View source for Saloum

{{Short description|Serer kingdom in present-day Senegal}}
{{for multi|the film|Saloum (film){{!}}''Saloum'' (film)|the river |Saloum River}}
{{Infobox country
|native_name            = Saluum
|conventional_long_name = Kingdom of Saloum
|common_name            = 
|era                    =  
|status                 = [[State (polity)|State]] from <br>c. 1494-1867<br>Currently a [[List of current non-sovereign African monarchs|non-sovereign monarchy]] within [[Senegal]]
|empire                 = 
|government_type        = [[Absolute monarchy]], then [[constitutional monarchy]] from 2017 – present
|year_start             = 
|year_end               = 
|event_start            = [[Mbegane Ndour]] defeats [[Elibana]], founds the kingdom
|date_start             = c. 1494
|event_end              = 
|date_end               = 
|event1 = Annexation into [[French West Africa]]
|date_event1 = 1867
|event2                 = 1969
|date_event2            = Death of [[Maad Saloum Fode N'Gouye Joof]], abolition of the monarchy
|event3                 = 2017
|date_event3            = Re-establishment of the monarchy
|p1                     = 
|flag_p1                = 
|s1                     = 
|flag_s1                = 
|image_flag             = 
|flag                   = 
|flag_type              = 
|image_coat             = 
|image_map              = File:Kingdom of Saloum Map.png
|image_map_caption      = Saloum ca. 1850
|capital                = [[Kahone]]
|common_languages       = 
*[[Serer language|Serer]] {{small|(early period)}}
*[[Cangin languages]] {{small|(early period)}}
*[[Wolof language|Wolof]] {{small|(late period)}}
|religion               = 
*[[Serer religion]]
*[[Islam]] {{small|(mainly practiced amongst non-Serer minorities)}}
|currency               =  
|leader1                = [[Mbegane Ndour]]
|leader2                = [[Maad Saloum Fode N'Gouye Joof|Fode N'Gouye Joof]]
|leader3                = Thierno Coumba Daga Ndao
|year_leader1           = 1494 – c. 1520
|year_leader2           = 1935–1969
|year_leader3           = 2017–present 
|title_leader           = [[Maad Saloum]]
}}

The '''Kingdom of Saloum''' ([[Serer language|Serer]]: ''Saluum'' or ''Saalum'') was a [[Serer people|Serer]] [[monarchy|kingdom]] in present-day [[Senegal]] and parts of [[Gambia]]. The precolonial capital was the city of [[Kahone]]. Re-established in 2017, Saloum is now a non-sovereign traditional monarchy within Senegal. Its history, geography and culture is intricately linked with the sister state, the [[Kingdom of Sine]], and it is common to refer to them as the [[Sine-Saloum]] or the Serer Kingdoms.

==Typonymy==
[[Serer people|Serer]] oral traditions recount that the area was named Saluum/Saloum by the [[Maad Saloum]] [[Mbegane Ndour]] in the later part of the 15th century (c. 1494),<ref name = Ba>Ba, Abdou Bouri, « Essai sur l’histoire du Saloum et du Rip  », Bulletin de l'IFAN, tome 38, série B, numéro 4, octobre 1976</ref> named after Saalum Suwareh, the [[marabout]] of Mbegan Ndour.<ref>Gamble, D. P. (1999). ''The North Bank of the Gambia: Places, People, and Population.'' United States: D.P. Gamble., p. 21</ref> Alternatively, the name 'Saluum' could mean 'land of the Luum', an important family in the region.{{sfn|Fall|2022|p=83}}

Portuguese explorers in the 15th century referred to Saloum as the kingdom of ''Borçalo'', a corruption of the Wolof 'Bor-ba-Saloum' for "King of Saloum" ([[Maad Saloum]]).<ref>Teixeira da Mota (1946: Pt. 1, p.58).  For detailed 16th-century Portuguese description of the Kingdom of Saloum, see Almada (1594: Ch.2)</ref>

