|Puthenkur]]'' (or "New Allegiance").{{sfnmp|Vadakkekara|2007|1p=84|Frykenberg|2008|2p=361|3a1=Fernando|3a2=Gispert-Sauch|3y=2004|3p=79|Chaput|1999|4pp=7–8|Perczel|2013|5p=425}} These appellations have been somewhat controversial, though, as both parties considered themselves the true heirs to the Saint Thomas tradition, and saw the other party as schismatic.{{sfnp|Vadakkekara|2007|p=84}} The ''Paḻayakūṟ'' faction was also known as Romo-Syrians<ref name="MS">{{cite book |last= |first= |title=The Quarterly Journal of the Mythic Society. Vol.3 |year=1911 |publisher=Mythic Society |page=141 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4JtEAQAAMAAJ |language=en |quote=This incident marks an epoch in the history of the Syrian Church, and led to a separation of the community into parties, namely the Pazhayakuru (the Romo-Syrians) who adhered to the Church of Rome according to the Synod at Diamper; and the Puttankuru, the Jacobite Syrians, who after the oath of the Coonan Cross got Mar Gregory from Antioch, acknowledged the spiritual supremacy thereof. The former owed its foundation to the Archbishop Menezes and the Synod at Diamper in 1599 and its reconciliation after the revolt to the Carmelite Bishop Father Joseph of St.Mary whom the Pope appointed in 1659.}}</ref> and organized as the Syrian Catholic Church whereas the ''Puthenkur'' faction was also known as ''Jacobite Syrians''<ref name="MS"/> and organized as the Malankara Syrian Church.<ref name="ChurchInIndiaAndPak">{{cite book |last=Neill |first=Stephen |title=The Story of the Christian Church in India and Pakistan |year=1970 |publisher=Christian Literature Society |page=36 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OwgXAAAAIAAJ |language=en |quote=At the end of a period of twenty years, it was found that about two – thirds of the people had remained within the Roman allegiance; one – third stood by the archdeacon and had organized themselves as the independent Malankara Church, faithful to the old Eastern traditions and hostile to all the Roman claims.}}</ref>

Between 1661 and 1665, the Paḻayakūṟ faction (Syrian Catholics) claimed 72 of the 116 churches, while Archdeacon [[Thoma I]] and the Puthenkur faction (Malankara Syrians) claimed 32. The remaining 12 churches were shared between the two factions until the late nineteenth century.<ref>{{cite book |title=Christianity in Travancore |first=Gordon Thomson |last=MacKenzie |year=1901 |publisher=Travancore Government Press |isbn=9781230341651 |page=28 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cVQoAAAAYAAJ}}</ref> The Paḻayakūṟ faction is the body from which the modern [[Syro-Malabar Church]] and [[Chaldean Syrian Church]] descend. The Puthenkur faction is the body from which the [[Malankara Syriac Orthodox Church|Jacobite]], [[Malankara Orthodox Syrian Church|Orthodox]], [[CSI Syrian Christians]], [[Mar Thoma Syrian Church|Marthoma]], [[St. Thomas Evangelical Church of India]], [[Syro-Malankara Catholic Church]] and [[Malabar Independent Syrian Church]] originate.{{sfnp|Brock|2011a}}{{sfnp|Amaladass|1993|pp=14–15}}{{sfnp|Frykenberg|2008|p=249}}

This visit of Gregorios Abdal Jaleel gradually introduced the [[West Syriac Rite|West Syriac]] liturgy, customs and script to the Malabar Coast.{{sfnp|Vadakkekara|2007|p=88}} The visits of prelates from the [[Syriac Orthodox Church|Syriac Orthodox Church of Antioch]] continued since then and this led to gradual replacement of the East Syriac Rite liturgy with the [[West Syriac Rite]] and the Malankara Church affiliated to the [[Miaphysitism|Miaphysite Christology]] of the [[Oriental Orthodox Churches|Oriental Orthodox Communion]].{{sfnp|Brock|2011a}} Furthermore, ʿAbdulmasīḥ I sent [[Maphrian]] [[Baselios Yeldo|Baselios Yaldo]] in 1685, along with Bishop Ivanios Hidayattullah who vehemently propagated the West Syriac Rite and solidified the association of the Malankara Church with the Syriac Orthodox Church.{{sfnp|Brock|2011a}}

The main body of the Paḻayakūṟ faction (Syrian Catholics) came to be known as the [[Syro-Malabar Church]]. They continued with their [[East Syriac Rite|East Syriac]] traditions and stayed within the Catholic Church with [[Diophysite]] creed.{{sfnp|Perczel|2013|p=417}}{{sfnp|Brock|2011a}} They had to remain under the foreign Latin bishops, with the only exception of Palliveettil Chandy and [[Kariattil Ousep]].{{sfnp|Brock|2011d}} Their Indian [[East Syriac Rite|East Syriac]] Catholic hierarchy was restored on 21 December 1923, with [[Augustine Kandathil]] as the first [[Metropolitan bishop|Metropolitan]] and Head.{{sfnmp|1a1=Medlycott|1y=1912|Koonammakkal|2013|2pp=266, 267, 276|3a1=Thalian|3y=1961}}

===Failed attempts for reunification and solidification of the schism===
A minority within the community of Saint Thomas Christians tried to preserve the use of the [[East Syriac Rite]] and re-establishing ties with [[List of patriarchs of the Church of the East|Patriarchs of the Church of the East]], who occasionally sent envoys to India.{{sfnp|Brock|2011c}} At the beginning of the 18th century, Bishop [[Malankara Church (Paḻayakūṟ)#Metropolitan Shemʿon and his mission in Malabar|Shemʿon of ʿAda]] (d. {{circa|1720}})<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.catholic-hierarchy.org/bishop/bdomins.html|title=Archbishop Simon Dominicus |website=Catholic-hierarchy}}</ref> and in ({{circa|1708|lk=no}}), Bishop [[India (East Syriac ecclesiastical province)#18th and 19th century Nestorian and Chaldean missions to India|Gabriel of Ardishai]] (d. {{circa|1733|lk=no}}) arrived to India, sent by the Chaldean Patriarch.{{sfnp|Brock|2011c}} Bishop Gabriel temporarily succeeded in reviving the traditionalist community, but was faced with prolonged rivalry, both from West Syriac (Jacobite) and Latin Catholic (''Propaganda Fide'' and ''Padroado'') leadership.{{sfnmp|Brown|1956|1pp=115–117|Mooken|1977|2pp=50–51|Mooken|1983|3pp=25–26|Neill|2002|4pp=62–65|Perczel|2013|5pp=428–431}}

In 1751, Jacobite Maphrian [[Baselios Sakralla III of Aleppo|Baselios Shakrallah Qasabgi]] came to Kerala.{{sfnp|Fenwick|2011a}} He was highly instrumental in replacing the East Syriac Rite with West Syriac Rite among the ''Puthenkur'' faction.{{sfnp|Fenwick|2011a}} He was accompanied by Gregorios Hanna Bakhudaidi,{{sfnp|Perczel|2013|p=427 and note}} the Jacobite Archbishop of Jerusalem, and Yukhannon (Ivanios) Christophoros of Mosul,{{sfnp|Perczel|2013|p=427 and note}} whom the Maphrian consecrated as a bishop during his tenure in Kerala.{{sfnp|Fenwick|2011a}} The delegation was sent from the Syriac Orthodox Patriarchate to firmly establish West Syriac Rite among the ''Puthenkur'' and regularise the orders of their leader, [[Thoma V]].{{sfnp|Fenwick|2011a}}{{sfnp|Malekandathil|2013}} However, [[Thoma V]] died without having reconsecrated, but having himself consecrated his successor as Thoma VI.{{sfnp|Fenwick|2011a}}{{sfnp|Neill|2002|p=67}} [[Dionysius I, Metropolitan of Malankara|Thoma VI]] strongly resisted the efforts of the delegation.{{sfnp|Malekandathil|2013}} Very often the Syriac Orthodox delegates selected their own candidates and ordained them as priests, without consulting Thoma VI.{{sfnp|Malekandathil|2013}} Meanwhile, the ''Paḻayakūṟ'' were being increasingly subjugated by their colonial Latin ecclesiastical administrators.{{sfnp|Malekandathil|2013}}

Thoma VI, therefore, initiated efforts to reunify both the factions.{{sfnp|Neill|2002|pp=68–69}} However, the Carmelite missionaries working among the ''Paḻayakūṟ'' were reluctant to reciprocate to his efforts fearing that the indigenous bishop would take away their authority and influence over the faction after the proposed reunification of the Saint Thomas Christians was fulfilled.{{sfnp|Malekandathil|2013}} On the other hand, the Syriac Orthodox delegates were extending their influence upon the ''Puthenkur'', insisting the faction to shift to the West Syriac Rite.{{sfnp|Fenwick|2011a}}{{sfnp|Malekandathil|2013}} Shakrallah, immediately prior to his death, consecrated Kurian Kattumangat as Bishop Abraham Koorilose in 1764.{{sfnp|Fenwick|2011a}}

By 1770, Gregorios and Ivanios had Thoma VI reconsecrated as 'Dionysios I'.{{Sfnp|Joseph|2011}}{{sfnp|Fenwick|2011a}} Thoma VI had to receive all orders of priesthood from the tonsure to the episcopal consecration.{{sfnp|Neill|2004|pp=67–68}} Thoma VI received support from ''Paḻayakūṟ'' leaders, who informed him of the ill-treatment and discrimination that they faced from the missionaries.{{sfnp|Malekandathil|2013}} Consequently, two priestly leaders among them: [[Kariattil Iousep]] Malpan and [[Paremmakkal Thoma Kathanar]] decided to meet the Pope to convey the message of Thoma VI.{{sfnp|Malekandathil|2013}} The Jacobite delegates were soon at odds with Thoma VI and hence in 1772 they raised Abraham Koorilose to the Metropolitan rank at the new Mattancherry Church in Cochin,{{sfnp|Fenwick|2011a}} constructed by Shakrallah. Abraham Koorilose received recognition from the Rajah of [[Kingdom of Cochin|Cochin]].{{sfnp|Fenwick|2011a}} Kariyattil Iousep, accompanied by Paremmakkal Thoma and two other deacons, made the trip from Kerala in 1778{{sfnp|Malekandathil|2013}} and he was consecrated as the [[Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Cranganore|Archbishop of Cranganore]] in 1782.{{sfnp|Brock|2011d}} However, the efforts drastically failed because of the unexpected death of Iousep while in Goa.{{sfnp|Brock|2011d}}{{sfnp|Malekandathil|2013}}{{sfnp|Perczel|2013|pp=431-432}} ''[[Varthamanappusthakam]]'', written by Thoma Kathanar in 1785, provides the detail of this journey until the death of the archbishop.{{sfnp|Brock|2011d}}{{sfnp|Malekandathil|2013}}

Following this, in 1787, representatives from eighty-four ''Paḻayakūṟ'' churches assembled at Angamaly and drew up the ''[[Angamaly Padiyola|Angamāly Padiyōla]]'' against the colonial Latin hegemony, declaring their allegiance to the Paremmakkal Thoma and urged for the reinstatement of their native East Syriac hierarchy.{{sfnp|Malekandathil|2013}} Meanwhile, Dionysios I (Thoma VI) managed to imprison his rival, Abraham Koorilose who finally escaped from the states of [[Travancore]] and Cochin where the majority of Saint Thomas Christians lived to Anjoor in the territory of the [[Samuthiri]] (Zamorin of Calicut).{{sfnp|Fenwick|2011a}} There Koorilose spent his days in prayer and meditation in a hut. A few relatives and friends joined him there. This group, originally known as the ''Thozhiyur Church'', was later confirmed as an independent Syrian Church in Malabar by the [[Madras High Court]], through a verdict in 1862.{{refn|<ref name=M3/>{{sfnp|Podipara|1970}}{{sfnp|Brown|1956}}{{sfnp|Tisserant|1957}}<ref>{{cite book |last=Mathew |first=N.M. |date=2006 |title=History of the Marthoma Church |language=Malayalam |volume=1 |pages=205–207}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Kochumon |first=M.P. |title=Saintly bishops of Kattumangat |language=Malayalam |pages=42–44}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Varghese Kassessa |first=K.C. |title=History of Malabar Independent Syrian Church |language=Malayalam |page=45}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |first=John |last=Fenwick |title=The Forgotten Bishops |publisher=Georgias Press |place=NJ |date=2009 |pages=200–246}}</ref>}} Subsequently, they took the name [[Malabar Independent Syrian Church]].{{sfnp|Fenwick|2011a}}<ref>{{cite book |first=Michael |last=Burgess |title=The Eastern Orthodox Churches |publisher=McFarland |date=2005 |isbn=0-7864-2145-2 |page=175}}</ref>

