View source for Salween River

{{Use dmy dates|date=June 2023}}
{{short description|Major river in Southeast Asia}}
{{Redirect|Salween|other uses|Salween (disambiguation)}}
{{Infobox river
| name = Salween
| native_name = {{native name list |tag1=bo |name1=རྒྱལ་མོ་རྔུལ་ཆུ། |tag2=bo-Latn |name2=Gyalmo Ngulchu |tag3=kjp |name3=ကၟံင့်ယှောတ်ခၠေါဟ် |tag4=nun |name4=Anung remai |tag5=ksw |name5=ဃိၣ်လီၤကျိ |tag6=mnw |name6=သာန်လာန် [sɑːn lɑːn] |tag7=blk |name7=ခြုံꩻ [kʰrum˨]
|tag8=shn |name8=ၼမ်ႉၶူင်း}}
| native_name_lang = 
| name_other = [[Burmese language|Burmese]]: {{lang|my|သံလွင်}}, ''Thanlwin'' ({{IPA|my|θàɰ̃lwɪ̀ɰ̃ mjɪʔ|IPA}}<br />[[Nung language (Sino-Tibetan)|A Nuŋ]]: {{lang|nun|Anung remai}}<br />{{zh|c=怒江|p=Nù Jiāng}}<br />{{langx|th|แม่น้ำสาละวิน}}, ''Mae Nam Salawin'' ({{IPA|th|mɛ̂ː náːm sǎːləwin|IPA}}
| name_etymology = <!---------------------- IMAGE & MAP -->
| image = Sweet_View_of_Salween_River_in_Tang_Yan_Township,_Shan_State,_Myanmar.jpg
| image_size = 
| image_caption = Salween River in [[Shan State]], Myanmar
| map = Salween river basin map.png
| map_size = 
| map_caption = Map of the Salween River basin
| pushpin_map = 
| pushpin_map_size = 
| pushpin_map_caption = 
| mapframe = yes
| mapframe-zoom = 3
<!---------------------- LOCATION -->| subdivision_type1 = Country
| subdivision_name1 = [[China]], [[Myanmar]], [[Thailand]]
| subdivision_type2 = [[Provinces of China|Provinces]] (PRC)
| subdivision_name2 = [[Tibet Autonomous Region]], [[Yunnan]]
| subdivision_type3 = [[Administrative divisions of Myanmar|States]] (Myanmar)
| subdivision_name3 = [[Shan State|Shan]], [[Kayah State|Karenni (Kayah)]], [[Kayin State|Karen (Kayin)]], [[Mon State|Mon]]
| subdivision_type4 = [[Provinces of Thailand|Province]] (Thailand)
| subdivision_name4 = [[Mae Hong Son Province|Mae Hong Son]]
<!---------------------- PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS -->| length = {{cvt|3,289|km|mi|abbr=on}}<ref name="hydrosheds">Lehner, B., Verdin, K., Jarvis, A. (2008): [https://hydrosheds.org/page/overview New global hydrography derived from spaceborne elevation data]. Eos, Transactions, AGU, 89(10): 93–94.</ref>
| width_min = 
| width_avg = 
| width_max = 
| depth_min = 
| depth_avg = 
| depth_max = 
| discharge1_location = Salween Delta
| discharge1_min = {{cvt|2,300|m3/s|cuft/s|abbr=on}}<ref name="Myanmar: Third GMS Corridor Town Development Project">{{cite web|url=https://www.adb.org/sites/default/files/project-documents/48175/48175-002-iee-en_3.pdf|title=Myanmar: Third GMS Corridor Town Development Project|year=2017}}</ref>
| discharge1_avg = {{cvt|6,600|m3/s|km3/year|abbr=on}}<ref name="Baronas"/><ref name="Bilin">{{cite web|url=https://www.riversnetwork.org/MAPS/SOUTH%20ASIA/SITTANG_BILIN/index.html|title=Bilin}}</ref><ref name="Salween (Nu river)">{{cite web|url=https://www.riversnetwork.org/V1/index.php/component/content/?view=article&id=113&catid=282&Itemid=179|title=Salween (Nu river)}}</ref> {{cvt|211|km3/year|m3/s|abbr=on}}<ref name="Changes in Indian Summer Monsoon Using Neodymium (Nd) Isotopes in the Andaman Sea During the Last 24,000 years">{{cite journal|url=https://www.prl.res.in/~sunil/22__TripathiGR,%20SIngh%20SK%20Sr-Nd%20isotopes.pdf|title=Changes in Indian Summer Monsoon Using Neodymium (Nd) Isotopes in the Andaman Sea During the Last 24,000 years|last1=Harunur|first1=Rashid|last2=Alexandra|first2=T. Gourlan|last3=Brittany|first3=Marche
|last4=Kaylyn|first4=Sheppard|last5=Nabil|first5=Khélif|journal=Earth Systems and Environment |year=2019|volume=3 |issue=2 |page=105 |doi=10.1007/s41748-019-00105-0 |bibcode=2019ESE.....3..105R |s2cid=198422435 }}</ref>
| discharge1_max = {{cvt|32,600|m3/s|cuft/s|abbr=on}}<ref name="Myanmar: Third GMS Corridor Town Development Project"/>
| discharge2_location = [[Mawlamyine]] ([[Mawlamyine|Moulmein]])
| discharge2_avg = (Period: 1971–2000){{cvt|6,391.9|m3/s|cuft/s|abbr=on}}<ref name="Salween (Nu river)"/>
| discharge3_location = [[Mottama]]
| discharge3_avg = (Period: 1971–2000){{cvt|5,217.5|m3/s|cuft/s|abbr=on}}<ref name="Salween (Nu river)"/>
| discharge4_location = [[Hpa-an]]
| discharge4_min = {{cvt|1,743|m3/s|cuft/s|abbr=on}}<ref name="CHAPTER 5 NATURAL CONDITION SURVEYS">{{cite book|url=https://openjicareport.jica.go.jp/pdf/12269858_02.pdf|title=CHAPTER 5 NATURAL CONDITION SURVEYS}}</ref>
| discharge4_avg = (Period: 1966–2009){{cvt|169|km3/year|m3/s|abbr=on}}<ref name="River Health in the Salween"/>
(Period: 2009–2013){{cvt|5,280|m3/s|cuft/s|abbr=on}}<ref name="CHAPTER 5 NATURAL CONDITION SURVEYS"/>
| discharge4_max = {{cvt|17,080|m3/s|cuft/s|abbr=on}}<ref name="CHAPTER 5 NATURAL CONDITION SURVEYS"/>
| discharge5_location = [[Lushui]], [[Nujiang Lisu Autonomous Prefecture]]
| discharge5_avg = (Period: 1971–2000){{cvt|1,437|m3/s|cuft/s|abbr=on}}<ref name="Salween (Nu river)"/>
<!---------------------- BASIN FEATURES -->| source1 = [[Tanggula Mountains]]
| source1_location = [[Nagqu]], [[Tibet Autonomous Region|Tibet]], [[China]]
| source1_coordinates = {{coord|32|43|47|N|92|13|58|E|display=inline}}<ref name="sciencenet"/>
| source1_elevation = {{cvt|5,432|m|abbr=on}}<ref name="sciencenet"/>
| mouth = [[Andaman Sea]]
| mouth_location = [[Mawlamyaing]], [[Myanmar]]
| mouth_coordinates = {{coord|16|11|39|N|97|35|00|E|display=inline,title}}
| mouth_elevation = {{cvt|0|m|abbr=on}}
| progression = [[Andaman Sea]]
| river_system = Salween River
| basin_size = {{cvt|283,500|km2|mi2|abbr=on}}<ref name="River Health in the Salween"/>
| tributaries_left = Suo, Ga, [[Hka River|Hka]], [[Hsim River|Hsim]], [[Pai River|Pai]], [[Moei River|Moei]], [[Gyaing River|Gyaing]], [[Ataran River|Ataran]]
| tributaries_right = [[Ba River (Salween River)|Ba]], Leng, [[Pang River|Pang]], [[Teng River|Teng]], [[Pawn River|Pawn]], Donthami
| custom_label = 
| custom_data = 
| extra = 
}}

The '''Salween''' is a [[Southeast Asia]]n river, about {{cvt|3,289|km|mi|abbr=on}} long,<ref name="hydrosheds"/> flowing from the [[Tibetan Plateau]] south into the [[Andaman Sea]]. The Salween flows primarily within southwest [[China]] and eastern [[Myanmar]], with a short section forming the border of Myanmar and [[Thailand]]. Throughout most of its course, it runs swiftly through rugged mountain canyons. Despite the river's great length, only the last {{cvt|90|km|mi|abbr=on}} are navigable, where it forms a modest estuary and delta at [[Mawlamyine]]. The river is known by various names along its course, including the '''Thanlwin''' (named after ''[[Elaeocarpus]]'' sp., an olive-like plant that grows on its banks<ref>{{Cite book |last=Mason |first=Francis |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bg8YAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA213 |title=Tenasserim: Or Notes on the Fauna, Flora, Minerals, and Nations of British Burmah and Pegu |publisher=American Mission Press |year=1851 |location=Maulmain |page=213}}</ref>) in Myanmar and the '''Nu Jiang''' (or Nu River, named after [[Nu people]]) in China. The commonly used spelling "Salween" is an [[anglicisation]] of the Burmese name dating from 19th-century British maps.

Due to its great range of elevation and latitude coupled with geographic isolation, the Salween basin is considered one of the most ecologically diverse regions in the world, containing an estimated 25&nbsp;percent of the world's terrestrial animal species and thousands of plant species{{Citation needed|date=September 2023}}. Along its course the Salween provides water for agriculture and supports abundant fisheries, especially in the delta region. The Salween basin is home to numerous ethnic minority groups, whose ancestors largely originated in the Tibetan Plateau and northwest China. Starting about 5,000 years ago, people began migrating south along the river, establishing small kingdoms and [[city-state]]s.

During the last 1,000 years, the Salween has defined various frontiers of the [[History of Myanmar|Burmese empire]]s to the west, the [[Kingdom of Siam (disambiguation)|Kingdom of Siam]]<!--intentional link to DAB page--> to the south, and [[Imperial China]] to the east, with the [[Shan States]] along the middle Salween being a frequently contested area. In the 19th century, the [[British Empire]] invaded Burma with [[Mawlamyine]] serving as the colonial capital for many decades. Since Burmese independence in 1948, the Salween basin has been a battleground for several fronts of the [[Myanmar civil war (2021–present)|Myanmar civil war]], with large areas in [[Shan State]] and Karen State ([[Kayin State]]) contested between the Myanmar military and local ethnic militias.

The Salween is one of the least fragmented large river systems in Asia, with only a few small dams in the headwaters of the river and on tributaries. The river has extremely high [[Hydroelectricity|hydropower]] potential, with a fall of more than {{cvt|5000|m|ft}} from its source. Since the 1970s, the Myanmar and Thai governments have sought to build massive hydroelectric dams along the river. China also planned to dam the upper Salween, but in 2016 these plans were dropped in favor of establishing a national park. The future of dam projects in Myanmar and Thailand remains uncertain.