==History==
[[Image:EthniesSénégal.jpg|thumb|left|''Carte des peuplades du Sénégal de l'abbé Boilat (1853)'': an ethnic map of Senegal at the time of French colonialism. The pre-colonial states of Baol, Sine and Saloum are arrayed along the southwest coast, with the inland areas marked "''Peuple Sérère''".]] 
{{further|Serer ancient history|Serer history (medieval era to present)|Timeline of Serer history}}
===Early history===
{{see|Serer ancient history|Timeline of Serer history}}
Saloum and the surrounding region is known for its many ancient burial mounds or "[[tumuli]]" (''podoom'' in [[Serer language|Serer]]) containing the graves of kings and others. The kingdom also has numerous mysterious stone circles whose function and history are still debated by scholars, most of which pre-date the formation of the kingdom.<ref name="Becker"/> The [[Serer people]] who are very diverse, are noted by scholars as one of the oldest inhabitants of the [[Senegambia region]]<ref>[[Henry Gravrand|Gravrand, Henry]], ''La Civilisation Sérère - Pangool'', Les Nouvelles éditions africaines du Sénégal, 1990, p. 77 {{ISBN|2-7236-1055-1}}</ref><ref>''Bulletin de la Société de géographie, Volume 26.'' Société de Géographie (1855), pp. 35 - 36. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=hJ9bQf7f-RoC&pg=PA35] (7 mars 2025). Quote:
:« La nation sérère, aujourd'hui dispersée en plusieurs petits États sur la côte ou refoulée dans les bois de l'intérieur, doit être une des plus anciennes de la Sénégambie ».</ref> who saw the entire region as their home.<ref>Mwakikagile, Godfrey, "Ethnic Diversity and Integration in the Gambia: The Land, the People and the Culture", (2010), p. 97, {{ISBN|9987932223}}</ref><ref>Mwakikagile, Godfrey, "The Gambia and Its People: Ethnic Identities and Cultural Integration in Africa", (2010), p. 11, {{ISBN|9987160239}}</ref> In the 11th century, the Serers of [[Takrur]] [[Religious persecution#Persecution of Serers|were persecuted for their]] [[Serer religion|Serer religious beliefs]] by the new Muslim convert and usurper, king [[War Jabi]] and his Muslim ally forces - resulting in the [[Takrur#Serer Exodus|Serer exodus from Takrur]]. Those Serers headed south including Saloum - joining their distant Serer relatives. For more on that, see [[Serer medieval history]].<ref>Chavane, Bruno A., "Villages de l’ancien Tekrour", Vol. 2, Hommes et sociétés. Archéologies africaines, KARTHALA Editions (1985), p. 38, {{ISBN|2-86537-143-3}}</ref><ref>Mwakikagile, Godfrey, "Ethnic Diversity and Integration in The Gambia: The Land, The People and The Culture," (2010), p. 11, {{ISBN|9987-9322-2-3}}</ref><ref>Diop, Abdoulaye Bara, "Le tenure foncière en milieu rural Wolof (Sénégal): Historique et actualité." Notes Africaines, no. 118, (April 1968), IFAN, Dakar, pp. 48–52 </ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Thiaw |first1=Ibrahima |editor1-last=Bosma |editor1-first=Ulbe |editor2-last=Kessler |editor2-first=Gijs |editor3-last=Lucassen |editor3-first=Leo |title=Migration and Membership Regimes in Global and Historical Perspective: An Introduction Studies in Global Migration History |date=2013 |publisher=Brill |isbn=978-9004241831 |chapter=From the Senegal River to Siin: The Archaeology of Sereer Migrations in North-Western Senegambia.}}</ref>

Fall has advanced the claim that, the first inhabitants of the region, according to oral tradition{{which|date=March 2025}}, were a [[Mande people]] who immigrated from the [[Wagadu Empire]] to flee a drought, likely towards the end of the first millennium CE.{{sfn|Fall|2022|p=144-5}} The princess of Wagadou would marry into the Serer noble families such as the Joof, Njie, etc., giving birth to a Wagadou maternal dynasty in much of Serer country.  For more on that, see [[Joof family]], [[Teigne]], and [[Serer maternal clans]].