=== British period ===
In 1795, the kings of Travancore and Cochin entered into [[tribute|tributary alliance]] with the [[British East Indian Company]] to repel the attacks from [[Tipu Sultan]]. The states soon became client regimes of the company: both were forced to disband their military. The political order of the states also began to collapse. Saint Thomas Christians were hit hard by the loss of their privileged military role, their [[Kalaripayattu|kalari]] network was dissolved and many families lost their livelihood.{{sfnp|Bayly|2004|pp=281–286}} The trading class, as well as the office bearers, also suffered the setback and many Europeans who visited the states between 1801 and 1820 noted the poor and depressed condition of Saint Thomas Christians of the ''Puthenkur''. Some partisan fund allocation for the churches by the British officials triggered a breakdown in the relationship between Saint Thomas Christians and prominent Hindu castes, at least temporarily.<ref>George Joseph, The life and times of a Kerala Christian nationalist, Orient Blackswan, 2003, pp. 33–39, {{ISBN|81-250-2495-6}}</ref> In 1815, the British Resident, Colonel [[John Munro, 9th of Teaninich|John Munro]], founded a [[Orthodox Pazhaya Seminary|seminary]] in [[Kottayam]], for the theological education of Jacobite Christian priests and invited the [[Anglican Communion|Anglican]] missionaries to teach there. This could be regarded as the beginning of the relationship between the [[Church Mission Society|CMS]] (Church Mission Society) and the Saint Thomas Christians of the ''Puthenkur''.{{sfnp|Neill|2004|p=241}}

==== Further divisions ====
[[File:Original Syrian-Anglican cattanars from the nineteenth century (available freely in public domain).jpg|thumb|Original Syrian–Anglican [[Kathanar|cattanars]] from the nineteenth century]]
As a protest against the interference of the Anglican Church in the affairs of the ''Puthenkur'' faction of the Saint Thomas Christians, the Metropolitan, [[Dionysius IV of Cheppad|Cheppad Dionysios]], convened a Synod at [[Mavelikara]] on 16 January 1836. There it was declared that ''Malankara Church'' would be subject to the Syrian traditions and [[Patriarch of Antioch]].<ref>Cherian, Dr. C.V., ''Orthodox Christianity in India''. Academic Publishers, College Road, Kottayam. 2003.p. 254-262.</ref> The declaration resulted in the separation of the [[Church Mission Society|CMS]] missionaries from the communion with the ''[[Malankara Church]]''.{{sfnp|Neill|2002|pp=247–251}}{{sfb|Bayly|2004|p=300}} Cheppad Dionysios, abdicated during the tenure of an Antiochian prelate named Yuyakim Koorilose{{sfnp|Varghese|2011}} (arrived {{circa|1846}}, d. {{circa|1874}}).{{sfnp|Joseph|2011}} During his stay in among the ''Puthenkur'', Koorilose completed the transition to West Syriac ritual practices.{{sfnp|Varghese|2011}} However, a minority from the ''[[Malankara Church]]'', who were in favour of the [[Reformation|Reformed]] ideologies of the missionaries, stood along with them and joined the [[Anglican Church]].{{sfnp|Neill|2002|pp=247–251}}{{sfb|Bayly|2004|p=300}} These [[Saint Thomas Anglicans]], were the first Reformed group to emerge from the Saint Thomas Christian community and they worked along with the missionaries in their evangelical, educational and reformative activities.{{sfnp|Neill|2002|pp=247–251}}<ref>{{cite news |title=Missionaries led State to renaissance: Pinarayi |work=The Hindu |date=13 November 2016 |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/kerala/Missionaries-led-State-to-renaissance-Pinarayi/article16444369.ece |url-access=subscription}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |title=Kerala to celebrate CMS mission |journal=Church Mission Society |date=9 November 2016 |url=https://churchmissionsociety.org/our-stories/kerala-celebrate-cms-mission |language=en}}</ref> By 1879, the [[Diocese of Travancore and Cochin]] of the [[Church of England]] was established in [[Kottayam]].<ref>{{cite journal |title=A History of the Church of England in India, by Eyre Chatterton (1924) |website=anglicanhistory.org |url=https://anglicanhistory.org/india/chatterton1924/20.html}}</ref><ref name="Keralawindow">{{cite web |title=Church of south India (CSI) |website=keralawindow.net |url=https://www.keralawindow.net/Church_CSI.html}}</ref> On 27 September 1947, the Anglican dioceses in [[South India]], merged with other [[Protestant churches]] in the region and formed the [[Church of South India]] (CSI); an independent [[United Church]] in full communion with all its predecessor denominations.<ref name="Encyclopedia1999"/><ref name="MeltonBaumann2010"/> Since then, Anglican Syrian Christians have been members of the Church of South India and also came to be known as [[CSI Syrian Christians]].<ref name="Keralawindow" />
[[File:Elias Mellus.png|thumb|upright|[[Elias Mellus|Mar Elias Mellus]]]]
In 1860, tired of their Latin subjugation, the ''Paḻayakūṟ'' sent a delegation headed by Antony Thondanatt (d. {{circa|1900}}) to [[Mosul]] to make a plea to the [[Chaldean Catholic Patriarchate of Babylon|Chaldean Catholic patriarch]] to consecrate a bishop of their own rite for them.{{sfnp|Brock|2011c}} In response, Patriarch [[Joseph VI Audo]] consecrated Thomas Rokos,{{sfnp|Brock|2011c}} titular archbishop of [[Basra]],<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.catholic-hierarchy.org/bishop/brokuss.html|title=Archbishop Thomas Rokuss |website=Catholic-Hierarchy}}</ref> and dispatched him to visit the alienated Malabar Christian flock in 1861.{{sfnp|Brock|2011c}} However, the mission failed due to the protests of the apostolic delegate at Mosul, Henri Amanton, and the vicar apostolic of [[Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Verapoly|Verapoly]]. As a result, the Pope forced the Patriarch to call back the bishop.<ref>{{cite book|first=Giacomo|last=Martina|title=Pio IX (1851–1866)|year=1986|isbn=8876525432 |pages=372–374|publisher=Pontificia università gregoriana }}</ref>{{sfnp|Wilmshurst|2000|p=34}}{{sfnp|Brock|2011c}} There was yet another incident on 5 June 1864. Patriarch Joseph VI consecrated [[Elias Mellus]], bishop of {{transliteration|ar|DIN|ʿ}}Aqra,<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.catholic-hierarchy.org/bishop/bmellus.html |title=Bishop Jean-Élie Mellus |website=Catholic-Hierarchy}}</ref> and sent him to India. But this effort too was met with the same fate as before and Mellus was called back in 1882.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.churchoftheeastindia.org/the-church.php|title = Church of the East – India}}</ref>{{sfnp|Wilmshurst|2000|p=75}} Meanwhile, in 1862, an attempt was made to reestablish direct ties between traditionalist Christian communities in India and the [[List of Patriarchs of the Assyrian Church of the East|Assyrian Patriarch]] [[Shimun XVIII Rubil|Shimun XVIII]] consecrated the aforementioned Thondanatt as Abdisho, the Metropolitan of India, but his task proved to be very difficult and challenging. He intensified his activity after 1882, fulfilling the aspirations of local Christians of the [[East Syriac Rite]] for the full re-establishment of traditional ecclesiastical structure. Until his death in 1900, he partially succeeded in organizing the local church, that was named the [[Chaldean Syrian Church]].{{sfnp|Mooken|1987|p=}} After his death, local Christians appealed to [[Shimun XIX Benyamin|Shimun XIX]], Patriarch of the [[Assyrian Church of the East]] in [[Qochanis]] who was forthcoming, and in December 1907 consecrated [[Abimalek Timotheus]] as [[metropolitan bishop]] for India. He reached his diocese in February 1908, and took over the administration.{{sfnp|Mooken|1975|p=11-26}}{{sfnp|Perczel|2013|p=435-436}} He organized ecclesiastical structures, and continued with revitalisation of the [[East Syriac Rite]].{{sfnp|Brock|2011c}}{{sfnp|Vadakkekara|2007|p=103}}

By June 1875, there were two factions among the ''[[Malankara Church]]'': ''Conservative Party'' and ''Reform Party''. [[Mathews Athanasius]] was the Malankara Metropolitan approved by the Governments of Travancore and of Cochin and he was supportive to the reforming of the Jacobite church with evangelistic ideologies. Hence the group with Mathews Athanasius was known as "Reform Party"{{sfnp|Fenwick|2011b}}<ref name="Varghese2008" /> The conservative faction, under the leadership of Metropolitan [[Pulikkottil Joseph Dionysious II]], opposed the attempts to do away with the age-old traditions of the church, which resulted in a stir in the community.<ref name="Varghese2008" /> Being invited by this faction, the Antiochene Patriarch [[Ignatius Peter IV|Ignatius Peter III]] arrived in Kerala.<ref>M.P. Varkey, ''[[Pulikkottil Joseph Mar Dionysious II]], Metropolitan of Jacobite faction of Malankara Church''.(Malayalam), [[Malayala Manorama]]. 1901.</ref> In June 1876, at the synod of [[Mulanthuruthy]], presided over by the Patriarch, the Syrian faction formally came under the Antiochene Patriarchate.{{sfnp|Varghese|2011}}<ref>Cheriyan, C.V., ''Orthodox Christianity in India''. Academic Publishers, College Road, Kottayam. 2003. p. 294.</ref> The synod condemned Mathews Athanasius for abstaining from it, but his followers stayed firm with him.<ref name="Varghese2008">Varghese, A.P. – [https://books.google.com/books?id=y7GKwhuea9kC ''India: History, Religion, Vision and Contribution to the World''], Atlantic Publishers 2008, {{ISBN|978-81-269-0903-2}}, pp. 376–378</ref> His successor [[Thomas Athanasius]] and the bishop's faction lost the lawsuit to the Patriarchal faction in the Royal Court of Travancore on 12 July 1889.<ref>{{cite book |last=Mathew |first=N.M. |title=History of the Marthoma Church |language=Malayalam |volume=II |date=2007 |page=125}}</ref> Nonetheless, the Reform Party continued as an independent Church and thereafter a series of suits arose on the rights over churches and associated properties. Later they chose the name [[Mar Thoma Syrian Church]].<ref name="Varghese2008" />{{sfnp|Fenwick|2011b}}

In 1911, Patriarch [[Ignatius Abded Aloho II|Ignatius ʿAbdullāh II]] excommunicated [[Geevarghese Dionysius of Vattasseril|Vattasseril Geevarghese Dionysios]] (Dionysios VI), the Malankara Metropolitan,{{sfnp|Joseph|2011}} due to dispute of authority over the properties of the ''Malankara Church''.{{sfnp|Varghese|2011}} This led to the division of the Church into two groups, with one group accepting the supreme authority of the patriarch and the other supporting Dionysios VI.{{sfnp|Varghese|2011}} The group led by Dionysios VI invited Patriarch [[Ignatius Abded Mshiho II|Ignatius ʿAbdulmasīḥ II]], who was deposed from Patriarchate by the Turkish authorities.{{sfnp|Varghese|2011}} In 1912, ʿAbdulmasīḥ II arrived in India and he consecrated [[Paulose I (Indian Orthodox Church)|Baselios Paulose I]] (d. {{circa|1914|lk=no}}) as Maphrian (Syriac Orthodox Catholicos).{{sfnp|Varghese|2011}} This was not recognised by the Syriac Orthodox Church.<ref>{{cite encyclopaedia |last=Kiraz |first=George A.|author-link=George A. Kiraz|title=ʿAbdulmasīḥ II |url=https://gedsh.bethmardutho.org/entry/Abdulmasih-II|year=2011b |encyclopaedia=Gorgias Encyclopedic Dictionary of the Syriac Heritage: Electronic Edition}}</ref> Previously ʿAbdulmasīḥ II himself had declined the request for the installation of a Maphrianate for India in 1902 during his patriarchate.{{sfnp|Kiraz|2011a}} The independent group under Metropolitan Dionysios VI, known as the 'Metropolitan's Party', started endorsing the claims for [[autocephaly]].{{sfnp|Kiraz|2011a}}{{sfnp|Varghese|2011}} The other group, known as the 'Patriarch's Party', remained loyal to the Patriarch and was led by [[Coorilos Paulose of Panampady|Coorilos Paulose]], succeeded by [[Athanasius Paulose]].{{sfnp|Joseph|2011}}<ref>{{cite book |author=K Mani Rajan|year=2017|title=Holy Fathers of The Syrian Orient Entombed in Kerala|pages=111–116|publisher=JSC Publications |url=http://rajanachen.com/files/eng3.pdf}}</ref> The two sides filed a series of lawsuits in the civil courts and some parallel attempts to reconcile both the parties also took place. In 1958, bishops of both the parties sealed their reconciliation and signed a treaty which in turn recognised the autonomy of reunited factions, with its own synod of bishops under the presidency of the Catholicos.{{sfnp|Joseph|2011}}<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=QUMOAAAAQAAJ ''A History of Eastern Christianity''] – Taylor & Francis, pp. 372–374.</ref> The verdict of the Supreme Court of India in 1958, legitimizing the autonomy of Kerala church, was instrumental in this formal reconciliation between the two sides. In 1964, Patriarch [[Ignatius Jacob III|Ignatius Yaʿqub III]] consecrated [[Baselios Augen I]] (d. {{circa|1975}}) as the Catholicos.{{sfnp|Joseph|2011}} Nonetheless, in 1975, both the parties split again with the decision of the ''Universal Syrian Synod'', held in Damascus, to depose the Catholicos in Kerala and [[Baselios Paulose II]] was consecrated as the Catholicos for the 'Patriarch faction'.{{sfnp|Joseph|2011}} Today the West Syriac Oriental Orthodox community in India is divided between the [[Malankara Orthodox Syrian Church]] (an autocephalous Oriental Orthodox church) and the [[Jacobite Syrian Christian Church]] (an autonomous church under the Antiochene Patriarchate).{{sfnp|Joseph|2011}}{{sfnp|Varghese|2011}}{{sfnp|Vadakkekara|2007|p=94-96}}{{sfnp|Kiraz|2011a}}

