View source for Sambucus

{{Short description|Genus of flowering plants}}
{{Automatic taxobox
|image = Sambucus-berries.jpg
|image_caption = ''[[Sambucus ebulus]]'' berries (elderberries)
|taxon = Sambucus
|authority = [[Carl Linnaeus|L.]]<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ars-grin.gov/cgi-bin/npgs/html/genus.pl?10679 |title=''Sambucus'' L |website=Germplasm Resource Information Network |publisher=[[United States Department of Agriculture]] |date=2005-10-13 |access-date=2009-07-23 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090507024043/http://www.ars-grin.gov/cgi-bin/npgs/html/genus.pl?10679 |archive-date=2009-05-07 }}</ref>
|subdivision_ranks = Species
|subdivision = ''[[#Taxonomy|See text]]''
}}

'''''Sambucus''''' is a [[genus]] of between 20 and 30 species of [[flowering plant]]s in the family [[Adoxaceae]]. The various species are commonly referred to as '''elder''', with the flowers as '''elderflower''', and the fruit as '''elderberry'''.

== Description ==
Elders are mostly fast-growing [[shrub]]s or small [[tree]]s {{cvt|3|–|10|m}} (rarely to {{cvt|14|m}}) tall, with a few species being [[herbaceous]] plants {{cvt|1|–|2|m}} tall. The oppositely arranged [[leaves]] are [[pinnate]] with 5–9 leaflets (or, rarely, 3 or 11). Each leaf is {{convert|5|–|30|cm|frac=2}} long, and the leaflets have serrated margins. They bear large clusters of small white or cream-coloured [[flower]]s in late spring or early summer; these are followed by clusters of small berries that are green when immature, ripening black, blue-black, or red (rarely yellow or white).

{{gallery|mode=packed
|Sambucus canadensis3.jpg|''[[Sambucus canadensis|S. canadensis]]'' branches and inflorescence
|Sambucus canadensis W2 IMG 3144.jpg|[[Inflorescence]] of ''S.&nbsp;canadensis''
|Sambucus nigra0.jpg|Flowers of ''[[Sambucus nigra|S.&nbsp;nigra]]''
}}

==Taxonomy==
The genus name comes from the [[Ancient Greek]] word {{lang|grc|σαμβύκη}} ({{Transliteration|grc|sambū́kē}}), an ancient wind instrument, relating to the removal of pith from the twigs to make whistles.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Niering |first1=William A. |author-link1=William Niering |title=The Audubon Society Field Guide to North American Wildflowers, Eastern Region |last2=Olmstead |first2=Nancy C. |publisher=Knopf |year=1985 |isbn=0-394-50432-1 |page=448 |orig-year=1979}}</ref>

The [[taxonomy (biology)|taxonomy]] of the genus ''Sambucus'' <small>L.</small>, originally described by [[Carl Linnaeus]] and hence its [[botanical authority]], has been complicated by its wide geographical distribution and [[morphology (biology)|morphological]] diversity. This has led to overdescription of the species and infraspecific taxa ([[subspecies]], [[Variety (botany)|varieties]] or [[Form (botany)|forms]]).{{sfn|Applequist|2015}}

The genus was formerly placed in the [[honeysuckle]] family [[Caprifoliaceae]], but was reclassified in the moschatel family [[Adoxaceae]] due to genetic and morphological comparisons to plants in the genus ''[[Adoxa]]''.{{sfn|Eriksson|Donoghue|1997}}

Species currently accepted by [[Plants of the World Online]] in this genus are:<ref name="POWO">{{cite web | title=Plants of the World Online | website=Plants of the World Online | date=2020-07-17 | url=https://powo.science.kew.org/taxon/urn:lsid:ipni.org:names:30018446-2 | access-date=2025-02-15}}</ref>