Before [[Maad Saloum ]] [[Mbegan Ndour]], Saloum existed in some form, but it is unclear what form it took.{{sfn|Boulegue|2013|p=161}} The area was composed a series of chiefdoms and independent villages, many of which led by Serer [[Lamane]]s and/or part of the [[Jolof Empire]]'s sphere of influence.{{sfn|Boulegue|2013|p=158}}{{sfn|Fall|2022|p=221}} The core of what would become the Kingdom of Saloum was a Lamanic state called Mbey, with the capital at [[Njop]].<ref>Diouf, Niokhobaye, "Chronique du royaume du Sine", Suivie de notes sur les traditions orales et les sources écrites concernant le royaume du Sine par Charles Becker et Victor Martin. (1972). Bulletin de l'Ifan, Tome 34, Série B, n° 4, (1972), p 707 (p 5)</ref><ref name = Ba/>{{sfn|Fall|2022|p=288}} The king/chief of Mbey using the Serer noble title '' [[Maad]]'' -referred to as ''Maada Mbey/Maad a Mbey'' (as in [[Maad a Sinig]] and [[Maad Saloum]], titles of the kings of Sine and Saloum respectively).

===Founding===
{{See|Serer medieval history|Mbegane Ndour|Maad Saloum}}
[[File:Apartment of the King of Salum.jpg|thumb|upright|left|Apartment of the [[Maad Saloum]] (king of Saloum) in 1821.]]

In the late 15th century, Ali Elibana, a [[Toucouleur people|Toucouleur]] [[marabout]], established himself at [[Njop]] and took control of the surrounding salt-producing region, Mbey, mostly populated by the Serer.{{sfn|Boulegue|2013|p=161}}{{sfn|Sakho|2021|p=112}} This was a period of profound destabilization and succession disputes in the Jolof Empire, which had extended its hegemony south to the [[Gambia river]] under [[Biram Njeme Eler]] (c.1465–c.1481). While the southern and eastern parts of the region that became Saloum were under the influence of Jolof, Saloum the kingdom was never a part of the empire.{{sfn|Fall|2022|p=221}}

[[Mbegane Ndour]], whose paternal roots were in the region, came to Mbey from Sine likely with the intention of carving out a kingdom for himself.{{sfn|Fall|2022|p=243}} Around the turn of the 16th century, he launched a religious conflict against the Muslim Elibana, strengthened by the purchase of horses and guns from European merchants on the coast. In the legend, after proving unable to overcome him on the battlefield, Ndour transformed into a snake and hid outside Elibana's mosque; when the marabout emerged from his prayers, the snake bit him, and he died. He then fought and defeated Diattara Tambedou, who was either Elibana's successor or a former ally of Ndour's. Tambedou, a Muslim [[Soninke people|Soninke]], was likely a salt merchant. Control over this vital resource underpinned the conflict as much or more than religious differences.{{sfn|Boulegue|2013|p=158-9}}{{sfn|Sakho|2021|p=112-3}}

Ndour renamed Njop [[Kahone]], meaning 'this is the one' in Serer, and made it the capital of a kingdom modeled on his homeland, Sine.{{sfn|Boulegue|2013|p=159}}{{sfn|Sakho|2021|p=113}}{{sfn|Fall|2022}} He built up his power by allying with the various smaller powers of the region, including Serer Lamanes, [[Soninke people|Soninke]] or Toucouleur marabouts, and local village chiefs, but he only directly controlled Mbey.{{sfn|Fall|2022|p=260-1}} At some point, he may have served as regent to the underage [[Maad a Sinig]] (King of the [[Kingdom of Sine]]).{{sfn|Fall|2022|p=243}}