==Geography and naming==
The Salween basin includes about {{cvt|283,500|km2|mi2|abbr=on}}, of which 48&nbsp;percent is in China, 44&nbsp;percent in Myanmar, and 8&nbsp;percent in Thailand.<ref name="River Health in the Salween">{{cite book|last1=Robyn|first1=Johnston|last2=Matthew|first2=McCartney|last3=Shaoyu|first3=Liu|last4=Tarek|first4=Ketelsen|last5=Luke|first5=Taylor|last6=Mai|first6=Ky Vinh|last7=Mehm|first7=Ko Ko Gyi|last8=Theiant|first8=Auny|last9=Khin|first9=Me Ma Gyi|url=https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/132697837.pdf|year=2017|title=River Health in the Salween}}</ref><ref name="FAO"/> The basin is extremely long and narrow, situated between the [[Irrawaddy River|Irrawaddy]] and [[Brahmaputra River|Brahmaputra]] river systems on the west and the [[Mekong]] system on the east, and sharing a shorter boundary with the [[Yangtze]] system to the north.<ref name="FAO"/> With a mean elevation of {{cvt|3,515|m|ft}}, the Salween basin includes numerous glaciated mountain ranges, and the river flows for much of its length at high elevation.<ref name="Baronas"/> In China, the Salween basin is situated in [[Tibet Autonomous Region]] and [[Yunnan]]. In Myanmar the Salween flows through [[Shan State]], [[Karenni State]], [[Karen State]] and [[Mon State]]. In Thailand the Salween borders only on [[Mae Hong Son Province]], with tributaries extending into [[Chiang Mai Province|Chiang Mai]], [[Tak Province|Tak]] and [[Kanchanaburi Province]].{{citation needed|date=February 2021}}

The average flow rate at the China–Myanmar border is {{cvt|68.74|km3/year|m3/s|abbr=on}}.<ref name="FAO"/>
Along the Myanmar–Thailand border the Salween carries an average annual flow of {{cvt|200|km3/year|m3/s|abbr=on}}.<ref name="FAO"/> The estimated flow rate at the mouth is {{cvt|6,600|m3/s|cuft/s|abbr=on}}.<ref name="Baronas">{{cite journal|last1=Baronas|first1=J. Jotautas|last2=Stevenson|first2=Emily I.|last3=Hackney|first3=Christopher R.|last4=Darby|first4=Stephen E.|last5=Bickle|first5=Michael J.|last6=Hilton|first6=Robert G.|last7=Larkin|first7=Christina S.|last8=Parsons|first8=Daniel R.|last9=Myo Khaing|first9=Aung|last10=Tipper|first10=Edward T.|title=Integrating Suspended Sediment Flux in Large Alluvial River Channels: Application of a Synoptic Rouse-Based Model to the Irrawaddy and Salween Rivers|journal=Journal of Geophysical Research: Earth Surface|volume=125|issue=9|year=2020|article-number=e2020JF005554 |issn=2169-9003|doi=10.1029/2020JF005554|bibcode=2020JGRF..12505554B|doi-access=free}}</ref> About 89&nbsp;percent of the annual flow occurs in the [[monsoon]] season (mid-May through November), and only 11&nbsp;percent in the remainder of the year.<ref name="MyanmarHydropower"/>

The average volume of sediment in the Salween Delta is around 180 million tonnes per year.<ref name="BASELINE ASSESSMENT REPORT GEOMORPHIC AND SEDIMENT TRANSPORT">{{cite web|url=https://www.ifc.org/content/dam/ifc/doc/mgrt/chapter-3-sea-baseline-assessment-geomorphology-and-sediment-transport.pdf|title=BASELINE ASSESSMENT REPORT GEOMORPHIC AND SEDIMENT TRANSPORT}}</ref>

The population of the Salween basin is estimated at 24 million, or 76 persons/km<sup>2</sup>. About 10 million people live adjacent or close to the river proper. People of the Salween basin represent a large diversity of ethnic groups. In China, the Salween basin is home to [[Blang people|Blang]], [[Derung people|Derung]], [[Lisu people|Lisu]], [[Nu people|Nu]], [[Palaung people|Palaung]] (De'ang), [[Shan people|Shan]], [[Tibetan people|Tibetan]] and [[Wa people|Wa]]. In Myanmar, the major ethnic groups include [[Akha people|Akha]], [[Lahu people|Lahu]], Lisu, [[Hmong people|Hmong]], [[Kachin people|Kachin]], [[Karen people|Karen]], [[Karenni people|Karenni]], [[Kokang people|Kokang]], [[Pa'O people|Pa'O]], Shan and [[Yao people|Yao]].<ref name="Johnston"/> The highest population densities are in Mon State (300 people/km<sup>2</sup>) and Yunnan (100 people/km<sup>2</sup>), while the lowest population density is in Tibet (5 people/km<sup>2</sup>).<ref name="MyanmarHydropower"/>

===Upper Salween (China)===
[[Image:Nujiang river Bingzhongluo 1.jpg|thumb|upright|Salween River near Bingzhongluo, Yunnan]]
The Salween originates in the [[Tanggula Mountains]] in the central Tibetan Plateau. The headwaters are located near Dengka Peak, east of [[Tanggula Pass]].{{sfn|Björnsson|Oerlemans|Shroder|Tranter|2011|page=1174}} The highest source is Jiangmeiergang Galou glacier, {{cvt|5432|m|ft|abbr=on}} above sea level.<ref name="sciencenet">{{cite web|url=http://news.sciencenet.cn/htmlnews/2011/8/251272.shtm|title=中国科学家确定雅鲁藏布江等四条国际河流源头|publisher=ScienceNet|date=2011-08-22|language=zh|access-date=2021-02-03}}</ref> The various headwater streams flow southwest through high mountain valleys and accumulate in [[Cona Lake]], at {{cvt|4594|m|ft|abbr=on}}.<ref name="CuiTian2017">{{cite journal|last1=Cui|first1=Jiangpeng|last2=Tian|first2=Lide|last3=Biggs|first3=Trent W.|last4=Wen|first4=Rong|title=Deuterium-excess determination of evaporation to inflow ratios of an alpine lake: Implications for water balance and modeling|journal=Hydrological Processes|volume=31|issue=5|year=2017|pages=1034–1046|issn=0885-6087|doi=10.1002/hyp.11085|bibcode=2017HyPr...31.1034C|s2cid=132522836}}</ref> Downstream of the lake, the Tibetan section of the river is called ''Gyalmo Nagqu'', "black river". In Tibet the river flows mostly within [[Nagqu]] prefecture.<ref name="sciencenet"/>

From Cona Lake, the river flows south and turns east near [[Nagqu Town]], where the Chalong hydroelectric station is situated.{{citation needed|date=February 2021}} Further east, the river is dammed at the smaller Jiquan hydroelectric station. As of 2017, these are the only two dams on the Salween River proper.<ref name="Johnston"/> Continuing east, it is joined by the Ka, Suo and Ga rivers, all flowing from the southern slope of the Tanggula Mountains.{{citation needed|date=February 2021}} In [[Biru County]], the river begins a series of turns south and southeast, passing through [[Nyingchi]] prefecture. Shortly before entering [[Yunnan]], it is joined from the east by the Yu River, its longest tributary within China.<ref name="hydrosheds"/>

The Tibetan portion of the Salween basin is lightly populated, especially in the frigid headwater regions where precipitation is scarce and river flow depends almost entirely on glacier melt.<ref name="FAO">{{cite web|url=http://www.fao.org/3/CA2134EN/ca2134en.pdf|title=Transboundary River Basin Overview – Salween|publisher=Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations|year=2011|access-date=November 3, 2020}}</ref> The upper Salween basin includes more than {{cvt|12,000|km2|mi2|abbr=on}} of glaciers.<ref name="ZouTenzer2019">{{cite journal|last1=Zou|first1=Fang|last2=Tenzer|first2=Robert|last3=Jin|first3=Shuanggen|title=Water Storage Variations in Tibet from GRACE, ICESat, and Hydrological Data|journal=Remote Sensing|volume=11|issue=9|year=2019|page=1103|issn=2072-4292|doi=10.3390/rs11091103|bibcode=2019RemS...11.1103Z|doi-access=free|hdl=10397/81101|hdl-access=free}}</ref>

In Yunnan, the Salween is known as the '''Nujiang''' ({{zh|s=怒江 |p=Nujiang}}) or ''Nu River'', after the indigenous [[Nu people]], but also translating literally to "angry river". (The character is only a [[homophone]], due to Chinese having no phonetic script.) For more than {{cvt|1,000|km|mi|abbr=on}} the Salween runs parallel to, and west of the headwaters of the [[Mekong]] and [[Yangtze]], separated by high mountain ridges of the [[Hengduan Mountains]]. The [[Gaoligong Mountains]] west of the Salween form the border between China and Myanmar. Between the Salween and Mekong rivers around the Tibet–Yunnan boundary are the [[Meili Xue Shan]], which include [[Kawagarbo]], the highest peak in the Salween basin at {{cvt|6740|m|ft|abbr=on}}.{{citation needed|date=February 2021}}

Much of the river within Yunnan is part of the [[Three Parallel Rivers of Yunnan Protected Areas]], a [[World Heritage Site]]. Forming canyons up to {{cvt|4500|m|ft}} deep, this section is often called the "Grand Canyon of the East".<ref name="internationalrivers">{{cite web|url=https://www.internationalrivers.org/resources/the-salween-river-basin-fact-sheet-7481|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180725153808/https://www.internationalrivers.org/resources/the-salween-river-basin-fact-sheet-7481|archive-date=July 25, 2018|title=The Salween River Basin Fact Sheet|publisher=International Rivers|date=May 24, 2012|access-date=November 1, 2020}}</ref>

Continuing south, the river crosses the [[Yunnan-Guizhou Plateau]] via a series of deep canyons broken by wider valleys. In [[Longling County]] it is joined by the Kuke River and turns west, entering Myanmar. The total length of the river in China is {{cvt|1,948|km|mi|abbr=on}}, not including a short {{cvt|25|km|mi|abbr=on}} segment along the China–Myanmar border.<ref name="hydrosheds"/> By the time it leaves China the Salween has descended more than {{cvt|4000|m|ft}} from its source.<ref name="Johnston">{{cite web|url=https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/132697837.pdf|title=State of Knowledge: River Health in the Salween|author=Johnston, Robyn |display-authors=etal |publisher=CORE|date=July 2017|access-date=November 7, 2020}}</ref>

===Lower Salween (Myanmar and Thailand)===
[[Image:Salawin river at Mae Sam Laep.jpg|thumb|right|Salween River at the boundary between Myanmar and Thailand]]
In Myanmar the Salween river is officially known as ''Thanlwin''; in [[Shan State]], which the river enters immediately upon leaving China, it is also known as ''Nam Khone''.{{sfn|Middleton|Lamb|2019|page=107}} Turning south, the river slices a winding course through the vast upland region known as the [[Shan Hills]]. This area is characterized by a complex, broken topography of small mountain ranges, plateaus and cliffs, through which the Salween has cut an extensive series of gorges. As the Salween flows south and descends in elevation, it travels from temperate to subtropical and finally tropical climate zones, with yearly precipitation ranging from {{cvt|1200|to|2000|mm|in|abbr=on}} in the Shan Hills area.<ref name="FAO"/> The total length of the river in Myanmar and Thailand is {{cvt|1,316|km|mi|abbr=on}}.<ref name="hydrosheds"/>

In Shan State and [[Karenni State]] (Kayah State) the river is joined by several large tributaries, including the [[Nanding River]] and [[Hka River]] from the east, and the [[Pang River|Pang]], [[Teng River|Teng]], and [[Pawn River]]s from the west.<ref name="FAO"/> The Pang River is noted for its extensive limestone formations near the confluence with the Salween, where it breaks into a myriad of cataracts, channels and islets known as ''Kun Heng'', "Thousand Islands".<ref name="MyanmarHydropower"/><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.internationalrivers.org/news/blog-thailands-responsibility-to-the-people-of-the-salween-river/|title=Thailand's Responsibility to the People of the Salween River|author=Deetes, Pai|publisher=International Rivers|date=September 29, 2016|access-date=November 5, 2020}}</ref> [[Inle Lake]], the second largest lake in Myanmar and a [[World Network of Biosphere Reserves|World Biosphere Reserve]], drains into the Salween by way of the Pawn River.<ref name="Johnston"/>

Further south, the river enters [[Karen State]] (Kayin State) and forms the border between Myanmar and Thailand for about {{cvt|120|km|mi|abbr=on}}.<ref name="Zeitler">{{cite web|url=http://stud.epsilon.slu.se/6051/7/zeitler_f_131018.pdf|title=IWRM in international river basins|author=Zeitler, Florian|year=2013|publisher=Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences|access-date=November 4, 2020}}</ref> In Thailand the river is known as ''Salawin''; much of the Thai side of the border is part of [[Salawin National Park]] and the [[Salawin Wildlife Sanctuary]]. At the south end of the border section it is joined by the northwest-flowing [[Moei River]], which forms the Myanmar–Thailand border south of this point.<ref name="FAO"/> In Karen State, the river flows through [[karst]] limestone hills where numerous caves and unusual rock formations line the banks, particularly around the city of [[Hpa-An]].{{sfn|Gunn|2004|page=212–213}}<ref>{{cite news|title=Voyaging deep into Myanmar's caves|work=Fauna and Flora International|author=Holden, Jeremy|date=May 11, 2017|access-date=November 8, 2020|url=https://www.fauna-flora.org/news/voyaging-deep-into-myanmars-caves}}</ref>