{{div col|colwidth=30em}}
* ''[[Sambucus adnata]]'' Wall. ex DC.
* ''[[Sambucus africana]]'' Standl.
* ''[[Sambucus australasica]]'' (Lindl.) Fritsch
* ''[[Sambucus australis]]'' Cham. & Schltdl.
* ''[[Sambucus canadensis]]'' L.
* ''[[Sambucus cerulea]]'' Raf.
* ''[[Sambucus ebulus]]'' L.
* ''[[Sambucus gaudichaudiana]]'' DC.
* ''[[Sambucus javanica]]'' Reinw. ex Blume
* ''[[Sambucus kamtschatica]]'' E.L.Wolf
* ''[[Sambucus lanceolata]]'' R.Br.
* ''[[Sambucus mexicana]]'' C.Presl ex DC.
* ''[[Sambucus nigra]]'' L.
* ''[[Sambucus palmensis]]'' Link
* ''[[Sambucus pendula]]'' Nakai
* ''[[Sambucus peruviana]]'' Kunth
* ''[[Sambucus racemosa]]'' L.
* ''[[Sambucus sibirica]]'' Nakai
* ''[[Sambucus sieboldiana]]'' (Miq.) Graebn.
* ''[[Sambucus × strumpfii]]'' Gutte
* ''[[Sambucus tigranii]]'' Troitsky
* ''[[Sambucus wightiana]]'' Wall. ex Wight & Arn.
* ''[[Sambucus williamsii]]'' Hance
{{div col end}}

Some other authors have [[lumpers and splitters|differed]] in the species they accept:{{sfn|TPL|2013}}{{sfn|Eriksson|Donoghue|1997}}

{{div col|colwidth=30em}}
* {{ill|Sambucus adnata|sv||zh|血满草|italic=yes}} – Himalaya and eastern Asia
* ''[[Sambucus australasica]]'' – [[New Guinea]], eastern Australia
* ''[[Sambucus australis]]'' – South America
* ''[[Sambucus canadensis]]'' – eastern North America
* ''[[Sambucus cerulea]]'' – western North America
* ''[[Sambucus ebulus]]'' – central and southern Europe, northwest Africa and southwest Asia
* ''[[Sambucus gaudichaudiana]]'' – south eastern Australia
* ''[[Sambucus javanica]]'' – southeastern Asia
* ''[[Sambucus lanceolata]]'' – [[Madeira Island]]
* {{ill|Sambucus latipinna|ar|خمان ريشي عريض|italic=yes}} –  Korea, southeast Siberia
* {{ill|Sambucus melanocarpa|qid=Q50864859|short=yes|italic=yes}} – western North America
* {{ill|Sambucus microbotrys|qid=Q50867073|short=yes|italic=yes}} – southwest North America
* ''[[Sambucus nigra]]'' – [[Europe]] and [[North America]]
* ''[[Sambucus orbiculata]]''{{efn|Wikispecies lists [[:species:Sambucus orbiculata|Sambucus orbiculata]] as a [[Synonym (taxonomy)|synonym]] for [[:species:Sambucus canadensis|Sambucus canadensis]]}} – western North America
* ''[[Sambucus palmensis]]'' – [[Canary Islands]]
* ''[[Sambucus peruviana]]'' – Costa Rica, Panama and northwest South America
* ''[[Sambucus pubens]]'' – northern North America
* ''[[Sambucus racemosa]]'' – northern, central and southeastern Europe, northwest Asia, western North America
* {{ill|Sambucus sibirica|zh|西伯利亚接骨木|italic=yes}} – eastern Asia
* ''[[Sambucus sieboldiana]]'' – Japan and Korea
* {{ill|Sambucus simpsonii|qid=Q50867060|short=yes|italic=yes}} – southeastern United States
* ''[[Sambucus tigranii]]'' – southwest Asia
* ''[[Sambucus velutina]]'' – southwestern North America
* {{ill|Sambucus wightiana|qid=Q17434377|short=yes|italic=yes}} – western Himalayas
* {{ill|Sambucus williamsii|zh|接骨木|fr||is|italic=yes}} – northeast Asia
{{div col end}}

== Distribution and habitat ==
The genus occurs in [[temperate]] to subtropical regions of the world. More widespread in the Northern Hemisphere, its Southern Hemisphere occurrence is restricted to parts of [[Australasia]] and [[South America]]. Many species are widely cultivated for their ornamental leaves, flowers, and fruit.<ref>{{cite book|title=RHS A-Z encyclopedia of garden plants|publisher=Dorling Kindersley|year=2008|isbn=978-1-4053-3296-5|location=United Kingdom|page=1136}}</ref>