In 1930, a section of the ''[[Malankara Church]]'' under the leadership of Archbishop [[Geevarghese Ivanios]] and [[Jacob Theophilos]] left the [[Malankara Orthodox Syrian Church]]<ref>Cherian, Dr. C.V., ''Orthodox Christianity in India''. Academic Publishers, College Road, Kottayam. 2003.p. 354.</ref> and came into communion with the Catholic Church. They are known as [[Syro-Malankara Catholic Church]].{{sfnp|Brock|2011b}} On 11 June 1932, [[Syro-Malankara Catholic Major Archeparchy of Trivandrum|Trivandrum]] was recognised as a [[Metropolitan See]] [[sui juris]], with [[Syro-Malankara Catholic Archeparchy of Tiruvalla|Thiruvalla]] as its suffragan.{{sfnp|Brock|2011b}} On 10 February 2005, the church was raised to the status of a [[Major archiepiscopal church]]. The canonical installation of [[Cyril Baselios]] as the first [[Major Archbishop]] took place on 14 May 2005 and simultaneously the title 'Catholicos' was legitimized.<ref>{{cite book|last=Chediath|first=Geevarghese| year=2012| author-link=Geevarghese Chediath| isbn=978-81-88456-91-8| url=https://malankaralibrary.com/ImageUpload/2f994b126f0c07feb01530cc639479f5.pdf|pages=201, 226| publisher=OIRSI publications| location=Vadavathoor|title=The Malankara Catholic Church}}</ref> The [[St. Ephrem Ecumenical Research Institute]] (SEERI), inaugurated on 14 September 1985, comes under the Syro-Malankara Catholic Archbishop of Thiruvalla.{{sfnp|Brock|2011b}}

In 1961, there was a split in the Malankara Mar Thoma Syrian Church which resulted in the formation of [[St. Thomas Evangelical Church of India]].<ref>Rev. Thomas, P.T. & Rev. P.C. Zachariah. ''It Happened in The Mar Thoma Church''. 1961.</ref><ref>Thomas, K.T. & Rev. T.N. Koshy. ''Faith on Trial''. Ernakulam. 1965.</ref>

[[Pentecostalism]] began to spread among Saint Thomas Christians from 1911, due to [[Americans|American]] missionary work.<ref name="Syrianpentecostals1"/> The first [[Pentecostal Syrian Christians|Syrian Pentecostals]] came from [[Kerala Brethren]], who were in turn mostly ex-[[Marthomite]]s.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Valayil C |first1=John |title=Transnational Religious Organization and Practice: A Contextual Analysis of Kerala Pentecostal Churches in Kuwait |date=22 February 2018 |publisher=BRILL |isbn=978-90-04-36101-0 |pages=96–108 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kntTDwAAQBAJ&q=pentecostal+evangelical+saint+thomas+syrian+christian&pg=PA105 |language=en}}</ref><ref name="Syrianpentecostals3">{{cite book |last1=John |first1=Stanley |title=The Rise of 'New Generation' Churches in Kerala Christianity |date=10 December 2020 |pages=271–291 |url=https://brill.com/view/book/9789004444867/BP000019.xml |publisher=Brill |doi=10.1163/9789004444867_014 |isbn=9789004444867 |s2cid=234532613 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |editor1-last=Kumar |editor1-first=P. Pratap |title=Nidan: International Journal for Indian Studies |journal=Nidan: Journal for the Study of Hinduism |date=December 2019 |volume=4 |issue=2 |pages=7–18 |url=https://www.academia.edu/41899624 |language=en |issn=2414-8636}}</ref> As the movement gained momentum, groups of people from all traditional St. Thomas Christian denominations became part of various emerging Pentecostal and [[Evangelicalism|evangelical]] fellowships.<ref name="Syrianpentecostals3" /><ref>{{cite book |last1=Karkkainen |first1=Veli-Matti |title=The Spirit in the World: Emerging Pentecostal Theologies in Global Contexts |date=26 August 2009 |publisher=Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing |isbn=978-0-8028-6281-5 |pages=72–87 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=i6qJ_lP3dSAC&q=pentecostal+evangelical+saint+thomas+syrian+christian&pg=PA72 |language=en}}</ref> Pentecostals from Syrian Christian background spearheaded the movement in Kerala and to a lesser extent in India, by providing the necessary leadership for establishing denominations like [[Indian Pentecostal Church of God]], [[Assemblies of God in India]], [[Church of God (Full Gospel) in India]], [[The Pentecostal Mission]] and many other [[Neo-charismatic church]]es.<ref name="Syrianpentecostals2"/><ref>{{cite web |title=Thomas Christians – Later developments |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Thomas-Christians/Later-developments |website=Encyclopedia Britannica |date=13 June 2024 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Anderson |first1=Allan |title=An Introduction to Pentecostalism: Global Charismatic Christianity |date=13 May 2004 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-53280-8 |pages=124–127 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IPbPTOi0Rk4C&q=pentecostalism+kerala+syrian+christian&pg=PA127 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Samuel |first1=Joy T. |title=The Pneumatic Experiences of the Indian Neocharismatics |publisher=University of Birmingham |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XGoTxQEACAAJ |language=en |chapter=Chapter 1. A brief history of pentecostal and neocharismatic movements in Kerala, India|year=2018 }}</ref> The [[Syro-Malabar Church]] too has a very active [[Charismatic movement|Charismatic ministry]], operated through establishments such as the [[Divine Retreat Centre, Muringoor]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Brown |first1=Candy Gunther |title=Global Pentecostal and Charismatic Healing |date=24 February 2011 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-979306-8 |page=334 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-WW4A9Nv7KgC&dq=syro+malabar+church+charismatic+ministries&pg=PA334 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |editor-last1=Turner |editor-first1=Bryan S. |editor-last2=Salemink |editor-first2=Oscar |title=Routledge Handbook of Religions in Asia |date=2015 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-317-63646-5 |page=90 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=e7qbBAAAQBAJ&dq=syro+malabar+church+charismatic+ministries&pg=PA90 |language=en}}</ref>

==== Involvement in politics ====
Participation based on caste and community divisions and sympathies has been a feature of politics in the present day state of Kerala and its predecessor entities. Until the mid-20th century the primary cause of the divisions between the various communities was competition for rights and resources.

Like other communities, Saint Thomas Christians have been involved in regional politics on a community basis. In 1888, Travancore became the first [[princely state]] in India to establish a Legislative Council, which was reformed as the [[Sree Moolam Popular Assembly]] in 1904. A few Saint Thomas Christian leaders were elected to the Legislative Council but there was resentment that their share of the available seats was proportionately less than that of other prominent castes. This resentment led to a series of campaigns for equal representation both in the legislature and in government positions.<ref name=Nossiter1982pp78-82>Thomas Johnson Nossiter, ''Communism in Kerala: a study in political adaptation'', University of California Press, 1982, pp. 78- 82, {{ISBN|0-520-04667-6}}</ref> ''Jatiaikya Sangham'', an organization formed with an objective of reuniting the ''Paḻayakūṟ'' and ''Puthenkur'' communities, came up with the idea of a newspaper that resulted in the establishment of ''[[Deepika (newspaper)|Nasrani Deepika]]'' by [[Nidhiry Mani Kathanar|Nidhirikkal Manikkathanar]] in 1887.<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=NXK445Q1nIwC Encyclopedia of India, Pakistan, and Bangladesh]</ref> Newspapers such as the ''Nasrani Deepika'' and ''[[Malayala Manorama]]'' disseminated their grievances.{{sfnp|Devika|Varghese|2010|p={{page needed|date=July 2024}}}}

In 1918, Saint Thomas Christians formed the League for Equal Civic Rights, which sought the opening of all branches of government service to Christians, Muslims and [[avarna]] Hindus, as well as an end to the practice of untouchability. Their demands were partially met in 1922 when the Revenue Department was separated from the ''[[Devaswom boards in Kerala|Devaswom]]'', a semi-government organization that managed the Hindu temples, thus removing the restriction on non-Hindus and avarnas in the executive service. In the 1920s, Saint Thomas Christian leaders such as [[George Joseph (Kerala)|George Joseph]] were advised by [[Mahatma Gandhi]] to detach from [[Vaikom Satyagraha]], an agitation for the [[Temple Entry Proclamation|temple entry rights]] of avarna Hindus, as he considered the issue to be one of concern to Hindus alone.{{sfnp|Devika|Varghese|2010|p={{page needed|date=July 2024}}}}<ref>{{cite journal |first=Robin |last=Jeffrey |title=Temple Entry Movement in Travancore |journal=Social Scientist |volume=4 |issue=8 |date=March 1976 |pages=11–12 |url=http://www.cs.nyu.edu/kandathi/vaikom_agitation.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120603155447/http://cs.nyu.edu/kandathi/vaikom_agitation.html |archive-date=3 June 2012 |url-status=dead}}</ref> [[Titusji|Titus Theverthundiyil]] was one of the 78 marchers selected by Gandhi to take part in the 1930 [[Dandi March]], to break the [[History of the British salt tax in India|British salt monopoly]].<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/kerala/recreating-an-unsung-hero/article7875442.ece/|title=Recreating an unsung hero |newspaper=The Hindu|date=14 November 2015}}</ref>

With the institution in 1932 of a [[bicameral]] legislature in Travancore, four Saint Thomas Christians found a place in among the 24 seats of the [[lower house]], but not comparable with other forward castes.<ref name=Nossiter1982pp78-82 /> The 1931 census recorded over 31 per cent of the population as being Christian, compared to around 4 per cent in 1820.{{sfnp|Devika|Varghese|2010|pp=19–20}} Some restrictions were imposed on Saint Thomas Christian parishes to start new schools and later on the Diwan attempted to take over the schools owned by the community.{{sfnp|Devika|Varghese|2010|p={{page needed|date=July 2024}}}} There followed a period of fierce confrontation between the Diwan and Saint Thomas Christians—many leaders were arrested, prominent news papers were banned and large banks owned by the community members were liquidated.{{sfnp|Devika|Varghese|2010|p={{page needed|date=July 2024}}}}<ref>Donald Eugene Smith et al.- South Asian politics and religion, Princeton University Press, 1966, p. 190.</ref> In 1937, general elections were held and Joint Political Congress played a significant role to attain much better representation for allied communities.<ref>George Mathew – Communal Road to a Secular Kerala, Concept Publishing Company, 1989, {{ISBN|81-7022-282-6}}, pp. 91–103.</ref> [[T.M. Varghese]] was elected as the Deputy President of the Assembly where [[C. P. Ramaswami Iyer]] was the ex officio President. On the collapse of Joint Political Congress due to internal conflicts, Saint Thomas Christian leaders allied with [[Nair]]s in a common platform- ''Travancore State Congress'' where they fought together for responsible government and also to oust Iyer.<ref name=Nossiter1982pp78-82 /> [[Abraham Thoma|Abraham Marthoma]] mobilised Syrian Christians against the divan's move not to unite with free India.<ref>{{cite book |author=P.R. Saraswati |chapter=The Impact of Indian Christianity on Indian Society |title=Christianity in India Through the Centuries |date=2007 |url=http://www.stichtingup.nl/Artikelen/008_theImpactofIndianChristianity.pdf |pages=205–252 |publisher=Authentic Books |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120711064914/http://www.stichtingup.nl/Artikelen/008_theImpactofIndianChristianity.pdf |archive-date=11 July 2012 |isbn=9788173627866}}</ref> In the three-member Cabinet of Travancore formed after the first general elections in 1948, Varghese was a Cabinet Minister.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://keralaassembly.org/history/bicameral.html |title=History of legislative bodies in Kerala |website=keralaassembly.org |access-date=16 June 2012}}</ref> However the first Saint Thomas Christian to become a minister in the central government of India was [[Padma Vibhushan]] [[John Mathai]], who served as India's first [[Indian Railways|Railway Minister]] and subsequently as India's [[Finance Minister]],<ref>{{cite book|title=Reflections on Finance Education and Society|date=1972 |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass Publication |page=114|isbn=9788120830752 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=R5QxQ3sOVPcC}}</ref> taking office shortly after the presentation of India's first Budget, in 1948.

On 1 November 1956, [[Kerala|the state of Kerala]] was formed and the [[Communism in Kerala|Communist Party of India]] formed the first government of the state in 1957 on [[1957 Kerala Legislative Assembly election|winning the assembly elections]]. Though the government initiated the legislation process for reforming the land and the education sectors, these were considered as infringements over the rights by the school managements and landowners, who were predominantly Saint Thomas Christians and [[Nair]]s.<ref>Kerala socio economic survey 1968</ref> The disagreements of the Saint Thomas Christians further widened and they allied with [[Nair Service Society]] to mobilize against the government, which culminated in a violent struggle, called the [[Liberation Struggle]], in 1958.<ref>{{cite book|author=Thomas Johnson Nossiter|title=Communism in Kerala: A Study in Political Adaptation |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8CSQUxVjjWQC&pg=PA153|year=1982|publisher=University of California Press|isbn=978-0-520-04667-2|pages=155–156}}</ref> The Communist government was dismissed on 31 July 1959 and the [[President's rule]] was imposed in the state under [[Article 356]] of the [[Constitution of India]].