The Salween emerges from the mountains into the coastal plain near [[Hlaingbwe Township]]. Near the coast, annual rainfall is as high as {{cvt|4000|to|5000|mm|in|abbr=on}}, supporting dense tropical rainforest as well as a productive rice industry.<ref name="FAO"/> The river flows for a further {{cvt|100|km|mi|abbr=on}} before terminating at a modestly sized [[river delta|delta]] and estuary in [[Mawlamyine]] in [[Mon State]]. The Salween is tidally influenced up to {{cvt|75|km|mi|abbr=on}} inland.<ref name="Johnston"/> Here it is joined by the [[Gyaing River]] from the east and the Ataran river from the southeast. The [[Thanlwin Bridge (Mawlamyine)|Thanlwin Bridge]], the second longest bridge in Myanmar, connects Mawlamyine to [[Mottama]]. The combined river then breaks into the Dayebauk (north) and Mawlamyine (south) channels, forming [[Bilugyun Island]] before emptying into the [[Gulf of Martaban]].{{sfn|Middleton|Lamb|2019|page=227}}

===List of tributaries===
{|class="wikitable sortable"
!colspan=7|Tributaries of the Salween River<ref name="hydrosheds"/>
|-
!Name
!Country
!State/Province
!Mouth coordinates
!Length
!Basin size
|-
|[[Ataran River|Ataran]]
|Myanmar
|Mon State
|{{coord|16|31|12|N|97|39|33|E}}
|{{nts|249}} km<br />(155&nbsp;mi)
|{{nts|5,930}} km<sup>2</sup><br />(2,288&nbsp;mi<sup>2</sup>)
|-
|[[Gyaing River|Gyaing]]
|Myanmar
|Mon State
|{{coord|16|33|08|N|97|39|49|E}}
|{{nts|250}} km<br />(155&nbsp;mi)
|{{nts|9,386}} km<sup>2</sup><br />(3,621&nbsp;mi<sup>2</sup>)
|-
|Donthami
|Myanmar
|Mon State
|{{coord|16|41|27|N|97|35|18|E}}
|{{nts|148}} km<br />(92&nbsp;mi)
|{{nts|2,143}} km<sup>2</sup><br />(827&nbsp;mi<sup>2</sup>)
|-
|[[Yunzalin River|Yunzalin]]
|Myanmar
|Karen State
|{{coord|17|22|44|N|97|40|04|E}}
|{{nts|219}} km<br />(136&nbsp;mi)
|{{nts|3,031}} km<sup>2</sup><br />(1,169&nbsp;mi<sup>2</sup>)
|-
|[[Moei River|Moei]]
|Myanmar/Thailand
|Karen State/<br />Mae Hong Son Province
|{{coord|17|49|57|N|97|41|30|E}}
|{{nts|332}} km<br />(206&nbsp;mi)
|{{nts|14,978}} km<sup>2</sup><br />(5,778&nbsp;mi<sup>2</sup>)
|-
|[[Pawn River|Pawn]]
|Myanmar
|Karenni State
|{{coord|18|52|53|N|97|19|36|E}}
|{{nts|338}} km<br />(210&nbsp;mi)
|{{nts|19,145}} km<sup>2</sup><br />(7,386&nbsp;mi<sup>2</sup>)
|-
|[[Pai River|Pai]]
|Myanmar
|Karenni State
|{{coord|19|08|45|N|97|32|38|E}}
|{{nts|205}} km<br />(127&nbsp;mi)
|{{nts|7,178}} km<sup>2</sup><br />(2,769&nbsp;mi<sup>2</sup>)
|-
|[[Teng River|Teng]]
|Myanmar
|Shan State
|{{coord|19|51|42|N|97|44|43|E}}
|{{nts|449}} km<br />(279&nbsp;mi)
|{{nts|15,340}} km<sup>2</sup><br />(5,918&nbsp;mi<sup>2</sup>)
|-
|[[Hsim River|Hsim]]
|Myanmar
|Shan State
|{{coord|20|47|37|N|98|30|15|E}}
|{{nts|243}} km<br />(151&nbsp;mi)
|{{nts|5,221}} km<sup>2</sup><br />(2,014&nbsp;mi<sup>2</sup>)
|-
|[[Pang River|Pang]]
|Myanmar
|Shan State
|{{coord|20|57|21|N|98|30|01|E}}
|{{nts|325}} km<br />(202&nbsp;mi)
|{{nts|12,427}} km<sup>2</sup><br />(4,794&nbsp;mi<sup>2</sup>)
|-
|[[Hka River|Hka]] ([[Hka River|Nanka]])
|Myanmar
|Shan State
|{{coord|21|33|09|N|98|37|35|E}}
|{{nts|278}} km<br />(173&nbsp;mi)
|{{nts|10,326}} km<sup>2</sup><br />(3,984&nbsp;mi<sup>2</sup>)
|-
|[[Nanding River|Nanding]]
|Myanmar
|Shan State
|{{coord|23|24|43|N|98|40|27|E}}
|{{nts|266}} km<br />(165&nbsp;mi)
|{{nts|8,322}} km<sup>2</sup><br />(3,211&nbsp;mi<sup>2</sup>)
|-
|Kuke
|China
|Yunnan
|{{coord|24|19|54|N|99|10|57|E}}
|{{nts|175}} km<br />(109&nbsp;mi)
|{{nts|6,610}} km<sup>2</sup><br />(2,550&nbsp;mi<sup>2</sup>)
|-
|Yu
|China
|Tibet
|{{coord|28|35|49|N|98|21|54|E}}
|{{nts|453}} km<br />(281&nbsp;mi)
|{{nts|9,389}} km<sup>2</sup><br />(3,622&nbsp;mi<sup>2</sup>)
|-
|Leng
|China
|Tibet
|
|{{nts|133}} km<br />(83&nbsp;mi)
|{{nts|3,113}} km<sup>2</sup><br />(1,201&nbsp;mi<sup>2</sup>)
|-
|Ba
|China
|Tibet
|
|{{nts|111}} km<br />(69&nbsp;mi)
|{{nts|3,792}} km<sup>2</sup><br />(1,463&nbsp;mi<sup>2</sup>)
|-
|Ga
|China
|Tibet
|{{coord|31|09|47|N|95|15|53|E}}
|{{nts|168}} km<br />(104&nbsp;mi)
|{{nts|4,812}} km<sup>2</sup><br />(1,856&nbsp;mi<sup>2</sup>)
|-
|Suo
|China
|Tibet
|{{coord|31|45|37|N|93|44|57|E}}
|{{nts|264}} km<br />(164&nbsp;mi)
|{{nts|13,939}} km<sup>2</sup><br />(5,377&nbsp;mi<sup>2</sup>)
|-
|Ka
|China
|Tibet
|
|{{nts|214}} km<br />(133&nbsp;mi)
|{{nts|8,489}} km<sup>2</sup><br />(3,275&nbsp;mi<sup>2</sup>)
|}

Major tributaries by average flow (1971–2000):
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
 ! Name
 ! Average discharge
 ! Name
 ! Average discharge
 
|-
 | [[Gyaing River|Gyaing]]
 | {{cvt|672.3|m3/s|cuft/s|abbr=on}}
 | Kuke
 | {{cvt|111.5|m3/s|cuft/s|abbr=on}}
 |-
 | [[Ataran River|Ataran]]
 | {{cvt|501.7|m3/s|cuft/s|abbr=on}}
 | [[Hsim River|Hsim]]
 | {{cvt|94.2|m3/s|cuft/s|abbr=on}}
 |-
 | [[Pawn River|Pawn]]
 | {{cvt|402.4|m3/s|cuft/s|abbr=on}}
 | [[Pai River|Pai]]
 | {{cvt|91.5|m3/s|cuft/s|abbr=on}}
 |-
 | [[Moei River|Moei]]
 | {{cvt|382.5|m3/s|cuft/s|abbr=on}}
 | Ba
 | {{cvt|90.5|m3/s|cuft/s|abbr=on}}
 |-
 | [[Teng River|Teng]]
 | {{cvt|334.7|m3/s|cuft/s|abbr=on}}
 | Yu
 | {{cvt|89.7|m3/s|cuft/s|abbr=on}}
 |-
 | [[Nam Pang River|Pang]]
 | {{cvt|226.5|m3/s|cuft/s|abbr=on}}
 | Suo
 | {{cvt|88.6|m3/s|cuft/s|abbr=on}}
 |-
 | Donthami
 | {{cvt|213.7|m3/s|cuft/s|abbr=on}}
 | Ga
 | {{cvt|84.6|m3/s|cuft/s|abbr=on}}
 |-
 | [[Hka River|Hka]]
 | {{cvt|202|m3/s|cuft/s|abbr=on}}
 | Ka
 | {{cvt|61.8|m3/s|cuft/s|abbr=on}}
 |-
 | [[Nanding River|Nanding]]
 | {{cvt|165.1|m3/s|cuft/s|abbr=on}}
 | Leng
 | {{cvt|60.3|m3/s|cuft/s|abbr=on}}
 |-
 | [[Yunzalin River|Yunzalin]] 
 | {{cvt|128.6|m3/s|cuft/s|abbr=on}}
 
| colspan="2" |
|}
<ref name="Salween (Nu river)">{{cite web|url=https://www.riversnetwork.org/V1/index.php/component/content/?view=article&id=113&catid=282&Itemid=179|title=Salween (Nu river)}}</ref>

==Discharge==

Flow regime at [[Hpa-an]] Station of Thanlwin River:<ref name="CHAPTER 5 NATURAL CONDITION SURVEYS"/>
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
 ! rowspan="2" | Year
 ! colspan="3" |Discharge (m<sup>3</sup>/s)
|-
!Min
!Mean
!Max
|-
|2009
|2,090
|4,938
|11,937
|-
|2010
|1,743
|4,836
|11,140
|-
|2011
|1,927
|6,014
|17,080
|-
|2012
|2,145
|5,312
|16,227
|-
|2013
|1,827
|5,302
|16,077
|-
| colspan="4" |
|-
|''Mean''
|''1,946''
|'''''5,280'''''
|''14,492''
|}
Monthly flow pattern Thanlwin river at [[Hpa-an]] during 2009 to 2013:<ref name="CHAPTER 5 NATURAL CONDITION SURVEYS"/>
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
 ! rowspan="2" | Month
 ! colspan="3" |Discharge (m<sup>3</sup>/s)
|-
!Min
!Mean
!Max
|-
|JAN
|2,007
|2,833
|3,580
|-
|FEB
|1,803
|2,643
|3,483
|-
|MAR
|1,743
|2,506
|3,451
|-
|APR
|1,913
|2,630
|4,016
|-
|MAY
|2,068
|2,954
|4,096
|-
|JUN
|2,660
|5,172
|12,243
|-
|JUL
|4,656
|8,497
|15,550
|-
|AUG
|7,685
|11,959
|17,080
|-
|SEP
|7,760
|10,000
|13,913
|-
|OCT
|3,747
|6,808
|12,203
|-
|NOV
|2,684
|4,063
|6,938
|-
|DEC
|2,271
|3,085
|4,287
|}

==Geology==
The present course of the Salween began to form about 5 million years ago as the Indian subcontinent collided with Asia, resulting in the uplift of the Himalaya mountains and the Tibetan Plateau. Prior to the Himalaya [[orogeny]], what are now the upper Irrawaddy, Salween, Mekong and Yangtze rivers may have all flowed into the [[Red River (Asia)|Red River]], emptying into the [[South China Sea]].{{sfn|Campbell|2009|loc=chpt. 2}} The landscape was hilly but not particularly rugged, with average elevations of {{cvt|1000|m|ft}} or less. As the continents converged, a complex jumble of mountains arose, breaking the ancestral Red into different drainage systems, with the Yangtze heading east towards the Pacific, and the Mekong and Salween flowing south into what is now Thailand's [[Chao Phraya River]]. About 1.5 million years ago, volcanic activity diverted the Salween west towards the Andaman Sea, roughly creating the modern path of the river.{{sfn|Darwall|2012|page=61}}