===Height===
After Mbegane Ndour's death he was succeeded by Giran O Ngap, a [[Guelwar]], but his reign was consumed by civil conflict first with local marabouts and finally with Ndour's nephew Latmenge Dielene, who poisoned him and took power. Rather than relying on a balance of alliances like his uncle had done, Latmenge Dielene built a military powerful state with clearly defined provinces run by families loyal to the Maad Saloum. He fought numerous wars to build up the power of the ruling aristocracy and impose central power and tribute on previously independent villages or statelets, including the kingdom of [[Niumi]].{{sfn|Fall|2022|p=291-4}}

By 1566, the process of unification and centralization was completed under [[Maad Saloum]] Lat Ciloor Bajaan, who extended Saloum's power to the north bank of the Gambia and made the [[Kingdom of Niani]] pay tribute.{{sfn|Fall|2022|p=305-314}} [[Upper Saloum|Two]] [[Lower Saloum|districts]] of [[The Gambia]] retain the name Saloum today. A major part of this expansion process was the welcoming of immigrant families fleeing conflict elsewhere in the region, granting them fiefs either to extend control over uninhabited areas or ensure the loyalty of conquered regions. At its height, four major trading ports on the Gambia river fell within Saloum's zone of influence: [[Barra, Gambia|Barra]] in [[Niumi]], Iambor in [[Upper Baddibu|Baddibu]], [[Kaur, The Gambia|Kaur]] in Saloum itself, and [[Kassang]] in Niani.{{sfn|Fall|2022|p=319}}

The most important offices of the state were monopolized by members of the [[Guelwar]] clan. But the multiplication of titles and the importance of trade on the Gambia gradually undermined central control.{{sfn|Fall|2022|p=356-7}}

===Clashes with Colonialism and Islam===
{{Serer religion}}
As one of the wealthiest and most stable states in the region, the Maad Saloum was able to play [[France]] and [[England]] off of each other for centuries to ensure the best terms of trade. In 1785 Saalum Sandene signed a trade treaty with the French, but the upheavals of the [[French Revolution]] and the [[Napoleonic Era]] ensured continued English dominance of the important Saloum-Saloum market. The end of the [[Atlantic slave trade]] saw the kingdom's foreign trade limited mostly to foodstuffs, which further increased the power of landowners relative to the monarchy, and pushed the ''[[ceddo]]'' (denoting followers of [[Serer religion]] in this context) warrior class to increasingly prey on their subjects.{{sfn|Fall|2022|p=397-402}} 

In 1857 the French trading post at [[Albreda]] on the Gambia was given to the English in exchange for [[Portendick]], and Saloum was left unable to balance the two colonial powers against each other. Two years later, Governor [[Louis Faidherbe]] led an expedition up the [[Saloum river]] and imposed a new treaty on the Maad Saloum.{{sfn|Fall|2022|p=403}} 

In 1861, Maba Diakhou Bâ, a Muslim cleric and slave trader,{{sfn|Klein|1968|pp=73}} took control of Badibbu, also known as Rip, on Saloum's southern edge. Shortly afterwards, Sambou Oumanneh Touray,  Maba disciple defeated and killed the Fara Sabakh and Fara Sandial, joined the two countries together (hence : ''Sabakh-Sandial'') and ruled it.<ref name = Ba/>{{rp|18}}{{sfn|Klein|1968|pp=74-5}} Maba soon controlled most of Saloum and part of [[Kingdom of Niumi|Niumi]].{{sfn|Charles|1977|pp=54}} His forces clashed with the French and, despite a defeat, continued to attract new recruits, with the army numbering up to 11,000 fighting men. In 1864 the French recognized him as [[Almamy]] of Baddibu and Saloum, but his growing power threatened to unify Senegambia against them.<ref name="Isichei">{{cite book |last1=Isichei |first1=Elizabeth |title=History of West Africa since 1800 |date=1977 |publisher=Africana Publishing Company |location=New York |page=51 |url=https://archive.org/details/historyofwestafrOOOOisic |access-date=31 May 2023}}</ref> An alarmed French governor [[Émile Pinet-Laprade]] marched on Saloum at the head of 1,600 regulars, 2,000 cavalry, and 4,000 volunteers and footsoldiers. At the [[Battle of Pathé Badiane]] outside of Nioro, however, the marabout forces led by [[Lat Dior]] drove the French back towards [[Kaolack]].{{sfn|Barry|1998|pp=199}}