== Socio-cultural and religious identity ==
[[File:Malabar Christians of 19th century.jpg|thumb|265 px|Nasranis or Syrian Christians of Kerala in ancient days (from an old painting). Photo published in the Cochin Government Royal War Efforts Souvenir in 1938.]]
Saint Thomas Christians are a distinct community in terms of culture and religion. Though their liturgy and theology remained that of East Syrian Christians of Persia, their lifestyle customs and traditions were basically Indian. It is oft-quoted: "Nazranis are Indian in culture, Christian in faith and Syrian in liturgy".{{sfnp|Amaladass|1993|p=16}}

At present, Saint Thomas Christians represent a multi-cultural group. Their culture is largely derived from [[East Syriac Rite|East Syriac]], [[West Syriac Rite|West Syriac]], [[Jews|Jewish]], [[Hinduism|Hindu]],<ref name="Pallan">Pallan, M (2018) Ethnocultural Transformation of Social Identity. Syrian Christians in Kerala. Chapter 2 and 6. Grin Verlag. {{ISBN|9783668858749}}</ref> and [[Latin liturgical rites|Latin liturgical]] influences, blended with local customs and later elements derived from indigenous Indian and European colonial contacts. Their language is Malayalam—the language of Kerala—and [[Syriac language|Syriac]] is used for liturgical purposes.
[[File:Old Karingachira Church.png|thumb|Old [[Karingachira Church]] which was seen by Anglican Missionary Dr. [[Claudius Buchanan]] in 1806]]
Jewish influence has been observed in Malabar Nasrani liturgy and traditions.<ref name="Ross" /><ref name="Pallan"/> Their celebration of [[Mass (liturgy)|Mass]] was and still is called the [[Holy Qurbana|Qurbana]], which is derived from the [[Aramaic language]] term ''Qurbana'' ({{lang|sem-x-aramaic|ܩܘܪܒܢܐ}}), meaning "sacrifice". Nasrani Qurbana used to be held in Syriac until the early 20th century.<ref name="RossI">Ross, Israel J. (1979) Ritual and Music in South India: Syrian Christian Liturgical Music in Kerala (pp. 80–98). vol 11, no 1. doi: 10.2307/833968</ref>
Saint Thomas Christians typically follow the social customs of their Hindu neighbours, and their devotional practices can show the vestiges of Hindu symbolism.{{sfnp|Prasad|2009|pp=484–487}} Social sins like [[untouchability]] entered their practices, and the [[Synod of Diamper]] abolished it.{{sfnp|Prasad|2009|pp=482–483}} The sacraments related to birth, marriage, pregnancy, death, etc., also adapted nuances from Hindu religious practices. Even today, tying [[Mangala sutra|Minnu]], a Hindu symbol of marriage, is the most important rite in Christian marriages. In 1519, Portuguese traveler [[Duarte Barbosa]], on his visit to Malabar, commented on the practice of Saint Thomas Christian priests using [[Kudumi]] similar to that of Hindus in his manuscript ''Book of Duarte Barbosa''.{{sfnp|Collins|2007|p=142}}

In the social stratification of medieval Malabar, Saint Thomas Christians succeeded in relating their social status with that of upper-caste Hindus on account of their numerical strength and influence, and observance of many Brahmin and upper caste customs.{{sfnp|Prasad|2009|pp=482–483}}{{sfnp|Ananthakrishna Iyer|1926|pp=205–219}} In the 13th and 14th centuries, many Saint Thomas Christians were involved in the pepper trade for the local rulers, and many were appointed as port revenue officers. The local rulers rewarded them with grants of land and many other privileges. With growing numerical strength, a large number of Saint Thomas Christians settled in the inland pepper-growing regions.{{sfnp|Bayly|2004|pp=246–247}} They had the right to recruit and train soldiers, and Christian trainers were given the honorary title ''Panikkar'' like their [[Nair]] counterparts.{{sfnp|Pothan|1963|p=58}} They were also entitled to collect the tax, and the tax collectors were honored with the title ''Tharakan''.

Like Brahmins, they had the right to sit before the kings and ride horses or elephants like the royals.{{sfnp|Prasad|2009|pp=482–483}} They were protectors of seventeen lower castes and communities and hence were called ''Lords of Seventeen Castes''.{{sfnp|Prasad|2009|pp=482–483}}{{sfnp|Vadakkekara|2007|p=325-330}} They did not allow the lower castes to join their community for fear that it could imperil their upper-caste status.{{sfnp|Vadakkekara|2007|p=325-330}}{{sfnp|Amaladass|1993|pp=15–19}} The regal period ended when the community fell under the power of the [[raja]]s of Cochin and Travancore.<ref>Census of India, 1961, India. Office of the Registrar General, p. 290.</ref> They owned a large number of [[Kalaripayattu]] training centers, and the rajas of Travancore and Cochin, including the renowned [[Marthanda Varma]], recruited trained Christian warriors to defend their kingdom.{{sfnp|Bayly|2004|p=273}}

[[File:Mr & Mrs C.P.Matthen with their children.jpg|thumb|upright=1.35|A Saint Thomas Syrian Christian family from Thiruvalla (1937)]]
Upper-caste Hindus and Saint Thomas Christians took part in one another's festival celebrations. In some places in Kerala, the Hindu temples and Saint Thomas Christian churches were built on adjoining sites by the [[Hindu king]]s. Until the 19th century, Saint Thomas Christians had the right of access to Hindu temples, and some leading Saint Thomas Christians held the status of sponsors at Hindu shrines and temple festivals.{{sfnp|Bayly|2004|pp=274–279}} In the 19th century, however, Saint Thomas Christian integration with the Hindu caste system was disrupted: their clean-caste status was questioned in some localities, and they were denied access to many Hindu temples. They tried to retaliate by denouncing Hindu festivals as heathen [[idolatry]]. Clashes between upper-caste Hindus and Saint Thomas Christians occurred beginning in the late 1880s, especially when festivals coincided. Internecine violence among various Saint Thomas Christian denominations aggravated their problems.{{sfnp|Bayly|2004|pp=310–315}}

=== Existing traditions, music, rituals and social life ===
[[File:Pesaha at Payyappilly's.jpg|thumb|[[Passover|Pesaha]] Appam (unleavened bread) similar to a [[matzah]] is prepared on [[Maundy Thursday]] to commemorate the [[Passover]] of the Lord, rooted in its Jewish traditions.]]
[[File:Kozhukatta Nasrani food.jpg|thumb|''[[Kozhukkatta]]'' is prepared by Nasranis on the Saturday prior to [[Palm Sunday]] and the day is hence called ''Kozhukatta Saturday''.]]
Saint Thomas Christians still retain many of their ancient traditions and rituals, both in their social and religious life. Prior to the 1970s, the Nasrani ''[[Qurbana]]'' was sung in only Syriac. Many of the tunes of Saint Thomas Christian worship in Kerala, especially those in the East Syriac tradition, are remnants of Syriac tunes of antiquity.<ref name="Palackal">{{Cite thesis |last=Palackal |first=Joseph J. |author-link=Joseph J. Palackal |title=Syriac Chant Traditions in South India |degree=PhD, Ethnomusicology |publisher=City University of New York |year=2005}}</ref>{{sfnp|Palackal|2016}}<ref>{{cite journal |last=Palackal |first=Joseph J. |author-link=Joseph J. Palackal |title=The Survival Story of the Sound, Sentiments, and Melodies of the Aramaic Chants in India |journal=ARAM Periodical |editor=Shafiq Abouzayd |publisher=ARAM Society |year=2020 |pages=287–292 |url=https://www.thecmsindia.org/PDF-Flip-Book/index.php?p=Sound-sentiments-of-Aramaic-chants-ARAM-Periodical-2020.pdf}}</ref>