[[Image:怒江峡谷_-_panoramio.jpg|thumb|right|Salween (Gyalmo Nagqu) river in Tibet]]
The parallel modern courses of the upper Salween, Mekong and Yangtze are located where the eastern Tibetan Plateau intersects the uplands of the [[Yunnan-Guizhou Plateau]]. The mountain ranges separating these rivers are individual [[terrane]]s (crustal fragments) that accreted separately to the Asian continent – forming a [[Basin and range topography|basin and range]] landscape with drainage running from north to south – then compressed together such that the rivers flow only {{cvt|20|km|mi|abbr=on}} apart in places.{{sfn|Bridgland|Vandenberghe|Wang|2019|page=18}} As the mountains continued to rise, the rivers incised into the landscape along parallel fault zones, creating the deep canyons of the present day.{{sfn|Darwall|2012|page=61}} The Nujiang fault zone stretches over {{cvt|600|km|mi|abbr=on}} along the river in Yunnan.{{citation needed|date=February 2021}}

The formation of the Himalayas blocked drainage from the Tibetan Plateau south towards the Indian Ocean, forcing drainage north of the mountains east towards the Yangtze river. This east-flowing river, the predecessor of the modern [[Yarlung Tsangpo]] river, was repeatedly captured into drainages to the south, finding various routes to the sea via the Red, Mekong, Salween and Irrawaddy rivers.{{sfn|Searle|2013|page=61}} The combined Salween–Yarlung Tsangpo drainage would have been much longer than the modern Salween, stretching an additional {{cvt|1,500|km|mi|abbr=on}} west across the Tibetan Plateau. Ultimately the Yarlung Tsangpo was captured by the [[Brahmaputra River]] in present-day India.{{sfn|Searle|2013|page=61}} The Salween may once have had additional tributaries above its present source, but due to the uplift of the Himalaya blocking moisture from the Indian Ocean, these tributaries dried up, leaving the numerous [[Endorheic lake|terminal lakes]] scattered across Nagqu today.{{sfn|Swan|2000|page=91}}

The Salween carries an estimated 108 to 237 million tonnes of sediment per year.<ref name="Baronas"/> About 92&nbsp;percent of sediment is delivered to the ocean during the monsoon season.<ref name="Johnston"/> The Salween delta is physically contiguous with the Irrawaddy and Sittaung deltas. The Irrawaddy–Sittaung–Salween delta is relatively stable, with the coastline advancing an average of {{cvt|3.4|m|ft}} per year between 1925 and 2006. Sediment accumulation is largely balanced out by [[subsidence]] and transport by ocean currents. However, proposed dams along the Salween would trap much of the sediment with potential detrimental impacts to coastal erosion.<ref>{{cite journal|title=Evolution of the Irrawaddy delta region since 1850|last1=Hedley|first1=Peter J.|last2=Bird|first2=Michael I.|last3=Robinson|first3=Ruth A.J.|journal=The Geographical Journal|date=June 2010|volume=176|number=2|pages=138–149|doi=10.1111/j.1475-4959.2009.00346.x|bibcode=2010GeogJ.176..138H }}</ref>

==Ecology==
The Salween basin is home to thousands of species of plants, with the highest plant diversity found in Yunnan's Three Parallel Rivers region.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://worldheritageoutlook.iucn.org/explore-sites/wdpaid/900881|title=Three Parallel Rivers of Yunnan Protected Areas|publisher=IUCN World Heritage Outlook|year=2017|access-date=November 12, 2020}}</ref> The Three Parallel Rivers protected areas include the [[Gaoligongshan National Nature Reserve]] and the Nu Jiang Reserve within the Salween basin;<ref name="PA0516"/> the Gaoligongshan reserve has more than 4,300 plant species.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://english.cas.cn/newsroom/archive/news_archive/nu2004/201502/t20150215_136932.shtml|title=Biotic survey in Gaoligongshan Mountains scores remarkable progress|publisher=Chinese Academy of Sciences|date=July 8, 2004|access-date=November 12, 2020}}</ref> The [[Nujiang Langcang Gorge alpine conifer and mixed forests]], situated along the Nu River in western Yunnan, span elevations of {{cvt|1000|to|6000|m|ft}} and range from subtropical broadleaf evergreen to subalpine conifer forests. The rare ''[[Taiwania]]'', one of the largest conifers in Asia, is found here along with more than twenty other conifer species. Due to its rugged and inaccessible terrain, this is considered one of the most intact large forest regions in China.<ref name="PA0516">{{cite web|url=https://www.worldwildlife.org/ecoregions/pa0516|title=Nujiang Langcang Gorge alpine conifer and mixed forests|publisher=World Wildlife Fund|author=Carpenter, Chris|date=|access-date=November 12, 2020}}</ref> The Mekong–Salween divide forms a significant floral and faunal barrier as well as a [[rain shadow]], and has been regarded as a major driver of plant [[speciation]] in the region.<ref name="MengChen2015">{{cite journal|last1=Meng|first1=Lihua|last2=Chen|first2=Gang|last3=Li|first3=Zhonghu|last4=Yang|first4=Yongping|last5=Wang|first5=Zhengkun|last6=Wang|first6=Liuyang|title=Refugial isolation and range expansions drive the genetic structure of Oxyria sinensis (Polygonaceae) in the Himalaya-Hengduan Mountains|journal=Scientific Reports|volume=5|issue=1|year=2015|article-number=10396|issn=2045-2322|doi=10.1038/srep10396|pmid=26013161|pmc=4445061|bibcode=2015NatSR...510396M|doi-access=free}}</ref>

[[Image:SALAWIN_NATIONAL_PARK_Mae_Hong_Son.jpg|thumb|right|[[Salawin National Park]] in Thailand]]
Around the Myanmar–China border, the Salween flows through the [[Northern Indochina subtropical forests]] ecoregion, which consists largely of subtropical broad-leaved evergreen forests, with pine forests at higher elevations and tropical forests at the lower margins.<ref name="IM0137">{{cite web|url=https://www.worldwildlife.org/ecoregions/im0137|title=Southeastern Asia: China, Laos, Myanmar, Thailand, and Vietnam|publisher=World Wildlife Fund |author=Carpenter, Chris |author2=Boonratana, Ramesh |author3=Rundel, Philip|date=|access-date=November 12, 2020}}</ref> Further south in Myanmar and Thailand, the Salween basin includes the [[Kayah-Karen montane rain forests]], where the karst limestone landscape of cliffs, sinkholes and caverns lends itself to a multitude of forest types. Limestone soils host [[drought deciduous]] forests, while [[dipterocarp]]–dominant tropical forests occur on granitic soils. [[Montane ecosystem|Montane]] deciduous forests are widespread in the Shan Hills.<ref name="MyanmarHydropower"/><ref name="IM0119">{{cite web|url=https://www.worldwildlife.org/ecoregions/im0119|title=Kayah-Karen montane rain forests|publisher=World Wildlife Fund |author=Wikramanayake, Eric |author2=Carpenter, Chris |access-date=November 12, 2020}}</ref> [[Mangrove]] forests occur in the Salween delta, especially on Bilugyun Island.<ref name="Johnston"/>

The basin supports about 151 fish species,{{sfn|Darwall|2012|p=40}} with 77 of those found in the upper Salween.<ref name="Uppersalweenfish">{{cite journal|last1=Chen|first1=Weitao|last2=Ma|first2=Xiuhui|last3=Shen|first3=Yanjun|last4=Mao|first4=Yuntao|last5=He|first5=Shunping|title=The fish diversity in the upper reaches of the Salween River, Nujiang River, revealed by DNA barcoding|journal=Scientific Reports|volume=5|issue=1|year=2015|article-number=17437|issn=2045-2322|doi=10.1038/srep17437|pmid=26616046|pmc=4663501|bibcode=2015NatSR...517437C|doi-access=free}}</ref> The Salween has numerous [[Cyprinidae|cyprinid]] species, including the endangered ''[[Garra cryptonema]]'' and ''[[Akrokolioplax bicornis]]'' which are [[endemic species|endemic]] to the basin.<ref name="Uppersalweenfish"/> [[Inle Lake]] in Shan State, designated a [[UNESCO Biosphere Reserve]] in 2015,<ref name="Johnston"/> provides habitat for numerous endemic fish species. The Thousand Islands area at the Salween–Pang confluence,<ref name="MyanmarHydropower"/> as well as the confluence of the Salween and Moei rivers, are also identified as critical fish habitat.{{citation needed|date=February 2021}} The Salween shares most of its fish species with the nearby Irrawaddy and [[Sittaung River]]s.{{sfn|Darwall|2012|page=40}} The river also hosts a number of invasive exotic fish which were introduced for commercial purposes.<ref name="Uppersalweenfish"/> In addition to fish, the Salween provides habitat for 92 amphibian species. The Salween has the greatest diversity of turtles of any river in the world. The endangered [[Giant Asian pond turtle]] and [[Big-headed turtle]] are found here.<ref name="MyanmarHydropower">{{cite web|url=https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/bitstream/handle/10986/31256/134202-WP-MM-SEA-of-Hydropower-Sector-PUBLIC.pdf|title=Strategic Environmental Assessment of the Myanmar Hydropower Sector|publisher=World Bank|year=2018|access-date=November 7, 2020}}</ref>

The Salween basin includes up to 25% of the world's terrestrial animal species.<ref name="InternationalRivers">{{cite web
|url=http://www.internationalrivers.org/node/355
|title=Nu (Salween) River
|publisher=International Rivers
|date=
|access-date=2009-12-04}}</ref> About one-half of all animal species in China can be found in the upper Salween, which provides habitat for endangered species including the [[snow leopard]] and [[black snub-nosed monkey]].<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.nationalgeographic.com/news/2016/05/160512-china-nu-river-dams-environment/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191001203946/https://www.nationalgeographic.com/news/2016/05/160512-china-nu-river-dams-environment/|archive-date=1 October 2019|title=China May Shelve Plans to Build Dams on Its Last Wild River|author=Leavenworth, Stuart|date=May 12, 2016|work=National Geographic|access-date=November 8, 2020}}</ref> The remote jungles of the Salween basin in Myanmar and Thailand, particularly in Kayin and Shan states, are home to dozens of large mammal species including the [[Indochinese tiger]], [[clouded leopard]], [[Asiatic black bear]], [[sun bear]], [[eastern hoolock gibbon]], and the [[Sunda pangolin]].<ref name="Bonini"/><ref>{{cite news|url=https://theecologist.org/2016/jun/13/saving-salween-southeast-asias-last-major-undammed-river|title=Saving the Salween: Southeast Asia's last major undammed river|work=The Ecologist|author=Fawthorp, Tom|date=June 13, 2016|access-date=November 8, 2020}}</ref> Limestone caves along the Salween in Thailand are home to numerous bat species, including the endemic [[Kitti's hog-nosed bat]], the smallest known bat species in the world.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://news.mongabay.com/2016/12/stone-sand-water-the-key-ingredients-changing-the-salween-landscape/|author=Stokes, Demelza|title=Stone, Sand, Water: the key ingredients changing the Salween landscape|work=Mongabay|date=December 21, 2016|access-date=November 8, 2020}}</ref>{{citation needed|date=February 2021}} The Nam San Valley along the Shan reach of the river provides habitat for the critically endangered [[white-rumped vulture]] and the [[slender-billed vulture]].<ref name="MyanmarHydropower"/> In the Salween delta, wetlands provide habitat for [[fishing cat]], [[Asian small-clawed otter]] and [[Siamese crocodile]], among other species.<ref name="MyanmarHydropower"/>