As well as forcibly converting traditional states and their populations to [[Islam]], Maba Diakhou Bâ sought to abolish the traditional caste system of the [[Serer people|Serer]] states.<ref name = Isichei/> In 1867, aided by the kings of Cayor and Jolof with their respective armies, he tried to invaded the ultra-conservative Serer [[Kingdom of Sine]], but was defeated and killed at the [[Battle of Fandane-Thiouthioune]].{{sfn|Barry|1998|pp=199}} The Kingdom of Saloum, was the only Senegambian kingdom that came to the aid of its sister Serer kingdom against the Muslim ally forces in that battle. 

After Maba's defeat, Saloum was incorporated into the colony of [[Senegal]]. The kings continued to hold their court in [[Kahone]], but the city was eclipsed commercially by neighboring [[Kaolack]]. However, like the Kingdom of Sine, the royal dynasty survived up to 1969, when the last [[Maad Saloum|King of Saloum]] [[Fode N'Gouye Joof]], and the last [[Maad a Sinig|King of Sine]] [[Maad a Sinig Mahecor Joof]] died. After their deaths, both were incorporated into newly independent Senegal.

===Restoration of the Monarchy===
In 2017, the Serer of Saloum decided to reinstate their monarchy, and Thierno Coumba Daga Ndao was selected from the Guelowar matrilineage to succeed the throne. After a contentious election, he was crowned King on 21 May 2017 at Kahone.<ref>Leral.net, "Guédel Mbodj et Thierno Ndaw intronisés: Un Saloum, deux Buur." (23 May  2017) [https://www.leral.net/Guedel-Mbodj-et-Thierno-Ndaw-intronises-Un-Saloum-deux-Buur_a201750.html] (retrieved 12 April 2017)</ref> He is the current King of Saloum as of 2024, and the maternal uncle of the current King of Sine, Niokhobaye Fatou Diène Diouf,<ref name="Xibaaru - King of Sine Niokhobaye">Xibaaru, "Situation politique les chefs coutumiers banissent la violence." (24 February 2023) [https://www.xibaaru.sn/situation-politique-les-chefs-coutumiers-banissent-la-violence/] (retrieved 12 April 2024)</ref> from [[the Royal House of Semou Njekeh Joof]].

==People and Society==
The core of the Kingdom of Saloum is populated mostly by the [[Serer people|Serer]], but gradually the [[Wolof people|Wolof]] immigrants have settled in along with the [[Fulas]], [[Mandinkas]], etc.<ref name = "D">{{cite journal |last1=Diagne |first1=Pathe |title=Royaumes Seréres: Les Institutions Traditionnelles Du Sine Saloum |journal=Présence Africaine |date=1965 |volume=54 |issue=54 |pages=142–72 |jstor=24348677 |url= http://www.jstor.org/stable/24348677 |access-date=8 January 2025}}</ref>{{sfn|Klein|1968|pp=7}}<ref name="Becker"/> Unlike the Kingdom of Sine which is more deeply rooted in "Serer-[[conservatism]]", such as the preservation of [[Serer religion]], culture, traditions, etc.,<ref name="D"/>{{sfn|Klein|1968|pp=7}} Saloum is more [[Cosmopolitanism|cosmopolitan]] and multi-religious. This explains why some Serer traditionalists who adhere to the tenets of Serer religion are reluctant to afford it the same religious status afforded to Sine as one of the [[:Category:Serer holy places|sacred Serer holy sites]], in spite of housing many of the Serer sites (see [[Serer ancient history]]).<ref name="Becker">Becker, Charles: "Vestiges historiques, trémoins matériels du passé clans les pays sereer". Dakar. 1993. CNRS - ORS TO M</ref> 