* Saint Thomas Christians observe [[Holy Thursday]] with high reverence. The day is referred to as ''Pesaha'', a Malayalam word derived from the Aramaic or Hebrew word for [[Passover]]—''Pasha'' or Pesakh ({{lang|he|פסח}}). The tradition of consuming ''[[Pesaha Appam]]'' after the church service is observed by the entire community under the leadership of the head of the family. Special long services followed by the ''Qurbana'' are conducted during the ''Pesaha'' eve service in the churches.<ref>{{cite web |orig-date=Updated: 12 October 2014 |url=https://nasrani.net/2007/03/25/passover-among-nasrani-syrian-christians-of-kerala/ |website=NSC Network |title=Palm Sunday (Kuruthola Perunnal), Maundy Thursday (Pesaha), Good Friday (Dukha Velli) And Easter Among Saint Thomas Christians Of India |date=25 March 2007 |access-date=16 June 2012}}</ref><ref name="Weil">Weil, S. (1982) "Symmetry between Christians and Jews in India: The Cananite Christians and Cochin Jews in Kerala. in Contributions to Indian Sociology, 16.</ref>
* The community observes [[Lent]], locally called ''Anpathu noyambu'' ('the fifty days' fast') or the ''Valiya noyambu'' (''[[Sawma Rabba]]'', 'the Great Fast'), from [[Clean Monday]] or the preceding Sunday (called the ''Pētūrttà'' ['looking back'], this is the original practice and it still prevails among the Chaldean Syrian Church)<ref>{{Cite web |title=Syro-Malabar Catechesis |url=http://www.syromalabarcatechesis.com/home/season/4 |access-date=8 July 2021|archive-date=9 July 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210709183657/http://www.syromalabarcatechesis.com/home/season/4|url-status=dead}}</ref> to the day before Easter, abjuring all meat, fish and egg. They also traditionally observe a 25-day fast that ends on Christmas Day.<ref name="Worldmark1">{{cite web|title=Syrian Christians in India |url=http://www.highbeam.com/doc/1P3-2131107461.html#|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130510132548/http://www.highbeam.com/doc/1P3-2131107461.html|url-status=dead|archive-date=10 May 2013 |publisher=Worldmark Encyclopedia of Cultures and Daily |year=2009|via=[[HighBeam Research]]}}</ref>
* Generally, [[Tradition of removing shoes in the home and houses of worship|footwear is removed before entering the church]] and [[Christian headcovering|women cover their heads]] during worship.
*On the day of [[Palm Sunday]], known as ''Oshana'' or ''Hoshana'' Sunday, flowers are strewn about the sanctuary, loaned from the Hindu ritual of offering flowers, and the crowd shouts "''[[Hosanna|Oshana]]''" ({{lang|syr|ܐܘܿܫܲܥܢܵܐ}} ''ʾōshaʿnā''; 'save, rescue, savior' in [[Aramaic]]). Then, palm leaves are blessed and distributed after the Mass is recited.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Turek|first=Przemysław |date=5 November 2011|title=Syriac Heritage of the Saint Thomas Christians: Language and Liturgical Tradition Saint Thomas Christians – origins, language and liturgy|journal=Orientalia Christiana Cracoviensia|volume=3|pages=115–130 |doi=10.15633/ochc.1038|issn=2081-1330|doi-access=free}}</ref>
* The celebration of Mass is commonly called the ''Holy Qurbana'', regardless of whether it is the East Syriac [[Holy Qurbana]] or West Syriac [[Holy Qurobo]]. The ''Holy Qurbana'' is mostly conducted in Malayalam. However, large parts of the ''Holy Qurbana'' are sung in [[Syriac language|Syriac]]. During the 20th century, the ''Qurbana-kramam'' (i.e., the book containing the order of worship) was translated into English for the benefit of worshipers who lived outside Kerala and did not know how to read or write Malayalam.
* Saint Thomas Christians use East Syriac term ''[[Maran|Māràn]] [[Isho|Īshoʿ Mîshîħa]]'' (Jesus's name in [[Aramaic]]<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.v-a.com/bible/jesus.html |title=Eashoa Msheekhah (Aramaic), Jesus the Messiah (English) or the Christ (Greek) |publisher=V-a.com |access-date=6 September 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150831092557/http://www.v-a.com/bible/jesus.html |archive-date=31 August 2015 |url-status=dead }}</ref>) to refer to Jesus of Nazareth.
* The Saint Thomas Christians, particularly of the [[West Syriac Rite]], pray the [[canonical hours]] of the ''[[Shehimo]]'' seven times a day.<ref name="Kurian2020">{{cite web |last1=Kurian |first1=Jake |title="Seven Times a Day I Praise You" – The Shehimo Prayers |url=http://www.ds-wa.org/seven-times-a-day-i-praise-you-the-sheema-prayers.html |publisher=[[Malankara Orthodox Diocese of Southwest America|Diocese of South-West America of the Malankara Orthodox Syrian Church]]|access-date=2 August 2020}}</ref>
* Another surviving tradition is the use of ''muthukoda'' (ornamental [[Umbrella#Ancient India|umbrella]]) for church celebrations, marriages, and other festivals. The church celebrations include traditional drums, arch decorations, ornamental umbrellas, and [[Panchavadyam]]. Their use has become popular all over Kerala.
* The sacraments and ceremonies of Saint Thomas Christians related to house-building, birth, and marriage have close similarity with those of Hindus in Kerala.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Varghese|first=Pathikulangara|title=Mar Thomma Margam: a new catechism for the Saint Thomas Christians of India |year=2004|publisher=Denha Services|isbn=81-904135-0-3|oclc=255155413}}</ref> The sacrament of death reflects Christian canonical themes to a limited extent, with a noticeably significant influence from Hindu culture. Emphasis is placed on concepts related to eternal life after death and the anticipation of Jesus's final coming.<ref>Rowena Robinson: Christians of India, p. 106, {{ISBN|0-7619-9822-5}}</ref>
* Saint Thomas Christians do not marry close relatives. The rule is that the bride and groom must not be related for at least five or seven generations.
* Saint Thomas Christians generally prefer arranged marriages, and the prospective partners see each other in the Pennukanal (bride-viewing) ceremony at the bride's home.<ref name="Canadian Anthropology Society p. 258">Anthropologica Vol 46, 2004, Canadian Anthropology Society, p. 258.</ref>
* Saint Thomas Christian marriage customs are uniquely different from Western Christian marriage and local Hindu marriage customs. For example, engagement and marriage are usually performed together in the same service. Unlike Western Christian traditions, there is no direct ring exchange between groom and bride during engagement; rather, it is offered and mediated by the [[Kathanar]], who represents Jesus, symbolizing that it is God who brings the couple together into marriage.<ref name="marriage_customs_syro_malabar">{{Cite web |url=http://www.syromalabarchurch.in/resources_details.php?res=115 |title=Inculturation of the East Syrian Liturgy of Marriage By the St. Thomas Christians in India|website=syromalabarchurch.in|access-date=12 December 2017|archive-date=12 December 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171212124612/http://www.syromalabarchurch.in/resources_details.php?res=115|url-status=dead}}</ref> The tying of the ''Minnu'' ([[Mangala sutra|Mangalasutra]]) and the giving of the "''Manthrakodi''" or "''Pudava''" to the bride are the major wedding rituals loaned from Hinduism. ''Manthrakodi'', a [[Silk|silk saree]] with a [[Zari|golden zari]] border, is blessed by the priest and is placed by the bridegroom by covering the hair of the bride; it symbolises the "''Pudavakodukkal''" ceremony of the [[Nambudiri Brahmins]], wherein the bridegroom places a silk cloth by covering the head of the bride.<ref name="Canadian Anthropology Society p. 258"/><ref>{{Cite journal |title=NAṢRĀNĪ|website=Encyclopaedia of Islam, First Edition (1913–1936)|date=24 April 2012|doi=10.1163/2214-871x_ei1_dum_0652}}</ref>
* Saint Thomas Christians widely use [[Nilavilakku]] (a lighted metal lamp), [[Kindi (vessel)|Kindi]], [[Kalasha]], and other bronze articles in their houses and churches.{{sfnp|Collins|2007|p=120}}<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Singh |first=Holly Donahue |date=November 2020 |title=Privileged Minorities: Syrian Christianity, Gender, and Minority Rights in Postcolonial India. Sonja Thomas. Seattle: University of Washington Press, 2018. 224 pp. |journal=American Ethnologist |volume=47 |issue=4 |pages=475–476 |doi=10.1111/amet.12982 |s2cid=229510798 |issn=0094-0496}}</ref>
*The night before the marriage, a ceremony known as ''[[Madhuram Veppu]]'' is conducted. The ceremony is conducted separately for the bride and the bridegroom. It includes serving the bride and the bridegroom sweets by the maternal uncle. The tradition is borrowed from the [[Knanaya]] (Southist) community's tradition called ''Chantham Charthal'', wherein the couple is served sweets. ''Chantham Charthal'' for the bride includes applying [[Henna]], [[Sandalwood]], and [[turmeric]] over the palms and legs as a symbolism of purity. The face of the bridegroom is cleanly shaved as a ritual. All the traditions are accompanied by the ''Panan Pattu'' performed by the ''Panan'' caste, who sings the grants and privileges given to the Syrian Christians.{{sfnp|Menachery|2000}}<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Grysa |first=Bartłomiej |date=7 November 2011 |title=The Cultural Heritage of the Knanaya Christians |journal=Orientalia Christiana Cracoviensia |volume=3 |pages=43–53 |doi=10.15633/ochc.1022 |issn=2081-1330 |doi-access=free}}</ref>{{sfnp|Swiderski|1988|p={{page needed|date=July 2024}}}}
* The traditional dress of a Saint Thomas Christian woman is the [[Chattayum Mundum]], a seamless white garment now limited to older female adherents. Following the general trend, the [[Sari]] and [[Churidar]] have become predominant among the younger generations.<ref name="Worldmark1" /><ref>Anthropologica Vol 46, 2004, Canadian Anthropology Society, p. 262.</ref>
* Many artforms, such as [[Margamkali]] (an ancient dance form performed in a circular configuration with a [[Nilavilakku]] at the centre) and [[Parichamuttukali]] (an ancient martial dance form in which Syrian Christian men with swords and shields follow the movements and steps of [[Kalaripayattu]]), still exist amongst the Saint Thomas Syrian Christian community.

===Church architecture===
[[File:St Mary,'s Orthodox church , Kottayam (cheriya palli).jpg|thumb|right|upright=1.15|[[St. Mary's Church, Kottayam|Kottayam Saint Mary's Minor Church]] (''Kottayam Cheriyapally'') with the traditional tile roofing and wall]]
The earliest documentary evidence is the [[Quilon Syrian copper plates]], which refers to the construction of the church of Tharisapally in Quilon between 823 and 849&nbsp;AD. Antonio Gouvea, Portuguese envoy to Malabar, mentions in his 16th-century work ''Jornada'' that almost all the churches of Saint Thomas Christians followed the models of Hindu temples of that period, but were distinguished by the huge granite cross in the front yard of the church. Despite the external similarity with temples, the structuring of the church's interior space always followed the [[East Syriac Rite|East Syriac]] architectural theology. Thus, the contemporary style is formed as an amalgamation of Indian architecture and Assyrian liturgical concepts.{{sfnp|Malekandathil|2010|pp=48-50}} The church is arranged east-to-west, with the interior structured into three levels: the ''madbaha'' ([[sanctuary]]), the ''qestroma'' ([[Choir (architecture)|choir]]), and the ''haykla'' ([[nave]]).

The ''madbaha'', arranged in the topmost platform at the eastern side of the building, represents [[Heaven]]. The primary [[altar]] is attached to the eastern wall. To the north of the ''madbaha'' is the ''diaqonikon'' ([[sacristry]]); to the south is the [[baptistery]]. The ''madbaha'' is protected with rails and is veiled by a red curtain most of the time; this is opened during the [[Holy Qurbana]] ([[Eucharist]]). An oil lamp within the sanctuary is always kept glowing to represent God's presence. The ''madbaha'' is connected to the ''qestroma'' and ''haykla'' by a low-walled path called the ''sqaqona''. The ''qestroma'' contains seats for the [[choir]] and lower clergy. The ''haykla'' contains an elevated platform or ''[[bema]]'', which includes an [[altar]], two [[lectern]]s for reading, and chairs for higher clergy. Worshipers stand before the altar, with separate seating for men and women.

The main entrance is on the western side of the building; a [[Vestibule (architecture)|vestibule]], [[Column|pillars]], [[pilaster]]s, and other architectural ornaments adorn the front end, and a flag mast stands in the front yard. One or two bells are installed in the backyard to signal the timing of ritual services, the death of a church member, or to inform the public of calamities.<ref>{{cite book |first=Samuel |last=Mateer |title=The Land of Charity: A Descriptive Account of Travancore and its People |publisher=J. Snow & Co |location=London |year=1871 |url=https://archive.org/details/landcharityades00mategoog|pages=[https://archive.org/details/landcharityades00mategoog/page/n267 241]–243}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |first=Paul F. |last=Bradshaw |title=The New Westminster Dictionary of Liturgy and Worship |publisher=Westminster John Knox |year=2003 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9fgkAb0rhcoC&pg=PA160 |page=160 |isbn=0-664-22655-8}}</ref>

===The Persian Crosses===
[[File:Persian Cross at Kottayam valiya pally.png|thumb|An ancient St Thomas Cross at Kottayam Knanaya Valiyapally]]
The East Syriac churches of the Saint Thomas Christians use the [[Syrian Cross|Persian cross]] as their symbol. They call it the "Nasrani [[Menorah]]"{{sfnp|Collins|2007|p=119}} or "Mar Thoma Sleeva" (St. Thomas's Cross).<ref name=Antony2020>{{cite web |last=Antony |first=Martin Thomas |website=NSC Network |url=https://www.nasrani.net/2010/10/09/saint-thomas-cross-a-religio-cultural-symbol-of-saint-thomas-christians/ |title=Saint Thomas Cross – A Religio Cultural Symbol Of Saint Thomas Christians |date=14 June 2020|access-date=14 July 2020}}</ref> There are several interpretations for the Saint Thomas Christian symbol. The interpretation, based on [[Judaism|Jewish]] tradition, assumes that its design was based on the Jewish [[Temple in Jerusalem|Temple]] [[Menorah (Temple)|Menorah]], an ancient symbol in Judaism, which consists of a seven-branched lamp stand (candelabra).{{sfnp|Collins|2007|p=119}} The St. Thomas Cross also appears on the official emblem of the Malankara Orthodox Syrian Church.

The interpretation, based on local culture, states that the cross—without the figure of Jesus—with flowery arms symbolising "joyfulness" points to the resurrection theology of [[Paul the Apostle|Paul]], and the downward-facing bird (most likely a dove) on the top represents the role of the [[Holy Spirit in Christianity|Holy Spirit]] in the resurrection of Jesus. The cross indicates Jesus. The lotus symbolizes God the Father, who has begotten the Son in Christianity. The three steps{{which|date=October 2025}} indicate [[Calvary]] and symbolise the [[Christian Church|Church]], the channel of grace flowing from the cross.{{what|date=October 2025}} The lotus may also symbolise the cultural association with [[Buddhism]], and the cross over it shows that Indian Christianity was established in the region in which Buddhism arose.<ref name=Antony2020/><ref>Dr. Geo Thadikkatt – Liturgical Identity of the Mar Toma Nazrani Church</ref>

== Today ==

Writing in 2010, Devika and Varghese noted that "[The St. Thomas Christians] are at present a substantial minority, a powerful presence in all fields of life in Kerala."{{sfnp|Devika|Varghese|2010|p=11}}

=== Socioeconomic status ===
Even though the Saint Thomas Christians had to compromise their social and religious privileges in the aftermath of Portuguese subjugation, they started reemerging as a powerful community from the 19th century onward. They played a pioneering role in many spheres such as banking, commerce, cash crops, print media, the film industry, etc.<ref name="Kumar">A Kumar&nbsp;— Social Reforms in Modern India, p. 180, Sarup and Sons 2001, {{ISBN|81-7625-227-1}}</ref> Around 2003, among Saint Thomas Christians, 17.4 percent of the adult population are self-employed – the highest rate statistically among all the communities in the state of Kerala.<ref>Kunniparampil Curien Zachariah et al. – Dynamics of migration in Kerala: dimensions, differentials, and consequences, pp. 85–89, Orient Blackswan, 2003, {{ISBN|81-250-2504-9}}</ref> Saint Thomas Christians lead all others with respect to per capita ownership of land, with many of them owning large [[Estate (house)|estates]]. With changing conditions, they have shifted from the agriculture of rice and coconut to plantation based agriculture and the trading of [[natural rubber|rubber]], spices and [[cash crops]]. They also take a prominent role in the educational institutions of Kerala and throughout India.<ref>{{cite news |work=The Hindu |url=http://www.hinduonnet.com/2001/08/13/stories/0413404r.htm |title=Syrian Christians are in a class of their own |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110728040744/http://www.hinduonnet.com/2001/08/13/stories/0413404r.htm |archive-date=2011-07-28 |date=31 August 2001}}</ref> The educational accomplishments of the community have helped its members to attain a good proportion of the Central and State Government jobs.<ref name="Kumar" /> Kerala Government in the year 2024 happened to present the community wise account of the government employees in its Legislative Assembly.  According to the data, out of the then total 5,45,423 government employees in the state, 73,713 are from forward Christian communities, ie., Saint Thomas Christians, which accounts for the 13.5 percent of the total government employees.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Kerala govt employs 5.45 lakh staff from 238 communities; Ezhavas hold highest number, OBCs occupy 52% |url=https://www.onmanorama.com/news/kerala/2024/07/03/kerala-govt-staff-communities-ezhavas-obc.html |access-date=2024-07-03 |website=www.onmanorama.com}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=ലേഖകൻ |first=സ്വന്തം |date=2024-07-03 |title=Community wise statistics of government employees in the Assembly |url=https://www.manoramanews.com/kerala/latest/2024/07/03/community-wise-statistics-of-government-employees-in-the-assembly.html |access-date=2024-07-03 |website=Manoramanews |language=en-US}}</ref> With their level of education and limited employment opportunities within the state of Kerala, they became the community with the highest rate of migration. Their resultant foreign remittances have also helped the socioeconomic progress of the community. According to the Kerala Migration Survey (1998) by the Center for Developmental Studies, Kerala, Saint Thomas Christians top all other communities in Kerala with respect to the Socioeconomic Development Index which is based on parameters such as the possession of ''land, housing & consumer durables'', education and employment status.{{sfnp|Zachariah|2006|p={{page needed|date=July 2024}}}}