==Economic uses==
===Agriculture===
Along its lower course the Salween sustains both flood and irrigated agriculture. The Salween delta is a major rice-growing area; it is the single most productive agricultural region in the Salween basin and home to over 500,000 people. Rice paddies are highly dependent on the river's annual flooding, bringing deposits of rich sediment.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.culturalsurvival.org/publications/cultural-survival-quarterly/defending-burmas-salween-river|title=Defending Burma's Salween River|work=Cultural Survival|author=Benson, Louisa|date=June 1994|access-date=November 8, 2020}}</ref> Other crops grown in the Salween basin include maize, wheat, chili, cotton, potatoes, groundnut, sesame, pulses, betel, tea, and various vegetables.<ref name="Johnston"/> Certain areas of the floodplain are suitable for both farming and fishing, such as the seasonal Daw Lar Lake upstream of Hpa-An, where crops are grown on islands in the lake during the dry season. Following the annual harvest, the land is used for grazing livestock.{{sfn|Middleton|Lamb|2019|page=74}} In the rainy season fish migrate from the Salween River to spawn in the lake, and are caught in large numbers as the water level recedes at the end of the season. The Salween generally floods in July–September and reaches its lowest around October–December.{{sfn|Middleton|Lamb|2019|page=74}} Compared to Myanmar's principal rice growing region, the Irrawaddy delta, the Salween delta floods more erratically, and is prone to drought for 1–2 years out of five.{{sfn|Catling|1992|page=281}}

[[Image:Kaw Gon Thanlwin Bridge.jpg|thumb|left|Salween River at Myaing Ka Lay, Myanmar]]
Approximately {{cvt|380000|ha|acre|abbr=on}} of land are irrigated in the Salween basin, with 50&nbsp;percent in Myanmar, 42&nbsp;percent in China and 8&nbsp;percent in Thailand. About 97&nbsp;percent is irrigated with surface water, and the rest with [[groundwater]]. Total water withdrawals amount to less than 3&nbsp;percent of the river flow at {{cvt|5.1|km3|acre feet}}.<ref name="FAO"/> In recent years rubber, sugarcane and corn have become major cash crops, with the majority of this production exported to China.{{sfn|Middleton|Lamb|2019|page=164}} From 1998 to 2010, the area cultivated for rubber in Mon State increased fivefold, accompanied by significant deforestation.<ref name="Johnston"/>

Further upstream, the river provides a water source for numerous remote villages. With arable land limited by mountainous terrain, farming occurs primarily on the seasonally flooded river banks and islands. However, forest land has been increasingly converted to agriculture, which has led to sedimentation and other water quality issues.<ref name="Johnston"/> The higher elevation valleys are used for grazing, particularly in Tibet, where yaks, sheep, goats, horses and cattle are raised.{{sfn|Middleton|Lamb|2019|page=262}} Forests along the Salween in eastern Myanmar are home to dozens of medicinal plants crucial to the production of traditional herbal medicines.{{sfn|Middleton|Lamb|2019|page=160}} Some medicinal plants are cultivated, while others are harvested wild in the forest.{{sfn|Middleton|Lamb|2019|page=166}} Many wild species are threatened by deforestation and agricultural conversion.{{sfn|Middleton|Lamb|2019|page=175–176}}

===Fishing===
[[Image:Boats_in_the_Salween_River.jpg|thumb|right|Fishing boats in the Salween River, Hpa-An]]
The Salween estuary and delta is a particularly rich fishery,{{sfn|Middleton|Lamb|2019|page=223}} with the complex network of tidal channels providing a diversity of habitats for freshwater, brackish and marine fishes. Subsistence fishing is predominant along the inland channels and bays, while a large commercial fishery is supported offshore. The most important commercial species include Nga pone na ([[Paradise threadfin]]) and Nga pyat (Coitor croaker). Prawns and shrimps are important in the local diet. Villages further upstream also depend on Salween fish, with Inle Lake being a particularly rich fishery.<ref name="Johnston"/>

Overfishing combined with lack of regulation has become an issue in the 21st century, with catches in the lower Salween declining as much as 60&nbsp;percent at some villages.{{sfn|Middleton|Lamb|2019|page=228–230}} The use of large "bag nets" that result in excessive [[bycatch]], as well as the use of illegal poisons by commercial fishermen, have also contributed to the decline.{{sfn|Middleton|Lamb|2019|page=231}} Increased sedimentation from upstream logging has made the estuary shallower and reduced its productivity, in turn reducing the rate of fish migration and spawning.{{sfn|Middleton|Lamb|2019|page=234}} The Myanmar government has made efforts to address the issues, including seasonal fishing bans first implemented in 2012, but these laws have been rarely enforced.{{sfn|Middleton|Lamb|2019|page=225}} An alternative approach, using small, self-enforced community-based reserves where fishing is not allowed, has successfully protected fish populations and species diversity in northern Thailand.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Koning|first1=Aaron A.|last2=Perales|first2=K. Martin|last3=Fluet-Chouinard|first3=Etienne|last4=McIntyre|first4=Peter B.|date=December 2020|title=A network of grassroots reserves protects tropical river fish diversity|url=https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-020-2944-y|journal=Nature|language=en|volume=588|issue=7839|pages=631–635|doi=10.1038/s41586-020-2944-y|pmid=33239780|bibcode=2020Natur.588..631K|s2cid=227175010|issn=1476-4687|url-access=subscription}}</ref>

===Logging and mining===
Forests along the Salween are prime sources of tropical hardwoods including teak, pyinkadoe (red ironwood) and padauk (Burmese rosewood). Logging in the Myanmar part of the basin first occurred on a large scale during the British colonial period in the 19th century. [[Clearcutting]] has destabilized soils along the river and raised sediment loads. Due to the lack of good roads across most of the basin, the majority of timber is transported via waterways during the rainy season.{{citation needed|date=February 2021}} In China, some forests in western Yunnan were intensively logged until the 1990s, when logging was banned there due to environmental impacts.<ref name="PA0516"/>

The rate of deforestation has increased sharply in the 21st century, particularly in Shan, Karenni and Karen states.<ref name="Johnston"/>{{sfn|Middleton|Lamb|2019|page=161}} Before 2010, armed conflicts made it difficult for logging companies to access many of these areas. After a 2010 peace agreement signed between ethnic militias and the Myanmar Union Government, commercial logging was able to increase dramatically in Karenni State.{{sfn|Middleton|Lamb|2019|page=247}} The Myanmar government has banned the cutting of teak, but [[illegal logging]] for teak has persisted, driven by strong demand abroad.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.nationalgeographic.com/history/2020/08/after-century-logging-myanmar-struggles-preserve-teak-groves/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200807182927/https://www.nationalgeographic.com/history/2020/08/after-century-logging-myanmar-struggles-preserve-teak-groves/|archive-date=7 August 2020|title=After a century of logging, Myanmar struggles to preserve its teak groves|work=National Geographic|author=Salopek, Paul|date=August 5, 2020|access-date=November 14, 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.irrawaddy.com/news/burma/illegal-log-trade-continues-on-salween-river.html|title=Illegal Log Trade Continues on Salween River|work=The Irrawaddy|author=Naing, Saw Yan|date=September 27, 2016|access-date=November 14, 2020}}</ref> On the Thai side of the river, illegal logging has been ongoing since the 1990s in Salawin National Park.<ref name="cdn2.globalwitness.org">{{cite web |title=A Conflict of Interests |url=https://cdn2.globalwitness.org/archive/files/import/03sep3%20conflict%20of%20interests%2060-89.pdf |website=cdn2.globalwitness.org |publisher=[[Global Witness]] |access-date=8 June 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230608064723/https://cdn2.globalwitness.org/archive/files/import/03sep3%20conflict%20of%20interests%2060-89.pdf |archive-date=2023-06-08 |language=en |url-status=live}}</ref>

In Karen State, limestone quarrying for cement production along the river has increased in the 21st century. There is also increasing sand and gravel mining in the lower river. As of 2015 the Myanmar government was seeking international investment in the mining sector, and new policies could lead to considerable increase in mining activity along the river.<ref name="Johnston"/>

==History==
[[Image:Salween_delta.jpg|thumb|right|Aerial view of the Salween Delta (North is to the right). This area has been home to Mon people for at least 5,000 years.]]
Human presence along the upper Salween River dates to at least 31,000–39,000 years ago. Archeological evidence includes stone tools and animal remains discovered along the river bank in the southeastern Tibetan Plateau.<ref>{{cite magazine|url=https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/the-surprisingly-early-settlement-of-the-tibetan-plateau/|title=The Surprisingly Early Settlement of the Tibetan Plateau|last=Qiu|first= Jane|author-link=Jane Qiu|magazine=Scientific American|date=March 1, 2017|access-date=November 4, 2020}}</ref>

The [[Mon people|Mon]] are some of the earliest inhabitants of the Salween basin within Myanmar, migrating south from China around 3000 BCE, and settling in the Salween delta and adjacent coastal areas. Agriculture was first practiced in the Salween and Irrawaddy basins around the first century BCE.{{citation needed|date=February 2021}} Ancestors of the [[Karen people|Karen]] migrated down the Salween River area from the Tibetan Plateau and northwest China starting around 1000 BCE.{{sfn|Ness|2014|p=264}} [[Tai peoples]], ancestors of the [[Shan people|Shan]], began moving into the [[Shan Hills]] area of the middle Salween from Yunnan around 1000 CE and established multiple independent kingdoms, often known as the [[Shan States]].{{citation needed|date=February 2021}}

The [[Nu people]], originating in the Tibetan Plateau, may have inhabited the areas of the Salween (Nu) and Mekong (Lancang) in modern day China as early as 2000 BCE.{{sfn|Minahan|2014|page=202–203}}{{citation needed|date=February 2021}} The [[Wa people]], who today inhabit parts of the Salween basin on both sides of the China–Burma border, migrated south along the river from Tibet around 500–300 BCE.{{sfn|Minahan|2014|page=299}} The [[Lisu people]], also originating in Tibet, arrived in Yunnan sometime before 1000 CE. Chinese records begin to mention Lisu in the late [[Tang dynasty]] (618–907 CE). The Lisu originally inhabited areas further east in Yunnan, but over centuries they were pushed north and west towards the Salween as more [[Han people]] settled in Yunnan.{{sfn|Harwood|2013|page=54}}

===Expansion of empires===
Martaban (now [[Mottama]]) in the Salween Delta was a major trading port on the [[Maritime Silk Road]] as early as 200 BCE.{{citation needed|date=February 2021}} By the 6th century CE, the [[Thaton Kingdom]] (one of the early [[Mon kingdoms]]) ruled the Salween Delta and surrounding coasts from the capital of [[Thaton]].{{sfn|West|2010|page=540–542}} From 738–902 CE, the kingdom of [[Nanzhao]] controlled Yunnan and parts of northern Burma,{{sfn|Myint-U|2006|page=53–54}} with the Salween forming its southwestern boundary with the Burmese [[Pyu city-states]].{{citation needed|date=February 2021}} Tang China had several overland trade routes with Burma via Nanzhao, which it was allied with at times. One route started from Yinsheng (around present-day [[Jingdong Yi Autonomous County|Jingdong]], Yunnan) and headed west then south along the Salween River, reaching the Indian Ocean at Martaban. Another crossed the Salween around present day [[Baoshan, Yunnan|Baoshan]], heading west towards India.{{sfn|Chen|2020|page=185}}

In the 1060s King [[Anawrahta]] expanded the boundaries of the [[Pagan Kingdom]] (First Burmese Empire) from its origins in the Irrawaddy valley, conquering Thaton and the other Mon kingdoms in the Salween delta.{{sfn|Schellinger|2012|page=653}} In the late 1100s King [[Narapatisithu]] (Sithu II) conquered most of the Shan States, extending Burmese rule to the western bank of the Salween river from the delta as far north as Yunnan. For almost 500 years, the lower Salween defined the frontier between Burma and the [[Ayutthaya Kingdom]] (Siam).