The [[Serer language]] and [[Wolof language|Wolof]] are both widely spoken in Saloum. The [[Cangin languages]] are also spoken.

== Economy ==
Saloum includes flat, swampy tideland areas inland from the [[Saloum River]] [[river delta|delta]], which allowed for a flourishing industry of [[salt]]-manufacture. The kingdom exported this highly valuable resource regionally, with Kahone as a major trade center. The ''coubal'' was a tax in kind on salt levied by the Maad Saloum. He exercised a monopoly on salt sales, and production was restricted to women to prevent rival princes from using the saltpans as a revenue source with which they could challenge the king.{{sfn|Sakho|2021|p=115}} Control of Gambia river ports allowed the export of salt east towards the [[Mali Empire]].{{sfn|Sakho|2021|p=116}} The Saloum river delta was also a major center for the harvesting, preserving, and export of fish, oysters, and shellfish. [[Niominka people|Niominka]] traders went up and down the coast, and later Europeans and [[Lançados]] traded in the many creeks and inlets.{{sfn|Fall|2022|p=368}} 

The economic base in the 19th and 20th centuries shifted to [[peanut|groundnut]] cultivation and trade, exporting large quantities of nuts to Europe.<ref>{{cite book |author=Clark, Andrew F. and Lucie Colvin Phillip |title=Historical Dictionary of Senegal: Second Edition |location=Metuchen, New Jersey |publisher=The Scarecrow Press |date=1994 |page=232}}</ref>

{{Serer titles}}
==Government==
The main provinces of Saloum were: Mbey, where the Maad Saloum ruled directly; Joñik centered around [[Djilor Arrondissement|Djilor]]; Siñi north of Kahone, ruled by the ''Bar Ngay'' descended from the [[Ndiaye dynasty]] of Jolof;{{sfn|Fall|2022|p=340-1}} Ndukumaan east of Siñi ruled by the Ndao family, formerly the rulers of [[Namandirou]];{{sfn|Fall|2022|p=192-4}} Kajmoor and Mandaax along the Gambia river, also ruled by Ndiayes;{{sfn|Fall|2022|p=352}} among other, smaller territories, sometimes ruled by marabouts. The ruling class were ethnically and culturally Serer, part of the [[Guelowar]] clan, and were known as ''[[ceddo]]'' who often exploited and raided the population.{{sfn|Fall|2022|p=342}} Vassals included, at various times, Badibu, [[Kingdom of Niani|Niani]], [[Niumi]], Sabakh, and Sandial. The powers and prerogatives of local subordinate rulers varied.

The great ''[[Jaraaf]]'' was the head of the council that elected the Maad Saloum, also known as the ''Buur'' in Wolof, and would rule the nation in the event of his death until his successor had been enthroned.{{sfn|Fall|2022|p=342}} ''Buur''-administrators served as governors of villages and provinces on behalf of the king, assisted by ''Farba'' who were in charge of enforcing laws and dispensing justice.{{sfn|Fall|2022|p=344}} 

{{Portal|Senegal|Gambia|Mauritania
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== Notes ==
{{reflist}}