=== Demographics ===
The Saint Thomas Syrian Christians form 12.5 percent of the total population of Kerala and 70.73 percent of the Christians in the state.{{citation needed|date=May 2022}} K. C. Zachariah notes that the 20th century was period of significant transition for the Saint Thomas Christians in terms of its demographic and [[socioeconomic status]]. Around 1900, the community was concentrated in a few areas, was geographically static and "...&nbsp;was characterised by very high death rate, very high birth rate, very early age at marriage, and 10 to 12 children per married woman". The population had increased eight-fold during the preceding century, from a base figure of about 100,000, and comprised nearly 50 per cent children. But, the population growth of Saint Thomas Christians came down drastically after the 1960s, with the lowest birth rate, highest age at marriage, highest family planning user rate, and lowest fertility rate compared to other communities in Kerala. The proportion of children has come down to less than 25 percent. The absolute and relative size of the community is in a diminishing trend and is approaching a [[zero population growth]] regime.{{sfnp|Zachariah|2006|p=3}}

{{As of|2001}}, in Kerala, more than 85 per cent of the Saint Thomas Christian population live in the seven southern districts of the state – [[Kollam]], [[Pathanamthitta]], [[Alappuzha]], [[Kottayam]], [[Idukki]], [[Ernakulam]] and [[Trissur]]. They have also migrated to other cities in India like [[Ooty]], [[Mangalore]], [[Bangalore]], [[Chennai]], [[Pune]], [[Delhi]], [[Mumbai]], [[Coimbatore]], [[Hyderabad, Telangana|Hyderabad]] and [[Kolkata]]. Migration steeply increased in the post-independence period and major destinations were United States of America, Canada, Western Europe, Australia and the Middle East. According to a rough estimate, 20–25 percent of the Saint Thomas Christians live outside the state of Kerala.{{sfnp|Zachariah|2006|p={{page needed|date=July 2024}}}}

With respect to [[Christian denomination]], 55% of Saint Thomas Christians in the Indian state of Kerala belong to the [[Catholic Church]].<ref>{{cite web |last1=Landy |first1=Thomas M. |title=Syrian- and Latin-rite Catholic churches side-by-side in Kerala |date=21 February 2014 |url=https://www.catholicsandcultures.org/india-syrian-rite-churches-find-home-kerala |publisher=McFarland Center for Religion, Ethics and Culture |access-date=5 October 2025 |language=en}}</ref> In 1980, the [[Mar Thoma Syrian Church]] (Reformed) had a [[church membership]] of around 400,000 communicants, while the [[Syriac Orthodox Church]] (Oriental Orthodox) had 1,400,000 members.<ref>{{cite book |title=World Christianity: South Asia |date=1980 |publisher=WVI |isbn=978-0-912552-33-0 |page=53 |language=en}}</ref>

==Syrian Christian caste status ==
Despite the sectarian differences, Saint Thomas Syrian Christians share a common social status within the [[Caste system of Kerala]] and is considered as an [[Forward Caste|Upper caste]] community.<ref name="Forrester">{{cite book |title=Caste and Christianity |publisher=Curzon Press |first=Duncan |last=Forrester |year=1980 |pages=98, 102|isbn=9780700701292 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hyQRAQAAIAAJ}}</ref>

In historic kingdoms of Kerala such as those of [[Kingdom of Cochin|Cochin]] and Travancore, Saint Thomas Christians were granted caste privileges that put them on the same level as Upper caste Hindus.{{sfnp|Menachery|2000}} Anthropologist, [[L.K. Ananthakrishna Iyer]] recorded that they were given privileges in addition to those granted to groups such as [[Nairs]], such as the right to have enclosures in front of their houses, which was otherwise only granted to the Brahmins, and were placed "almost on par with the Sovereigns".{{sfnp|Ananthakrishna Iyer|1926|pp=55–56}} They followed the same rules of caste and pollution as did Hindus, and sometimes they were considered to be pollution neutralisers.{{sfnp|Vadakkekara|2007|pp=325-330}} Decree II of Action IX of the [[Synod of Diamper]] enforced by the Portuguese Inquisition in 1599 prohibited the practice of untouchability by the Saint Thomas Christians except in practical circumstances when required by law and when it was necessary to ensure social contact with the Varna Hindus.<ref>Geddes, Michael. The History of the Church of Malabar Together with the Synod of Diamper 1599, pp. 394–395. Published in 1694</ref>

They tend to be endogamous, and tend not to [[Exogamy|intermarry]] even with other Christian groupings. Internal division of Saint Thomas Christians into Northists and Southists and also into a number of sects based on the ecclesiastical orientation makes the pattern of segmentation an exceedingly complex. Forrester suggests that the Northist-Southist division forms two groups within the Saint Thomas Christian community which are closely analogous to sub-castes.<ref name="Forrester" />

== Christian conventions ==
The [[Maramon Convention]] is one of the largest annual Christian gatherings in Asia.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.oikoumene.org/en/press-centre/news/wcc-general-secretary-to-address-largest-christian-gathering-in-asia|title=WCC general secretary to address largest Christian gathering in Asia|access-date=5 March 2015}}</ref> It takes place in [[Maramon]], near [[Kozhencherry]], during February on the vast sand-bed of the [[Pamba River]] next to the [[Kozhencherry]] Bridge. The first convention was held in March 1895 for 10 days.

Another major convention in Kerala is the annual Central Travancore Convention held at Saint Stephen's Cathedral, [[Pathanamthitta|Makamkunnu]] of the [[Malankara Orthodox Syrian Church]].<ref>{{cite news |title=Metropolitan opens 95th Central Travancore Orthodox Christian meet |date=29 January 2012 |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/kerala/Metropolitan-opens-95th-Central-Travancore-Orthodox-Christian-meet/article13386240.ece |url-access=subscription |work=The Hindu |publisher=THG Publishing PVT LTD. |access-date=22 January 2024}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Orthodox Convention begins |url=https://www.newindianexpress.com/states/kerala/2009/Feb/02/orthodox-convention-begins-22624.html |website=New Indian Express |date=15 May 2012 |access-date=22 January 2024}}</ref> The first convention was held in 1915.

One of the biggest conventions of the Malankara Orthodox Syrian Church is the [[Kallooppara]] Orthodox Convention.<ref>{{cite news |title=Metropolitan opens Kallooppara Orthodox Christian meet |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/kerala/metropolitan-opens-kallooppara-orthodox-christian-meet/article6851104.ece |url-access=subscription |work=The Hindu |date=2 February 2015 |publisher=THG Publishing PVT LTD. |access-date=22 January 2024}}</ref> It takes place on the Koithottu sand banks of the [[Manimala River]] with over 5,000 annual participants.<ref>{{cite web |title=St. Mary's Orthodox Church Kallooppara Thirunnal Convention |url=https://www.keralatourism.org/1000festivals//assets/uploads/pdf/1515493346-0.pdf |website=Kerala Tourism |access-date=22 January 2024}}</ref> This convention was started in 1943 lasting 8 days.

Ranni Orthodox Convention is an annual convention of the Malankara Orthodox Syrian Church.<ref>{{cite news |title=Catholicos opens Orthodox convention |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/kerala/catholicos-opens-orthodox-convention/article6774325.ece |url-access=subscription |work=The Hindu |date=9 January 2015 |publisher=THG Publishing PVT LTD. |access-date=22 January 2024}}</ref> The convention is now held in [[Ranni, Kerala|Ranni]] town at Mar Gregorios Catholicate Centre and began in 1967.

Mallapally Orthodox Syrian Convention of the Malankara Orthodox Syrian Church is an annual convention in [[Mallapally]], Pathanamthitta.<ref>{{cite web |title=33rd MALLAPPALLY CONVENTION Malankara Orthodox Syrian Church Niranam Diocese Day 1 LIVE |url=https://www.youtube.com/live/5A4rDQ6eVp0?si=2m7SqaHgTwPMbKEA |website=Youtube |publisher=Didymos Live |access-date=22 January 2024}}</ref> The first convention took place in 1989 at Mallapally Valiyapally (St. John's Bethany Orthodox Valiyapally).

Trivandrum Orthodox Convention is an annual convention organized by [[Thiruvananthapuram Orthodox Diocese|Trivandrum Orthodox Diocese]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Trivandrum Orthodox Convention |url=https://malankaraorthodox.tv/?p=55177 |website=Malankara Orthodox TV |access-date=22 January 2024}}</ref> The convention takes place at Holy Trinity Aramana, [[Ulloor]] and was started in 1988.<ref>{{cite web |title=36th Trivandrum Orthodox Convention 2023 @ Holy Trinity Aramana Chapel Day 2 |url=https://www.youtube.com/live/cQ3OIdO6wEo?si=9XHgXZDtqnmWFBNL |website=Youtube |publisher=Matha Mariam Media |access-date=22 January 2024}}</ref>

== See also ==
{{Portal|Christianity|India}}
* [[Saint Thomas Christian denominations]]
* [[List of Saint Thomas Christians]]
* [[Indo-Persian ecclesiastical relations]]
* [[India (East Syriac ecclesiastical province)]]
* [[Nestorianism and the church in India]]
* [[Christianity in Kerala]]
* [[Christianity in India]]
* [[Churches of Kerala]]
* [[Suriyani Malayalam]]