In the late 1200s, the Pagan Kingdom collapsed after invasions of the [[Mongol Empire]]. The Mongols had also conquered the [[Dali Kingdom]] (Nanzhao's successor). In 1287 the [[Hanthawaddy kingdom]] emerged in the Salween and Irrawaddy deltas. Martaban served as the Hanthawaddy capital between 1287 and 1364.{{citation needed|date=February 2021}} Along the mountainous middle reaches of the Salween River, former Shan vassal states regained their independence. Starting around 1380, [[Ming dynasty|Ming]] China annexed Yunnan and conquered some of the eastern Shan states.{{sfn|Twitchett|Mote|1978|page=313–314}} From 1436-49, Chinese armies crossed the Salween to wage the [[Luchuan–Pingmian campaigns]] against the Shan state of [[Mong Mao]]. These wars were an expensive failure for the Ming, and triggered tribal uprisings that fragmented Chinese power in the region.{{sfn|Twitchett|Mote|1978|page=326}}

The [[Toungoo dynasty]] emerged in Burma during the 1500s, conquering much of Southeast Asia by 1565 to create the First Toungoo Empire (Second Burmese Empire). King [[Tabinshwehti]] captured and destroyed Martaban in 1541. Under the subsequent rule of [[Bayinnaung]], an 800,000-strong army crossed the Salween in 1548 and invaded Siam. This was the first time Burmese rule had been extended east of the Salween river.{{sfn|Surakiat|2005|p=79}} Subsequently, Bayinnaung moved north up the Salween, subjugating all the independent Shan states by 1557.{{sfn|Surakiat|2005|p=92}} These victories were enabled in part by the acquisition of firearms from Dutch and Portuguese traders who first reached these coasts around 1511.{{sfn|Schellinger|2012|page=61}} European mercenaries also fought in some of these battles.{{sfn|Surakiat|2005|p=85}} At Martaban the Portuguese established a trading post, one of the first European settlements in the area.{{sfn|Schellinger|2012|page=61}}

[[Image:Nagshoe land 62.jpg|thumb|right|280px|Salween (Nagqu) in [[Biru County]], Tibet]]
In the 1640s, the last years of the Ming dynasty, geographer [[Xu Xiake]] explored the Salween River country and determined that the upper Salween, Mekong and Red rivers (previously believed to be part of the same river system) were in fact separate.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jfQ9E0u4pLAC|title = Science and Civilisation in China: Volume 3, Mathematics and the Sciences of the Heavens and the Earth|isbn = 978-0-521-05801-8|last1 = Needham|first1 = Joseph|year = 1959| publisher=Cambridge University Press }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-cWJq9JjoYMC|isbn = 978-0-674-02171-6|title = Asian Borderlands: The Transformation of Qing China's Yunnan Frontier|year = 2006|publisher = Harvard University Press}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tVhvh6ibLJcC |page= 326|title= The Cambridge History of China|isbn= 978-0-521-24333-9|last1= Twitchett|first1= Denis Crispin|last2= Fairbank|first2= John King|date= 1978|publisher= Cambridge University Press}}</ref> After the rise of the [[Qing dynasty]] China entered a new period of western expansion. In 1717 the [[Dzungar Khanate]] conquered Tibet, and China sought to expel them from the region. In 1718 the Qing sent an army but were unsuccessful in reaching Tibet, reaching only as far as the Salween River where they were defeated by Dzungar troops in the [[Battle of the Salween River]]. In response, the Qing [[Chinese expedition to Tibet (1720)|sent a larger force to Tibet in 1720]], driving out the Dzungars and establishing [[Qing rule of Tibet]].{{sfn|Slatyer|2014|loc=chpt. 7}}

As the Qing pushed into Yunnan, the indigenous Lisu people were driven further west, eventually settling along the Salween in and around [[Nujiang Prefecture]]. Although China had been expanding into the area since Ming times, the greatest influx of settlers was around 1700 to 1850. At the same time, Tibet was expanding its influence into western Yunnan. Tibetan parties raided down the Salween valley and took slaves from the indigenous Nu and Derung populations, which were not well politically organized and unable to offer much resistance. On the other hand, the Lisu fiercely resisted efforts to take slaves and land.{{sfn|Harwood|2013|p=52–55}}

In the 1590s Siam had [[Burmese–Siamese War (1593–1600)|captured]] the Tenasserim coast, and the Salween delta again became the border with Burma.{{sfn|Schellinger|2012|page=56}} For more than a hundred years this remained a disputed area, changing hands several times between the Burmese and Siamese. Burmese rule returned to the Salween delta in the 1750s with the expansion of the [[Konbaung dynasty]]. Starting in 1759, Martaban served as a launching point for several invasions of Siam, which led to the collapse of the Ayutthaya Kingdom.{{sfn|Schellinger|2012|page=58}} The Burmese were unable to maintain lasting control over territories east of the river,<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=n5uU2UteUpEC|isbn=978-0-8248-1287-4|title=South Asia: A Short History|date=January 1990|publisher=University of Hawaii Press}}</ref> although Burma regained the Tenasserim coast from Siam in a 1793 treaty.

===British rule and World War II===
[[Image:Moulmeinfromgreatpagoda.JPG|thumb|right|Moulmein during British rule, around 1870. View of the Salween River in the distance.]]
After the [[First Anglo-Burmese War]] in 1824, the Konbaung dynasty ceded coastal areas of Burma to the [[British Empire]], including the whole Tenasserim coast south of the Salween River. Due to its strategic location, Mawlamyine (anglicized as Moulmein) served as the capital of [[British Burma]] from 1826 until 1852 and as a gateway for overland trade into Yunnan. It became the center of a lucrative timber industry, particularly in [[teak]]. Logs were floated down the Salween River to meet oceangoing ships in Mawlamyine port. Forests in the lower Salween basin were extensively logged until the 1890s.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TLgmAQAAIAAJ|title=Diplomatic and Consular Reports. Annual Series|year=1891}}</ref>{{citation needed|date=February 2021}} Contemporary British maps labeled the river as "Salween", an anglicization of the Burmese name ''Thanlwin''.{{sfn|Middleton|Lamb|2019|page=19}}

At the start of the 20th century, there was still great uncertainty regarding the true sources of the river and how far west it extended into the Himalayas; some believed the upper [[Brahmaputra River]] (the [[Yarlung Tsangpo]]) might be the true source of the Irrawaddy, Salween or Mekong. In 1935-36, British geographer [[Ronald Kaulback]] walked the length of the Salween River from Burma to eastern Tibet, producing some of the first comprehensive maps of the river's course.{{sfn|Bonington|Clarke|2020|loc=chpt. 2}} Kaulback allegedly found giant footprints in the snow while attempting to locate the source of the Salween. His report was one of several that popularized the myth of the [[Yeti]] in Europe during the 1930s.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=g87QOiJQErsC|isbn = 978-1-935487-56-2|title = Yeti, Sasquatch & Hairy Giants|date = 23 March 2011|publisher = SCB Distributors}}</ref>

[[Image:ChineseSoldiersSalweenRiver.gif|thumb|right|Chinese troops battle the Japanese along the Salween River in Burma, 1944]]
During [[World War II]] the [[Japanese invasion of Burma|Japanese Empire invaded Burma]], starting at Mawlamyine in January 1942. The Japanese army, numbering 18,000 against 7,000 British defenders, quickly captured Mawlamyine, forcing the British to retreat across the Salween to Martaban. On February 10–11 the Japanese crossed the Salween and the British fled, unprepared for a siege.{{sfn|McLynn|2011|page=18}} The Japanese blockaded the [[Burma Road]] constructed in 1938 during the [[Second Sino-Japanese War]], forcing the British to transport military supplies to China by air across the eastern Himalayas ("[[The Hump]]").{{citation needed|date=February 2021}} The retreating Allied army (primarily Chinese) stopped the Japanese advance at the Salween River on May 5, 1942. After blowing all the bridges crossing the river, the Chinese took defensive positions on the east bank along a {{convert|100|mi|km|adj=on}} front, at which point the fighting reached a stalemate.<ref>{{cite journal|title=The Salween Campaign|journal=Contemporary China: A Reference Digest|date=April 2, 1945|volume=5|number=23|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nFI8AQAAIAAJ}}</ref>

From 1944–1945, Allied forces launched the Salween Campaign to retake Burma and reopen the Burma Road. During the initial offensive on May 11, 1944, about 40,000 troops of the [[Chinese Expeditionary Force]] (CEF), led by American General [[Joseph Stilwell]] and assisted by [[United States|US]] army air forces, crossed the Salween on rubber rafts and attacked the Japanese position west of the river. About 17,000–19,000 Chinese and 15,000 Japanese were killed in the resulting battle, from which the Chinese emerged victorious. In the following days, additional CEF troops crossed the river bringing the total to 100,000, before pushing west into Japanese-held territory. The Salween Campaign concluded on January 20, 1945 with the fall of [[Wanding Town|Wanding]].<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nFI8AQAAIAAJ |page= 196|title= Contemporary China: A Reference Digest|date= 1943|publisher= Chinese news Service}}</ref> By August 1945 the Allies had retaken Burma from the Japanese.<ref>{{cite web
|url=http://www.qmmuseum.lee.army.mil/WWII/air_supply_salween.htm
|title=Air Supply on the Salween River Front
|publisher=U.S. Army Quartermaster Museum
|work=The Quartermaster Review
|date=March–April 1945
|access-date=5 December 2009
|archive-date=23 October 2020
|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201023054257/https://qmmuseum.lee.army.mil/WWII/air_supply_salween.htm
}}</ref>

===1948–present===
In 1948, [[Burmese Declaration of Independence|Burma declared independence]] from the British Empire. Soon afterwards, ethnic minorities in the Salween River region, including the [[Kachin conflict|Kachin]], [[Karen conflict|Karen]], Mon, and Shan, sought independence, with armed conflicts between these groups and the Burmese military continuing to the present day. The [[Karen National Union]] and Mon National Defense Organization took control of the lower Salween River valley, including Mawlamyine and Thaton, in September 1948. However, they were soon pushed out, leading to four years of confused fighting. In 1952, a new Karen state (today's Kayin State) was created, with the capital at [[Hpa-An]] on the Salween {{convert|50|km|mi}} north of Mawlamyine, but the insurgency continued.

In 1950 [[Kuomintang in Burma|Chinese Nationalist troops invaded Shan State]] after being defeated by the [[Chinese Communist Party|Communists]] in the [[Chinese Civil War]], with the aim of creating an independent state from which to retake mainland China. With the help of US forces, the Chinese attempted several times to take land on the west side of the Salween River, but were pushed back by the Burmese army. Although the KMT campaign was unsuccessful, many people of Chinese descent continue to live in the area east of the river. These events contributed to political instability in Shan State. By 1958 several insurgencies had become established in eastern Shan State, including one led by the exiled [[Communist Party of Burma]] (CPB, or "White Flag Communists"). This area, part of the [[Golden Triangle (Southeast Asia)|Golden Triangle]], became a center for illegal [[opium]] production during the 1960s. Opium trafficking remains a major source of funding for insurgents.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=prYIfLGbB5sC |page= 161|title= World Drug Traffic and Its Impact on U.S. Security: The global context; report of General Walt|date= 1972|publisher= U.S. Government Printing Office}}</ref>

[[Image:Salween_River_Burma_Thailand_border_1.jpg|thumb|right|Salween on the border of Burma and Thailand]]
In the 1970s the Burmese and Thai governments began planning for hydroelectric dams on the Salween River, largely within Shan and Karen-majority areas.{{sfn|Middleton|Lamb|2019|p=27}} Starting in 1979 the [[Electricity Generating Authority of Thailand]] conducted feasibility studies for hydropower and irrigation diversions on the river.{{sfn|Middleton|Lamb|2019|page=79}} Salween development plans gained momentum in 1988, when the [[State Peace and Development Council|SPDC]] seized power in Burma and sought cross-border economic development with Thailand and China. That same year, Thai Prime Minister [[Chatichai Choonhavan]] presented an economic vision for the Salween border region – from a "battlefield into a marketplace".{{sfn|Middleton|Lamb|2019|p=186}}