== Sources ==
*Almada, André Alvares (1594) ''Tratado breve dos Rios de Guiné do Cabo-Verde: desde o Rio do Sanagá até aos baixos de Sant' Anna'' 1841 edition, Porto: Typographia Commercial Portuense. [https://books.google.com/books?id=nssNAAAAQAAJ&pg=PP5 online]
* Ba, Abdou Bouri. ''"Essai sur l’histoire du Saloum et du Rip"''(avant-propos par Charles Becker and Victor Martin), ''Bulletin de l'IFAN'', vol. 38, série B, number 4, October 1976.
*{{cite book |last1=Barry |first1=Boubacar |title=Senegambia and the Atlantic slave trade |date=1998 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |location=Cambridge, UK}}
* Becker, Charles. ''Vestiges historiques, trémoins matériels du passé clans les pays sereer''. Dakar. 1993. CNRS - ORS TO M.
*{{cite book |last1=Boulegue |first1=Jean |title=Les royaumes wolof dans l'espace sénégambien (XIIIe-XVIIIe siècle) |date=2013 |publisher=Karthala Editions |location=Paris |language=French}}
*{{cite book |last1=Charles |first1=Eunice A. |title=Precolonial Senegal : the Jolof Kingdom, 1800-1890 |date=1977 |publisher=African Studies Center, Boston University |location=Brookline, MA |url=https://archive.org/details/precolonialseneg00char/page/n15/mode/2up |access-date=15 July 2023}}
*Clark, Andrew F. and Lucie Colvin Phillips, ''Historical Dictionary of Senegal'', Second Edition Published as No. 65 of African Historical Dictionaries, (Metuchen, New Jersey: The Scarecrow Press, 1994) 
*Diouf, Niokhobaye, "Chronique du royaume du Sine", Suivie de notes sur les traditions orales et les sources écrites concernant le royaume du Sine par Charles Becker et Victor Martin. (1972). Bulletin de l'Ifan, Tome 34, Série B, n° 4, (1972), p 707 (p 5)
*{{cite book |last1=Fall |first1=Rokhaya |title=Un espace de rencontre en Sénégambie : le Saalum (XVIe – XIXe siècle) |date=2022 |publisher=Harmattan}}
* [[Henry Gravrand|Gravrand, Henry]]. ''"La civilisation sereer, I. Coosan"''. Dakar, Nouvelles Editions Africaines (1983).
*{{cite book |last1=Klein |first1=Martin |title=Islam and Imperialism in Senegal Sine-Saloum, 1847–1914 |date=1968 |publisher=Edinburgh University Press|isbn=0-85224-029-5 }} 
*Teixera da Mota, Avelino (1946) "A descoberta da Guiné", ''Boletim cultural da Guiné Portuguesa'', P. 1 in Vol. 1, No. 1 (Jan), p.&nbsp;11-68.
*{{cite book |last1=Sakho |first1=Oumar Malle |editor1-last=Fall |editor1-first=Mamadou |editor2-last=Fall |editor2-first=Rokhaya |editor3-last=Mane |editor3-first=Mamadou |title=Bipolarisation du Senegal du XVIe - XVIIe siecle |date=2021 |publisher=HGS Editions |location=Dakar |pages=101–117 |language=French |chapter=Le sel dans la formation de l'espace du Saloum: XVIeme=XVII siecle}}
* [[Alioune Sarr|Sarr, Alioune]]. ''"Histoire du Sine-Saloum"'', Introduction, bibliographie et Notes par Charles Becker. ''BIFAN''. vol. 46, Serie B, number 3–4, 1986–1987.


{{Sahelian kingdoms}}
{{Serer topics|state=collapsed}}

[[Category:Countries in medieval Africa]]
[[Category:Kingdoms of Senegal]]
[[Category:Countries in precolonial Africa]]
[[Category:Serer history]]
[[Category:Serer country]]
[[Category:Serer precolonial kingdoms]]
[[Category:Sahelian kingdoms]]
[[Category:States and territories established in 1494]]
[[Category:States and territories disestablished in 1969]]
[[Category:Precolonial kingdoms of the Gambia]]
[[Category:Jolof Empire]]