== Sources ==
===References===
{{Reflist}}

==Bibliography ==
{{refbegin|30em}}
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* {{cite book |last=Amaladass |first=Anand |chapter=Dialogue between Hindus and the St. Thomas Christians |editor-last=Coward |editor-first=Harold |editor-link=Harold Coward |title=Hindu-Christian dialogue: perspectives and encounters |year=1993 |orig-year=1989 (New York: Orbis Books) |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |location=Delhi |edition=Indian |isbn=978-81-208-1158-4 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6eHgNyNimoAC}}
* {{cite book |last=Ananthakrishna Iyer |first=L. K. |date=1926 |title=Anthropology of Syrian Christians}}
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* {{Cite book|last=Bayly|first=Susan|author-link=Susan Bayly |title=Saints, Goddesses and Kings: Muslims and Christians in South Indian Society, 1700–1900|year=2004|location=Cambridge |publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=9780521891035 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Fxqtx8SflEsC}}
* {{Cite book|last1=Baum|first1=Wilhelm|author-link1=Wilhelm Baum (historian)|last2=Winkler|first2=Dietmar W.|author2-link=Dietmar W. Winkler |title=The Church of the East: A Concise History |year=2003|location=London-New York|publisher=Routledge-Curzon |isbn=9781134430192 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=CnSCAgAAQBAJ}}
* {{cite encyclopedia |first=Sebastian P. |last=Brock|author-link=Sebastian Brock |title=Thomas Christians |encyclopedia=Gorgias Encyclopedic Dictionary of the Syriac Heritage: Electronic Edition |editor1=Sebastian P. Brock |editor2=Aaron M. Butts |editor3=George A. Kiraz |editor4=Lucas Van Rompay |url=https://gedsh.bethmardutho.org/Thomas-Christians |publisher=Gorgias Press|year=2011a|access-date=22 September 2016}}
*{{cite encyclopedia |first=Sebastian P. |last=Brock|author-link=Sebastian Brock |title=Malankara Catholic Church |encyclopedia=Gorgias Encyclopedic Dictionary of the Syriac Heritage: Electronic Edition |editor1=Sebastian P. Brock |editor2=Aaron M. Butts |editor3=George A. Kiraz |editor4=Lucas Van Rompay  |url=https://gedsh.bethmardutho.org/Malankara-Catholic-Church|publisher=Gorgias Press|year=2011b|access-date=22 September 2016}}
*{{cite encyclopedia |first=Sebastian P. |last=Brock|author-link=Sebastian Brock |title=Chaldean Syrian Church |encyclopedia=Gorgias Encyclopedic Dictionary of the Syriac Heritage: Electronic Edition |editor1=Sebastian P. Brock |editor2=Aaron M. Butts |editor3=George A. Kiraz |editor4=Lucas Van Rompay |url=https://gedsh.bethmardutho.org/Chaldean-Syrian-Church |publisher=Gorgias Press|year=2011c|access-date=22 September 2016}}
* {{cite encyclopedia |first=Sebastian P. |last=Brock|author-link=Sebastian Brock |title=Malabar Catholic Church |encyclopedia=Gorgias Encyclopedic Dictionary of the Syriac Heritage: Electronic Edition |editor1=Sebastian P. Brock |editor2=Aaron M. Butts |editor3=George A. Kiraz |editor4=Lucas Van Rompay |url=https://gedsh.bethmardutho.org/Malabar-Catholic-Church |publisher=Gorgias Press|year=2011d|access-date=22 September 2016}}
* {{Cite book|last=Brown|first=Leslie W.|title=The Indian Christians of St Thomas: An Account of the Ancient Syrian Church of Malabar |year=1956 |location=Cambridge|publisher=Cambridge University Press|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=H9gYAAAAIAAJ}}
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*{{cite book|last=Cariatti|first=Joseph|title="Noticias do Reyno do Malabar" Information of the Kingdom of Malabar|publisher=National Library of Paris|year=1782}}
* {{Cite journal |last1=Chaput |first1=Pascale |year=1999 |title=La Double identité des chrétiens keralais: confessions et castes chrétiennes au Kerala (Inde du Sud) / The Double Identity of Kerala Christians: Confessions and Christian Castes (South India) |journal=Archives de sciences sociales des religions |volume=106 |pages=5–23 |doi=10.3406/assr.1999.1084 |url=http://www.persee.fr/web/revues/home/prescript/article/assr_0335-5985_1999_num_106_1_1084#}}
*{{cite encyclopedia |last=Childers |first=Jeff W. |title=Thomas, Acts of. |encyclopedia=Gorgias Encyclopedic Dictionary of the Syriac Heritage: Electronic Edition |editor1=Sebastian P. Brock |editor2=Aaron M. Butts |editor3=George A. Kiraz |editor4=Lucas Van Rompay |url=https://gedsh.bethmardutho.org/Thomas-Acts-of |publisher=Gorgias Press|year=2011|access-date=22 September 2016}}
* {{cite book |last=Collins |first=Paul M. |date=2007 |title=Christian inculturation in India |publisher=Ashgate Publishing |isbn=978-0-7546-6076-7}}
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* {{cite book |first1=J. |last1=Devika |first2=V. J. |last2=Varghese |date=March 2010 |title=To Survive or to flourish? Minority rights and Syrian Christian assertions in 20th century Travancore |publisher=Centre for Development Studies |location=Trivandrum |url=http://cds.edu/download_files/wp427.pdf |access-date=27 April 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120526104825/http://cds.edu/download_files/wp427.pdf |archive-date=26 May 2012}}
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* {{cite encyclopedia |first=John R. K.|last=Fenwick |title=Malabar Independent Syrian Church |encyclopedia=Gorgias Encyclopedic Dictionary of the Syriac Heritage: Electronic Edition |editor1=Sebastian P. Brock |editor2=Aaron M. Butts |editor3=George A. Kiraz |editor4=Lucas Van Rompay |url=https://gedsh.bethmardutho.org/Malabar-Independent-Syrian-Church |publisher=Gorgias Press|year=2011a|access-date=22 September 2016}} 
* {{cite encyclopedia |first=John R. K.|last=Fenwick |title=Mar Thoma Syrian Church (Malankara) |encyclopedia=Gorgias Encyclopedic Dictionary of the Syriac Heritage: Electronic Edition |editor1=Sebastian P. Brock |editor2=Aaron M. Butts |editor3=George A. Kiraz |editor4=Lucas Van Rompay |url=https://gedsh.bethmardutho.org/Mar-Thoma-Syrian-Church-Malankara |publisher=Gorgias Press|year=2011b|access-date=22 September 2016}}
* {{cite book |first1=Leonard |last1=Fernando |first2= G. |last2= Gispert-Sauch|year=2004|title=Christianity in India: Two Thousand Years of Faith|publisher=Penguin Books India|isbn=9780670057696 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7dgYjLCSa0wC&pg=PA79}}
* {{Cite book|last=Frykenberg|first=Robert E.|title=Christianity in India: From Beginnings to the Present|year=2008|location=Oxford |publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=9780198263777 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mXgSDAAAQBAJ}}
** {{cite book|first=Robert |last=Frykenberg|title=Christianity in India: From Beginnings to the Present|publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0199575831|year=2010}}
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* {{cite encyclopedia |first=Thomas|last=Joseph|title=Malankara Syriac Orthodox Church|encyclopedia=Gorgias Encyclopedic Dictionary of the Syriac Heritage: Electronic Edition |editor1=Sebastian P. Brock |editor2=Aaron M. Butts |editor3=George A. Kiraz |editor4=Lucas Van Rompay
|url=https://gedsh.bethmardutho.org/Malankara-Syriac-Orthodox-Church |publisher=Gorgias Press|year=2011|access-date=22 September 2016}}
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* {{cite encyclopedia |first=George A. |last=Kiraz |author-link= George Kiraz |title=Maphrian |encyclopedia=Gorgias Encyclopedic Dictionary of the Syriac Heritage: Electronic Edition |editor1=Sebastian P. Brock |editor2=Aaron M. Butts |editor3=George A. Kiraz |editor4=Lucas Van Rompay |url=https://gedsh.bethmardutho.org/Maphrian |publisher=Gorgias Press|year=2011a|access-date=22 September 2016}}
* {{cite book |last= Klijn |first= Albertus Frederik Johannes |year= 2003 |title= The Acts of Thomas: Introduction, Text, and Commentary |publisher= BRILL |isbn= 90-04-12937-5 |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=MuVHh60YC4UC}}
* {{cite book|author1-last=Kollaparambil|author1-first=Jacob|year=1992|title=The Babylonian origin of the Southists among the St. Thomas Christians|publisher=Pontifical Oriental Institute|isbn=8872102898}}
* {{cite book |last=Kollaparambil|first=Jacob|year=2012|title= Kottayam Athirupatha Sathabdhi Smaranika: Sabha Saktheekaranam Knanaya Presthithadauthyam|publisher= Catholic Mission Press Kottayam|ref={{sfnRef|Kollamparambil|2012}}}}
* {{cite book | last=Kollaparambil |first= Jacob|title= Sources of the Syro Malabar Law |publisher= Oriental Institute of Religious Studies India |year= 2015 |isbn= 9789382762287}}
*{{cite journal|last=Koonammakkal|first=Thomas|author-link=Thomas Koonammakkal|editor1=Peter Bruns|editor2=Heinz Otto Luthe |title=Syro-Malabar History and Traditions|journal=Orientalia Christiana: Festschrift für Hubert Kaufhold zum 70. Geburtstag |pages=259–276|publisher=Harrassowitz Verlag|location=Wiesbaden |year=2013|isbn=9783447068857 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KDoyEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA259}}
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* {{cite conference |last1=Liščák |first1=Vladimír |title=Mapa mondi (Catalan Atlas of 1375), Majorcan cartographic school, and 14th century Asia |editor=C. A. Brewer |book-title=Proceedings of the International Cartographic Association |year=2018 |volume=1 |at=Art. 69 |conference=28th International Cartographic Conference: 2–7 July 2017, Washington DC, USA |doi=10.5194/ica-proc-1-69-2018 |doi-access=free |bibcode=2018PrICA...1...69L |url=https://www.proc-int-cartogr-assoc.net/1/69/2018/ica-proc-1-69-2018.pdf}}
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* {{cite book |last=Malekandathil |first=Pius |title=Jornada of D. Alexis Menezes: A Portuguese Account of the Sixteenth Century Malabar |year=2003 |publisher=LRC Publications |isbn=81-88979-00-7}}
* {{cite book |last=Malekandathil |first=Pius |title=Maritime India: Trade, Religion and Polity in the Indian Ocean |publisher=Primus Books |location=Delhi |year=2010 |isbn=978-93-8060-701-6 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rN69iFj1PJoC}}
* {{cite web |last=Malekandathil |first=Pius |date=28 January 2013 |title=Nazrani History and Discourse on Early Nationalism in Varthamanapusthakam |website=NSC Network |url=https://www.nasrani.net/2013/01/28/nazrani-history-and-discourse-on-early-nationalism-in-varthamanapusthakam/}}
* {{cite web |last=Malekandathil |first=Pius |date=19 March 2014 |url=https://www.nasrani.net/2011/03/07/nazrani-christians-and-the-social-processes-of-kerala/ |title=Nazrani Christians and the Social Processes of Kerala, 800–1500 |access-date=6 September 2015 |website=NSC Network}}
*{{Cite encyclopaedia|last=Medlycott|first=A.|author-link=Adolph Medlycott|title=St. Thomas Christians|encyclopedia=The Catholic Encyclopedia |year=1912|location=New York|publisher=Robert Appleton Company|url=https://www.newadvent.org/cathen/14678a.htm |access-date=4 July 2021}} 
*{{Cite book|last=Menachery|first=George|author-link=George Menachery|title=Thomapedia|year=2000|publisher=Thomapedia|isbn=81-87132-13-2 |oclc=56405161}}
* {{cite book |editor-last=Menachery |editor-first=George |date=1982 |title=The St. Thomas Christian Encyclopedia of India |volume=I |place=Thrissur}}
* {{cite book |editor-last=Menachery |editor-first=George |date=1973 |title=The St. Thomas Christian Encyclopedia of India |volume=II |place=Thrissur}}
* {{cite book |editor-last=Menachery |editor-first=George |date=2010 |title=The St. Thomas Christian Encyclopedia of India |volume=III |place=Thrissur}}
* {{cite book |editor-last=Menachery |editor-first=George |date=1998 |title=The Indian Church History Classics'', Vol. I, ''The Nazranies |publisher=South Asia Research Assistance Services |place=Ollur, Trichur, India |isbn=81-87133-05-8}}
* {{Cite journal|last=Mingana|first=Alphonse|author-link1=Alphonse Mingana|title=The Early Spread of Christianity in India|journal=Bulletin of the John Rylands Library|year=1926|volume=10|number=2|pages=435–514|doi=10.7227/BJRL.10.2.7 |url=https://www.escholar.manchester.ac.uk/api/datastream?publicationPid=uk-ac-man-scw:1m1200&datastreamId=POST-PEER-REVIEW-PUBLISHERS-DOCUMENT.PDF}}
* {{Cite book|last=Mooken|first=Aprem|author-link=Aprem Mooken|title=Mar Abimalek Timotheus: A Biography|year=1975|location=Trichur|publisher=Mar Narsai Press|url=https://archive.org/details/marabimalektimot0000mara}}
* {{Cite book|last=Mooken|first=Aprem|author-link=Aprem Mooken|title=The Chaldean Syrian Church in India|year=1977|location=Trichur|publisher=Mar Narsai Press|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QwkuAAAAYAAJ}}
* {{Cite book|last=Mooken|first=Aprem|author-link=Aprem Mooken|title=The Chaldean Syrian Church of the East|year=1983|location=Delhi|publisher=National Council of Churches in India|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HMoP4lsmGXoC}}
* {{Cite book|last=Mooken|first=Aprem|author-link=Aprem Mooken|title=Mar Abdisho Thondanat: A Biography|year=1987|location=Trichur|publisher=Mar Narsai Press|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6ZxKAAAAMAAJ}}
* {{Cite book|last=Moraes|first=George M.|title=A History of Christianity in India: From Early Times to St. Francis Xavier: A. D. 52-1542|year=1964|location=Bombay|publisher=Manaktalas|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dM_YAAAAMAAJ}}
* {{cite book|author1-last=Mundadan|author1-first=Anthony Mathias|author1-link=Mathias Mundadan|year=1943|title=History of Christianity in India|volume=1|location=Bangalore|publisher=Church History Association of India}}
* {{cite book|author1-last=Mundadan|author1-first=Anthony Mathias|author2-first=Joseph|author2-last=Thekkedath|author1-link=Mathias Mundadan|year=1982|title=History of Christianity in India|volume=2|location=Bangalore|publisher=Church History Association of India}}
* {{Cite book|last=Mundadan|first=Anthony Mathias|author-link=Mathias Mundadan|title=The Arrival of the Portuguese in India and the Thomas Christians Under Mar Jacob, 1498–1552|year=1967|location=Bangalore|publisher=Dharmaram College|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UqEhAAAAMAAJ}}
* {{Cite book|last=Mundadan|first=Anthony Mathias|author-link=Mathias Mundadan|title=Sixteenth century traditions of St. Thomas Christians|year=1970|location=Bangalore|publisher=Dharmaram College|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zI4hAAAAMAAJ}}
* {{Cite book|last=Mundadan|first=Anthony Mathias|author-link=Mathias Mundadan|title=Indian Christians: Search for Identity and Struggle for Autonomy|year=1984|location=Bangalore|publisher=Dharmaram College|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VdXUAAAAMAAJ}}
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* {{Cite book|last=Nedungatt|first=George|title= The Synod of Diamper Revisisted|year=2001|publisher=Pontificio Istituto Orientale|isbn=8872103312}}
* {{Cite book|last=Neill|first=Stephen|author-link=Stephen Neill |title=Colonialism and Christian Missions|year=1984|orig-year=1966 |location=New York|publisher=McGraw-Hill |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WgdLAAAAIAAJ}}
* {{Cite book|last=Neill|first=Stephen|author-link=Stephen Neill |title=A History of Christianity in India: The Beginnings to AD 1707|year=2004 |orig-year=1984|location=Cambridge |publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=9780521548854 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RH4VPgB__GQC}}
* {{Cite book|last=Neill|first=Stephen|author-link=Stephen Neill |title=A History of Christianity in India: 1707-1858|year=2002 |orig-year=1985 |location=Cambridge|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=9780521893329 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Xi-tvrYbYxMC}}
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*{{cite book|last=Palackal|first=Joseph J.|author-link=Joseph J. Palackal|chapter=The Survival Story of the Syriac Chants among the Saint Thomas Christians in South India|title=The Oxford Handbook of Music and World Christianities|editor1=Suzel Ana Reily |editor2=Jonathan M. Dueck |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2016|isbn=978-0-19-061417-1|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=T9beDAAAQBAJ&pg=PT527}}
*{{cite book|chapter=Four apologetic church histories from India|last=Perczel|first=István|author-link=István Perczel |title=The Harp |volume=24 |year=2011|publisher=Gorgias Press |isbn=9781463233136|pages=189–218|editor1=Baby Varghese |editor2=Jacob Thekeparampil|editor3=Abraham Kalakudi |editor1-link=Baby Varghese |chapter-url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/333954350}}
*{{cite book|last=Perczel|first=István|author-link=István Perczel |chapter=Some New Documents on the Struggle of the Saint Thomas Christians to Maintain the Chaldaean Rite and Jurisdiction |editor1=Peter Bruns |editor2=Heinz Otto Luthe |title=Orientalia Christiana: Festschrift für Hubert Kaufhold zum 70. Geburtstag |pages=415–436 |publisher=Harrassowitz Verlag |location=Wiesbaden |year=2013 |url=https://www.academia.edu/5266468}}
*{{cite book|last=Perczel|first=István|author-link=István Perczel |chapter=Syriac Christianity in India|title=The Syriac World |editor=Daniel King|isbn=978-1-317-48211-6|publisher=Routledge |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=e-GEDwAAQBAJ |pages=653–697 |year=2018}}
* {{cite book |last=Podipara |first=Placid J. |date=1970 |title=The Thomas Christians |place=London |publisher=Darton, Longman and Tidd}}
* {{cite book |last=Podipara |first=Placid |year=1971 |title=The Varthamanappusthakam |publisher=Pontifical Oriental Institute |isbn=978-81-2645-152-4}}
* {{cite book |last=Pothan |first=S.G. |date=1963 |title=The Syrian Christians of Kerala |place=Bombay |publisher=Asia Publishing House}}
* {{cite book |last=Prasad |first=Rajendra |year=2009 |series=History of Science, Philosophy, and Culture in Indian Civilization |title=A Historical-Developmental Study of Classical Indian Philosophy of Morals |volume=12 |issue=2 |publisher=Concept Publishing Company |location=Delhi, India |isbn=978-81-8069-595-7}}
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* {{Cite book |last=Swiderski |first=Richard M. |year=1988 |title=Blood weddings: the Knanaya Christians of Kerala |publisher=New Era Publications |oclc=614902709}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Swiderski |first1=Richard Michael |year=1988a |title=Northists and Southists: A Folklore of Kerala Christians |journal=Asian Folklore Studies |volume=47 |issue=1 |pages=76–80, 80–83 |publisher=[[Nanzan University]] |jstor=1178253 |doi=10.2307/1178253}}
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* {{cite encyclopedia |first=Hidemi |last=Takahashi|title=Diamper, Synod of |encyclopedia=Gorgias Encyclopedic Dictionary of the Syriac Heritage: Electronic Edition |editor1=Sebastian P. Brock |editor2=Aaron M. Butts |editor3=George A. Kiraz |editor4=Lucas Van Rompay |url=https://gedsh.bethmardutho.org/Diamper-Synod-of |publisher=Gorgias Press|year=2011|access-date=22 September 2016}}
* {{cite book |last=Thalian |first=George |year=1961 |url=http://geocities.ws/kandathil/kandathil/kandathil.html |title=The Great Archbishop Mar Augustine Kandathil, D. D.: the Outline of a Vocation |publisher=Mar Louis Memorial Press}}
* {{cite book |last=Thomas|first=Sonja|year=2018|title=Privileged Minorities:Syrian Christianity, Gender, and Minority Rights in Postcolonial India|publisher=University of Washington Press}}
* {{cite book |last=Tisserant |first=E. |date=1957 |title=Eastern Christianity in India: A History of the Syro-Malabar Church from the Earliest Times to the Present Day |translator=E. R. Hambye |editor=E. R. Hambye |place=Westminster, MD |publisher=Newman Press}}
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* {{Cite book|last=Vadakkekara|first=Benedict|title=Origin of Christianity in India: A Historiographical Critique|year=2007 |location=Delhi |publisher=Media House|isbn=9788174952585|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7f3YAAAAMAAJ}}
*{{Cite book|last=Van der Ploeg |first=J. P. M. |author-link=Johannes P. M. van der Ploeg|title=The Christians of St. Thomas in South India and their Syriac Manuscripts |location=Rome; Bangalore |publisher=Center for Indian and Inter-Religious Studies; Dharmaram Publications |year=1983 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pAI7AAAAMAAJ}}
*{{cite encyclopedia |first=Baby|last=Varghese|author-link=Baby Varghese|year=2011|title=Malankara Orthodox Syrian Church |encyclopedia=Gorgias Encyclopedic Dictionary of the Syriac Heritage: Electronic Edition |editor1=Sebastian P. Brock |editor2=Aaron M. Butts |editor3=George A. Kiraz |editor4=Lucas Van Rompay |url=https://gedsh.bethmardutho.org/Malankara-Orthodox-Syrian-Church |publisher=Gorgias Press|access-date=22 September 2016}}
* {{cite book |last=Vellian |first=Jacob|year=1986|title=Symposium on Knanites|series=Syrian Church Series|volume=12|publisher=Jyothi Book House |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3PIMGwAACAAJ}}
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* {{cite encyclopedia |first=Joel T. |last=Walker |title=Fars |year=2011 |encyclopedia=Gorgias Encyclopedic Dictionary of the Syriac Heritage: Electronic Edition |editor1=Sebastian P. Brock |editor2=Aaron M. Butts |editor3=George A. Kiraz |editor4=Lucas Van Rompay |url=https://gedsh.bethmardutho.org/Fars |publisher=Gorgias Press |access-date=22 September 2016}}
* {{Cite book|last=Wilmshurst|first=David|title=The Ecclesiastical Organisation of the Church of the East, 1318–1913|year=2000 |location=Louvain |publisher=Peeters Publishers|isbn=9789042908765 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jB8ir0ek8bgC}}
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* {{cite book |last=Zachariah |first=K. C. |year=2006 |title=The Syrian Christians of Kerala: Demographic and Socioeconomic Transition in the Twentieth Century |publisher=Orient Longman |location=Thiruvananthapuram |isbn=9788125030096 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7BBuAAAAMAAJ}}
{{Refend}}