In addition to the revenues from electricity production, the SPDC saw dam construction as "part of a strategy to remove ethnic armed groups" from the area. In the years following, the military junta stepped up its attacks in the region, destroying villages and forcing over 500,000 Shan, Kachin and Karen refugees to flee the country, mostly to Thailand.<ref name="Gray2014">{{cite news|url=https://www.startribune.com/dam-projects-risk-re-igniting-myanmar-s-civil-war/285460721/|title=Dam projects on mighty Salween River threaten to re-ignite Myanmar's civil war|author=Gray, Dennis D.|work=Minneapolis Star Tribune|date=December 11, 2014|access-date=November 8, 2020}}</ref> The Salween creates a formidable barrier for refugees, due to its wide fast current, and only small wooden boats are available for crossing it.
{{sfn|Dudley|2010|page=68}} About 150,000 refugees are housed in official camps in Thailand, while hundreds of thousands of more live in illegal camps.{{citation needed|date=February 2021}}

Thailand's Salawin National Park was established in 1994. Before that, thousands of refugees had already settled in this area and the adjacent Salawin Wildlife Sanctuary, with more moving in during the years following. The Thai government has made some efforts to remove them, but due to the vast size of the park, enforcement has been difficult.{{sfn|Haokip|2018|page=72}} In 1997 a scandal was uncovered in which logs cut on the Thai side of the river were floated across the river to Myanmar, stamped "exported from Burma" and floated back to the Thai side, where officials inspected the "imported" timber and approved their sale.<ref>{{cite news|title=The Nation: Illegal Logging Thrives in Salween Rain Forest|work=BurmaNet News|author=Sukin, Kamol|date=September 26, 1997|access-date=November 8, 2020|url=https://www.burmalibrary.org/reg.burma/archives/199710/msg00043.html}}</ref> Refugees in camps within the parks were implicated in the scandal and forced to relocate. However, "observers of forced evictions have stated that the eviction of Thai-Karen villagers from forest reserves is not done to protect the forests but so that [illegal] logging activities can continue without hindrance and with fewer witnesses."<ref name="cdn2.globalwitness.org" />

After [[2011–12 Burmese political reforms|the end of military rule in 2011]] the Burmese government signed ceasefire agreements with 14 ethnic militias.<ref name="Gray2014"/> However, protests followed by armed conflict soon broke out again around the sites of proposed dams, particularly at the Mong Ton ([[Tasang Dam]]) in Shan State<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.irrawaddy.com/news/burma/australian-firm-says-community-opposition-impeding-consultations-on-controversial-dam.html|title=Australian Firm Says Community Opposition Impeding Consultations on Controversial Dam|author=Hopkins, David|work=The Irrawaddy|date=June 6, 2015|access-date=November 8, 2020}}</ref> and the [[Hatgyi Dam]] in Karen State.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.irrawaddy.com/news/karen-villagers-protest-hatgyi-dam-projects-salween-river.html|title=Karen Villagers Protest Hatgyi Dam, Other Projects on Salween River|work=The Irrawaddy|author=Nyein, Nyein|date=March 14, 2018|access-date=November 8, 2020}}</ref> Residents along the Salween River contend the dams would bring no economic benefits locally – as most of the electricity would be exported abroad – while their homes and traditional lands would be flooded with little to no compensation.<ref>{{cite magazine|url=https://time.com/4529150/burma-fighting-hat-gyi-dam-karen-kayin-myanmar/|title=Thousands of People Have Been 'Displaced by Fighting' in Eastern Burma|magazine=TIME|date=October 12, 2016|access-date=November 8, 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://library.ecc-platform.org/conflicts/violent-protests-against-hatgyi-dam-myanmar|title=Violent Protests against the Hatgyi Dam in Myanmar|date=January 2009 |publisher=ECC Platform Libraray|access-date=November 8, 2020}}</ref>

{{blockquote|Ethnic minority leaders and human rights activists say a pattern they call "damming at gunpoint" has been repeated across eastern Myanmar: proposed dam sites are forcefully depopulated by the military without compensation and the region is militarized through the expansion of army camps, helicopter pads, access roads and other facilities.<ref name="Gray2014"/>}}

Local organizations, including the Karen Environmental and Social Action Network (KESAN), have pushed for the establishment of a "Salween Peace Park" that would manage the river's natural resources sustainably via community forests, wildlife sanctuaries, fishery conservation and protected indigenous lands. The park would cover more than {{convert|5000|km2|mi2}} along the Salween River and its tributaries in Myanmar. The proposal was inaugurated in December 2018.<ref name="Bonini">{{cite news|url=https://asiatimes.com/2019/01/salween-peace-park-a-desperate-bid-to-counter-mega-dams/|title=Salween Peace Park, a desperate bid to counter mega-dams|work=Asia Times|author=Bonini, Alan|date=January 20, 2019|access-date=November 7, 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.internationalrivers.org/news/peace-on-the-salween/|title=Peace on the Salween|publisher=International Rivers|author=Deetes, Pianporn|date=September 23, 2020|access-date=November 7, 2020}}</ref>

==Dams==
===Myanmar and Thailand===
Seven dams have been proposed along the main stem of the Salween in Myanmar and Thailand, with a combined capacity exceeding 20,000 [[megawatt]]s of electricity – comparable to that of China's [[Three Gorges Dam]]. The reservoirs would flood {{convert|691|km|mi}} of the {{convert|1200|km|mi}} total river length in Myanmar, as well as the downstream ends of several tributaries.<ref name="MyanmarHydropower"/> Electricity generated by these dams would be exported primarily to China and Thailand.{{sfn|Middleton|Lamb|2019|page=33}} In May 2005, a formal Memorandum of Understanding was signed between Myanmar and Thailand to jointly develop hydropower projects along the Salween River.{{sfn|Middleton|Lamb|2019|page=35}} Since then, a number of Chinese and Thai companies have partnered to develop these projects.{{sfn|Middleton|Lamb|2019|page=33}} In 2015, the newly elected [[National League for Democracy]] (NLD) government was expected to downsize or cancel the dam projects. However, the NLD soon announced the projects would go ahead.<ref name="Fawthrop2016">{{cite web|url=https://www.lowyinstitute.org/the-interpreter/fight-salween-mighty-river-still-running-free|title=The fight for the Salween, mighty river still running free|author=Fawthrop, Tom|date=December 19, 2016|access-date=November 8, 2020}}</ref>

The Mong Ton or Tasang Dam is the largest of the planned dams. The dam would be {{convert|228|m|ft}} high, and produce up to 7,110 megawatts. The reservoir would flood {{convert|870|km2|acre|abbr=on}}, splitting Shan State nearly in two. The Hatgyi Dam in downstream Kayin State would be smaller, but would have a more significant impact on the river flow. In addition to producing power, the Hatgyi dam would divert some of the Salween flow during certain seasons into the [[Ping River]], part of Thailand's [[Chao Phraya River|Chao Phraya]] basin, to benefit agriculture in central Thailand.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.mekongeye.com/2016/09/14/thailand-plans-to-dust-off-hatgyi-dam-egati-awaits-myanmar-govt-to-negotiate-with-ethnic-group/|title=Thailand plans to dust off Hatgyi Dam; EGATi awaits Myanmar Govt to negotiate with ethnic group|work=Mekong Eye|date=September 14, 2016|access-date=November 8, 2020}}</ref> A smaller alternative to the Salween diversion would be a diversion of the [[Yuam River]] (a tributary of the Salween via the [[Moei River]]) to the Ping.<ref name="FAO"/>

The Kunlon Dam ({{langx|my|ကွန်းလုံဆည်}}) is planned to be built in northern [[Shan State]], [[Myanmar]].<ref name="ys">{{cite news |last=Yen Snaing |author2=May Kha |date=20 June 2014 |title=Govt Pushes Ahead With 3 Salween, Irrawaddy Tributary Dams |url=http://www.irrawaddy.org/burma/govt-pushes-ahead-3-salween-irrawaddy-tributary-dams.html |accessdate=19 July 2015 |work=The Irrawaddy}}</ref> Salween River is the last undammed major river in South East Asia.<ref>{{cite news |date=2024-05-01 |title=The Salween explained: Asia's last great undammed river |url=https://bkktribune.com/the-salween-explained-asias-last-great-undammed-river/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250906132437/https://bkktribune.com/the-salween-explained-asias-last-great-undammed-river/ |archive-date=2025-09-06 |access-date=2025-09-06 |website=[[The Bangkok Tribune]]}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Eco-Business |date=2024-04-04 |title=The Salween explained: Asia’s last great undammed river |url=https://www.eco-business.com/news/the-salween-explained-asias-last-great-undammed-river/ |access-date=2025-09-14 |website=Eco-Business |language=en}}</ref> The project was initiated by the Chinese firm Yunnan Machinery & Equipment Import & Export Co. (YMEC) and is co-financed by the Chinese state through Hydrochina Corporation. One of the conditions for the dam, whose effect is expected to be in the 1200-1400 MW range, is to transfer at least 50% of the electricity production to China.<ref>{{cite web |date=2016-05-16 |title=Rebellious river: Chinese hydropower development in an illegible landscape |url=https://tri.yale.edu/tropical-resources/tropical-resources-vol-38/rebellious-river-chinese-hydropower-development |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250906132623/https://tri.yale.edu/tropical-resources/tropical-resources-vol-38/rebellious-river-chinese-hydropower-development |archive-date=2025-09-06 |access-date=2025-09-06 |website=[[Yale School of the Environment]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |date=2024-09-05 |title=UWSA takeover of northern Tangyan paves the way for China's damming of the Salween |url=https://shanstatefrontline.com/uwsa-takeover-of-northern-tangyan-paves-the-way-for-chinas-damming-of-the-salween/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250906133048/https://shanstatefrontline.com/uwsa-takeover-of-northern-tangyan-paves-the-way-for-chinas-damming-of-the-salween/ |archive-date=2025-09-06 |access-date=2025-09-06 |website=Shan State Frontline Investment Monitor}}</ref>

There are numerous concerns surrounding the potential impact of the dams, particularly the effect on agriculture in the Salween delta due to a reduction in the annual floods and sediment supply that maintain soil fertility. Water would be released based on power demand rather than agricultural needs, potentially causing water shortages and [[saline intrusion]] in the delta.<ref name="YwathitDam" /> In addition, there would be numerous ecological impacts, as the dams would block fish migration, and necessitate considerable deforestation to clear the areas to be flooded. The dams would also be located in an area with high earthquake risk.<ref name="Fawthrop2016" />

In 2016, the Myanmar government announced its intention to complete the remaining dams by 2031.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://news.mongabay.com/2016/11/damming-the-salween-what-next-for-southeast-asias-last-great-free-flowing-river/|title=Damming the Salween: what next for Southeast Asia's last great free-flowing river?|author=Stokes, Demelza|work=Mongabay|date=November 23, 2016|access-date=November 8, 2020}}</ref> Construction plans have raised many concerns regarding social impact, human rights abuses and displacement.<ref>{{cite web |author=Observer Research Foundation |date=2022-07-04 |title=Dams as displacers: A heavy social cost to incur |url=https://www.orfonline.org/english/expert-speak/dams-as-displacers-a-heavy-social-cost-to-incur |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250906133636/https://www.orfonline.org/english/expert-speak/dams-as-displacers-a-heavy-social-cost-to-incur |archive-date=2025-09-06 |access-date=2025-09-06 |website=Observer Research Foundation}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |date=2014-06-20 |title=Govt Pushes Ahead With 3 Salween, Irrawaddy Tributary Dams |url=https://data.unhcr.org/fr/news/13759 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250906133808/https://data.unhcr.org/fr/news/13759 |archive-date=2025-09-06 |access-date=2025-09-06 |website=[[United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees]] |language=fr |ref={{sfnref| Operational Data Portal |2014}}}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |date=2025-08-27 |title=Myanmar: Coup‑halted dam projects with Chinese investors could resume |url=https://www.business-humanrights.org/en/latest-news/myanmar-couphalted-dam-projects-could-resume-reviving-concerns-over-displacement-water-access-and-inadequate-impact-assessments-according-to-report/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250906133013/https://www.business-humanrights.org/en/latest-news/myanmar-couphalted-dam-projects-could-resume-reviving-concerns-over-displacement-water-access-and-inadequate-impact-assessments-according-to-report/ |archive-date=2025-09-06 |access-date=2025-09-06 |website=Business & Human Rights Resource Centre}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last= |last1=Roney |first1=Tyler |author2=Dialogue Earth |date=2025-06-19 |title=Specter of dams and diversion looms over Southeast Asia's Salween River |url=https://news.mongabay.com/2025/06/specter-of-dams-and-diversion-looms-over-southeast-asias-salween-river/ |access-date=2025-09-11 |website=Mongabay Environmental News |language=en-US |quote=The Salween River, one of Asia's last free-flowing rivers, supports Indigenous communities and biodiversity across China, Myanmar and Thailand, but faces threats from at least 20 proposed hydropower dams, mainly in Myanmar.}}</ref>

{| class="wikitable"
! colspan="7" |Proposed dams on the Salween in Myanmar
|-
!Name
!Location
!Height
!Flooding area
!Generating<br />capacity
!Annual<br />production
!Status
|-
|[[Hatgyi Dam]]<ref>{{cite web|url=https://burmariversnetwork.org/title/dam-projects/hatgyi.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180426032949/http://burmariversnetwork.org/title/dam-projects/hatgyi.html|url-status=usurped|archive-date=26 April 2018|title=Hatgyi Dam|publisher=Burma Rivers Network|access-date=November 7, 2020}}</ref>
|[[Hlaingbwe Township]], [[Karen State]]
|{{nts|33}}&nbsp;m<br />(108&nbsp;ft)
|
|{{nts|1,365}}&nbsp;MW
|{{nts|7,325}}&nbsp;GWh
|Pre-construction
|-
|Dagwin Dam<ref>{{cite web|url=https://burmariversnetwork.org/title/dam-projects/dagwin.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201129053301/https://burmariversnetwork.org/title/dam-projects/dagwin.html|url-status=usurped|archive-date=29 November 2020|title=Dagwin Dam|publisher=Burma Rivers Network|access-date=November 7, 2020}}</ref>
|[[Karen State]]/[[Mae Hong Son Province]]
|{{nts|56}}&nbsp;m<br />(184&nbsp;ft)
|
|{{nts|792}}&nbsp;MW
|
|Suspended
|-
|Weigyi Dam<ref>{{cite web|url=https://burmariversnetwork.org/title/dam-projects/weigyi.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201210181115/https://burmariversnetwork.org/title/dam-projects/weigyi.html|url-status=usurped|archive-date=10 December 2020|title=Weigyi Dam|publisher=Burma Rivers Network|access-date=November 7, 2020}}</ref>
|[[Karen State]] and [[Karenni State]]/[[Mae Hong Son Province]]
|{{nts|168}}&nbsp;m<br />(551&nbsp;ft)
|{{nts|640}}&nbsp;km<sup>2</sup><br />(247&nbsp;mi<sup>2</sup>)
|{{nts|4,540}}&nbsp;MW
|
|Suspended
|-
|Ywathit Dam<ref name="YwathitDam">{{cite web|url=https://burmariversnetwork.org/title/dam-projects/ywathit-dam.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180424191407/http://burmariversnetwork.org/title/dam-projects/ywathit-dam.html|url-status=usurped|archive-date=24 April 2018|title=Ywathit Dam|publisher=Burma Rivers Network|access-date=November 7, 2020}}</ref>
|[[Karenni State]]
|
|
|{{nts|4,500}}&nbsp;MW
|{{nts|21,789}}&nbsp;GWh
|Planned
|-
|Mong Ton Dam ([[Tasang Dam]])<ref name="tasangdam">{{cite web|url=https://burmariversnetwork.org/title/dam-projects/tasang.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180426033044/http://burmariversnetwork.org/title/dam-projects/tasang.html|url-status=usurped|archive-date=26 April 2018|title=TaSang Dam|publisher=Burma Rivers Network|access-date=November 7, 2020}}</ref>
|[[Mong Ton Township]], [[Shan State]]
|{{nts|228}}&nbsp;m<br />(748&nbsp;ft)
|{{nts|870}}&nbsp;km<sup>2</sup><br />(335&nbsp;mi<sup>2</sup>)
|{{nts|7,110}}&nbsp;MW
|{{nts|35,446}}&nbsp;GWh
|Pre-construction
|-
|Noung Pha Dam<ref>{{cite web|url=https://burmariversnetwork.org/title/dam-projects/noung-pha-and-man-taung-hydropower-project.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180424191357/http://burmariversnetwork.org/title/dam-projects/noung-pha-and-man-taung-hydropower-project.html|url-status=usurped|archive-date=24 April 2018|title=Noung Pha and Man Taung Hydropower Project|publisher=Burma Rivers Network|access-date=November 7, 2020}}</ref>
|[[Tangyan Township]], [[Shan State]]
|{{nts|90}}&nbsp;m<br />(295&nbsp;ft)
|
|{{nts|1,200}}&nbsp;MW
|
|Planned
|-
|Kunlong Dam<ref>{{cite web|url=https://burmariversnetwork.org/title/dam-projects/upper-thanlwin.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180425153949/http://burmariversnetwork.org/title/dam-projects/upper-thanlwin.html|url-status=usurped|archive-date=25 April 2018|title=KungLong Dam (Upper Thanlwin Dam|publisher=Burma Rivers Network|access-date=November 7, 2020}}</ref>
|[[Kunlong Township]], [[Shan State]]
|
|
|{{nts|1,400}}&nbsp;MW
|
|Planned
|}

===China===
[[Image:Micro-hydro_Salween_River_in_Yunnan_Province,_China.jpg|thumb|right|Small hydroelectric plant next to the Salween River in Yunnan]]
In 2000, China initiated the West-East Power Transfer development scheme, to develop large-scale hydropower dams on its western rivers. The Salween (Nu) River basin within China has an estimated 36,400 megawatts of hydropower potential.{{sfn|Middleton|Lamb|2019|page=54}} The power would be exported to southeastern China, particularly the [[Guangzhou]] megalopolis. This included thirteen dams on the mainstem of the Nu, with a total capacity of 21,320 megawatts,{{sfn|Tilt|2014|page=93}} and a number of small to medium-size projects on tributaries.<ref name="Johnston"/> The tallest mainstem dam, Songta, would be {{convert|307|m|ft}} high.{{sfn|Tilt|2014|page=93}} In 2003 the Yunnan Huadian Nu River Hydropower Company was created after an agreement between the Yunnan provincial government and the [[Huadian Group]].{{sfn|Middleton|Lamb|2019|page=54}}

The proposal to develop the Nu River, one of China's last free-flowing rivers, was met with large protests from local residents as well as from international environmental organizations. If constructed, the dams would have displaced some 56,000 people.<ref name="Johnston"/> In addition, in 2003 the UNESCO [[World Heritage Committee]] had voted to list Yunnan's [[Three Parallel Rivers]] region as a World Heritage Site. Many of the proposed dams fell within this area. In 2004 Premier [[Wen Jiabao]] temporarily suspended plans to build dams on the main stem of the river, although a number of hydropower projects on tributaries were ultimately built.{{sfn|Buckley|2014|page=62}} In addition, the Chalong and Jiquan hydroelectric projects were built on the uppermost section of the Salween in Tibet.{{sfn|Middleton|Lamb|2019|page=28}} After Wen's term of office ended in 2013, power companies made a renewed push for construction of the Nu River dams.{{sfn|Buckley|2014|page=62}}

The Yunnan provincial government first proposed a Nu River Grand Canyon National Park in 2007, but did not begin development of this proposal until 2014. In January 2016, Yunnan suspended small hydropower development as well as mining along the Nu River and in May approved the establishment of the national park.{{sfn|Middleton|Lamb|2019|page=64}} In December 2016, China's State Energy Administration formally dropped the Nu River dams from its hydropower development plans.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2016/dec/02/joy-as-china-shelves-plans-to-dam-angry-river|title=Joy as China shelves plans to dam 'angry river'|author=Phillips, Tom|work=The Guardian|date=December 2, 2016|access-date=November 7, 2020}}</ref> A major factor in the cancellation of the dams was the risk of earthquakes along the Nu River fault zone.{{citation needed|date=February 2021}}

{{wide image|Panorama salween river.jpg|800px|View of Salween River in Shan State}}

==See also==
*[[List of rivers of Asia]]
*[[List of rivers of China]]
*[[List of rivers of Myanmar]]
*[[List of rivers of Thailand]]
*[[List of rivers by length]]
*[[List of rivers by discharge]]
*[[Pai River]]
*[[Jinsha River]]
*[[Wang Yongchen]]
*[[Bogyoke Aung San bridge]]

==External links==
*[https://www.google.com/maps/@28.0043335,98.6401941,3a,75y,88.14h,73.4t/data=!3m8!1e1!3m6!1sAF1QipMnrHfD-DOEmMnudIB6BVPi5s9VfBBrzN5efe5I!2e10!3e11!6shttps:%2F%2Flh5.googleusercontent.com%2Fp%2FAF1QipMnrHfD-DOEmMnudIB6BVPi5s9VfBBrzN5efe5I%3Dw203-h100-k-no-pi0-ya67.64402-ro-0-fo100!7i8612!8i4306!5m1!1e4?coh=205409&entry=ttu&g_ep=EgoyMDI0MTAyMC4xIKXMDSoASAFQAw%3D%3D Landscape of Nùjiāng at Bǐngzhōngluò zhèn]

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==Further reading==
*[https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1083 Three Parallel Rivers of Yunnan Protected Areas] at whc.unesco.org
*[http://www.eoearth.org/article/Three_Parallel_Rivers_of_Yunnan_Protected_Areas,_China Three Parallel Rivers Protected Area] at www.eoearth.org
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20051219022354/http://nature.org/wherewework/asiapacific/china/work/art13268.html Nature Conservancy: Gongshan Nature Reserve] [[The Nature Conservancy]]
*[http://www.rwesa.org/ Rivers Watch East and Southeast Asia] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191022192210/http://www.rwesa.org/ |date=22 October 2019 }}
*[http://www.river.com/nujiang/nujiang.html NuJiang River Project]
*[http://www.salween.unibe.ch Hydrometeorological Approach to the Upper Salween River (USRB)] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303214902/http://www.salween.unibe.ch/ |date=3 March 2016 }} - copyright by Dr. Christophe Lienert, Geographical Institute of the University of Berne and Kunming Institute of Botany
*[http://www.chinariversproject.org China Rivers Project]
*[http://www.lastdescents.com Last Descents River Expeditions]
*{{usurped|1=[https://web.archive.org/web/20191028012843/http://www.shangri-la-river-expeditions.com/1stdes/salween/salweensummary.html A history of first raft and kayak descents of the Salween in Tibet and Yunnan, China.]}}

==External links==
{{Commons category|Salween River}}
{{geoGroup}}
* Phoel, Cynthia M., "Bargaining Power", in ''Oxfam Exchange'', Fall 2004.
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20051231042736/http://www.salweenwatch.org/ Salween River Watch NGO]
*[https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1083 Three Parallel Rivers of Yunnan Protected Areas]
*[http://www.eoearth.org/article/Three_Parallel_Rivers_of_Yunnan_Protected_Areas,_China Three Parallel Rivers Protected Area]
*[http://www.river.com/nujiang/nujiang.html NuJiang River Project]
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20080828063459/http://salweenfirstdescent.com/ Salween First Descent]
*[http://www.salweenwatch.org/index.php?view=article&id=51%3Arecent-dam-and-water-diversion-plans&tmpl=component&print=1&page=&option=com_content&Itemid=60 Water Diversion from the Salween to the Chaophraya River]
*{{usurped|1=[https://archive.today/20140830093650/http://www.burmapartnership.org/2014/04/joint-statement-of-concern-by-shan-civil-society-organizations-regarding-public-meeting-by-burmese-government-and-hydrochina-to-promote-dams-on-the-salween-and-nam-ma-rivers/ Joint Statement of Concern by Shan Civil Society Organizations Regarding Public Meeting by Burmese Government and Hydrochina to Promote Dams on the Salween and Nam Ma Rivers]}}

{{China Rivers}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Salween River| ]]
[[Category:Freshwater ecoregions]]
[[Category:Rivers of Tibet]]
[[Category:Rivers of Yunnan]]
[[Category:Rivers of Myanmar]]
[[Category:Rivers of Thailand]]
[[Category:International rivers of Asia]]
[[Category:Myanmar–Thailand border]]
[[Category:Border rivers]]