===Primary sources===
* {{cite book |author=Eusebius |title=Church History |url=https://www.newadvent.org/fathers/250105.htm |translator-first=Arthur Cushman |translator-last=McGiffert |editor-first=Kevin |editor-last=Knight}}. Book V Chapter 10 "Pantaenus the Philosopher".

== Further reading ==
{{refbegin|30em}}
* {{Cite web |last=Antony |first=Martin Thomas |date=13 September 2009 |title=Catalogue of ancient Nasrani Churches, their affiliations and population statistics in the background of division and attempts of Reconciliation – A review of Literature |website=Nasranis |url=https://www.nasrani.net/2009/09/13/catalogue-of-ancient-nasrani-churches-their-affiliations-and-population-statistics-in-the-background-of-division-and-attempts-of-reconciliation/}}
* Iyer, K.V. Krishna, Kerala's Relations with the Outside World, pp.&nbsp;70, 71 in "The Cochin Synagogue Quatercentenary Celebrations Commemoration Volume", Kerala History Association, Cochin, 1971.
* {{Cite book |editor-last=Harris |editor-first=Ian C. |title=Contemporary Religions: A World Guide |year=1992 |location=Harlow |publisher=Longman |isbn=9780582086951 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4EYUAQAAIAAJ}}
* Landstrom, Bjorn (1964) "The Quest for India", Doubleday English Edition, Stockholm.
* Mariamma Joseph (1994).Marriage Among Indian Christians. Jaipur: Rawat Publications
* Mathew, N. M. ''St. Thomas Christians of Malabar Through Ages''. CSS [[Tiruvalla]]. 2003.
* Menachery, George. (2000) Kodungallur – The Cradle of Christianity in India, Thrissur: Marthoma Pontifical Shrine.
* Menachery, George (Ed.). (1982) The St. Thomas Christian Encyclopedia of India, VOL.I, Thrissur.
* Menachery, George (Ed.). (1973) The St. Thomas Christian Encyclopedia of India, VOL.II, Thrissur.
* Menachery, George (Ed.). (2010) The St. Thomas Christian Encyclopedia of India, VOL.III, Ollur, Thrissur.
* Menachery, George (Ed.with Ponnumuthan, Aerath). (2006) Indian Christians and Nation Building, CBCI-KCBC Kochi-Alwaye.
* Menachery, George (Ed.with Snaitang). (2011) India's Christian Heritage, Church History Assn. of India, Bangalore (DVK).
* Menachery, George & Chakkalakal, Werner (ed.) (1987) ''Kodungallur: City of St. Thomas'', Azhikode, 16 pp.
* Miller, J. Innes. (1969). The Spice Trade of The Roman Empire: 29&nbsp;B.C. to A.D. 641. Oxford University Press. Special edition for Sandpiper Books. 1998. {{ISBN|0-19-814264-1}}.
* Podipara, Placid J. (1970) "The Thomas Christians". London: Darton, Longman and Tidd, 1970. (is a readable and exhaustive study of the St. Thomas Christians.)
* Poomangalam C.A (1998) The Antiquities of the Knanaya Syrian Christians; Kottayam, Kerala.
* Puthur, B. (ed.) (2002):  The Life and Nature of the St Thomas Christian Church in the Pre-Diamper Period (Cochi, Kerala).
* {{cite book |last=Samuel |first=V. C. |author-link=V.C. Samuel |orig-date=February 1992 |date=August 2007 |edition=2nd |title=The Growing Church: An Introduction to Indian Church History |volume=7 |series=Divyabodhanam series |place=Kottayam |publisher=Divyabodhanam Publications |url=http://malankaraorthodox.tv/wp-content/uploads/2018/02/The-Growing-Church-Final.pdf |archive-date=2019-07-01 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190701142748/http://malankaraorthodox.tv/wp-content/uploads/2018/02/The-Growing-Church-Final.pdf}}
* Tamcke, M. (ed.) (2001):  ''Orientalische Christen zwischen Repression und Migration'' (Studien zur Orientalischen Kirchengeschichte 13; Münster:  LIT).
* Thayil, Thomas (2003). ''The Latin Christians of Kerala: A Study on Their Origin''. Kristu Jyoti Publications. {{ISBN|81-87370-18-1}}
* Tisserant, E. (1957) Eastern Christianity in India: A History of the Syro-Malabar Church from the Earliest Times to the Present Day. Trans. and ed. by E. R. Hambye. Westminster, MD: Newman Press.
* Vellian Jacob (2001) Knanite community: History and culture; Syrian church series; vol. XVII; Kottayam: Jyothi Book House.
* Veluthat, K. (1978). Brahmin settlements in Kerala: Historical studies. Calicut: Calicut University, Sandhya Publications.
* Visvanathan, Susan (1993) The Christians of Kerala: History, Belief and Ritual Among the Yakoba. New Delhi/Madras/New York: Oxford University Press
* Visvanathan, Susan (1989) "Marriage, Birth and Death-Property Rights and Domestic Relationships of the Orthodox Jacobite Syrian Christians of Kerala", Economic and Political Weekly, Vol – XXIV No. 24, 17 June 1989.
* Visvanathan, Susan (1986) "Reconstructions of the Past among the Syrian Christians of Kerala", Contributions to Indian Sociology (Sage Publishers), July 1986; vol. 20, 2: pp.&nbsp;241–260.
* Visvanathan, Susan (2010)."The Status of Christian Women in Kerala", in 'World Christianity: Critical Concepts in Religious Studies', edited by Elizabeth Koepping, London: Routledge, 2010.
* Visvanathan, Susan (2011) "The Eucharist in a Syrian Christian Church", in T.N.Madan (edited) 'India's Religions: Perspectives from Sociology and History'. New Delhi: Oxford University Press.
{{refend}}

== External links ==
{{Commons category|Saint Thomas Christians}}
* [https://www.jacobitesyrianchurch.org/ Jacobite Syrian Christian Church]
* [https://www.smcim.org/  The Syro Malabar Church]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20081001003331/http://www.niranamchurch.com/IndianOrthodoxChurch.asp Malankara Orthodox Syrian Church (Indian Orthodox Church)]
* [http://www.marthomasyrianchurch.org/ Malankara Mar Thoma Syrian Church] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100610062447/http://www.marthomasyrianchurch.org/ |date=10 June 2010 }}
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20131016110920/http://www.syrianchurch.org/MalankaraChurch/DEFAULT.HTM Population of Christians in India and Kerala based on 2001 report of Indian census]
* [https://nasrani.net/ The Nasrani Syrian Christian Network]
* [http://www.srite.de/ Project for preserving the manuscripts of the Syrian Christians of Kerala] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140828233907/http://www.srite.de/ |date=28 August 2014 }}

{{Christianity in Kerala}}
{{Syriac Christianity}}
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[[Category:Saint Thomas Christians| ]]
[[Category:Malayali people]]
[[Category:Christian ethnoreligious groups]]