Elder commonly grows near farms and homesteads. It is a [[nitrogen]]-tolerant plant and thus is often found near places of [[organic waste]] disposal. Elders are often grown as a [[hedgerow]] plant in Britain since they take very fast, can be bent into shape easily, and grow quite profusely, thus having gained the reputation{{according to whom|date=March 2025}} of being an "instant hedge". It is not generally affected by soil type or [[Soil pH|pH]] level and will grow virtually anywhere sufficient [[sunlight]] is available.{{citation needed|date=March 2025}}

== Ecology ==
The berries are consumed by birds and mammals.<ref name="Knopf">{{cite book |last=Whitney |first=Stephen |url=https://archive.org/details/westernforests00whit/page/423 |title=Western Forests (The Audubon Society Nature Guides) |date=1985 |publisher=Knopf |isbn=0-394-73127-1 |location=New York |page=[https://archive.org/details/westernforests00whit/page/423 423]}}</ref> In Northern California, elderberries are eaten by migrating [[band-tailed pigeon]]s. Elders are used as food plants by the [[larva]]e of some [[Lepidoptera]] species including [[brown-tail]], [[buff ermine]], [[dot moth]], [[Saturnia pavonia|emperor moth]], [[Engrailed (moth)|engrailed moth]], [[swallow-tailed moth]] and the {{Nowrap|[[V-pug]]}}. The crushed foliage and immature fruit have a strong fetid smell. [[Valley elderberry longhorn beetle]]s in California are very often found around red or blue elderberry bushes. Females lay their eggs on the bark.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2018-04-11|title=Asian Long-Horned Beetle Life Cycle, Development & Life Stages|url=https://www.orkin.com/other/beetles/asian-long-horned-beetles/asian-long-horned-beetle-life-cycle|access-date=2020-12-25|website=Orkin.com|language=en}}</ref> Strong-scented flowers in wild populations of European elder (''S.&nbsp;nigra'') attract numerous, minute flower [[thrips]] which may contribute to the transfer of pollen between inflorescences.<ref name="ScottBrown et al 2019">{{cite journal |last1=Scott-Brown |first1=A.S. |last2=Arnold |first2=S.E.J. |last3=Kite |first3=G.C. |last4=Farrell |first4=I.F. |last5=Farman |first5=D.I. |last6=Collins |first6=D.W. |last7=Stevenson |first7=P.C. |title=Mechanisms in mutualisms: A chemically mediated thrips pollination strategy in common elder |journal=Planta |date=2019 |volume=250 |issue=1 |pages=367–379 |doi=10.1007/s00425-019-03176-5|pmid=31069523 |bibcode=2019Plant.250..367S |s2cid=253886497 |doi-access=free }}</ref>

== Cultivation ==
[[File:Holunderkultur.JPG|thumb|upright=1.2|Cultivation in Austria]]

Traditional uses of ''Sambucus'' involved berries, seeds, leaves, and flowers or component [[extract]]s.<ref name="abc">{{cite web |author1=Gayle Engels |author2=Josef Brinckmann |title=European elder, ''Sambucus nigra'', L. |url=http://cms.herbalgram.org/herbalgram/issue97/hg97-herbpro.html |publisher=HerbalGram, American Botanical Council |access-date=21 October 2019 |date=2013}}</ref> [[ornamental plant|Ornamental]] varieties of ''Sambucus'' are grown in gardens for their showy flowers, fruits and lacy foliage which support habitat for wildlife.<ref name="stevens">{{cite web |author1=Stevens M |title=Guide for common elderberry (''Sambucus nigra'' L. ssp. Canadensis (L.) |url=https://plants.usda.gov/plantguide/pdf/cs_sanic4.pdf |publisher=National Resources Conservation Service, US Department of Agriculture |access-date=21 October 2019 |date=2001}}</ref> Of the many native species, three are used as ornamentals: ''[[Sambucus canadensis|S.&nbsp;canadensis]]'', ''[[Sambucus nigra|S.&nbsp;nigra]]'', and ''[[Sambucus racemosa|S.&nbsp;racemosa]]''.{{sfn|Boland|2012}}

== Toxicity ==
Some species of the Sambucus genus produce toxic berries, leaves, roots, and stems.<ref name="senica">{{cite journal |last1=Senica |first1=M |last2=Stampar |first2=F |last3=Veberic |first3=R |last4=Mikulic-Petkovsek |first4=M |year=2016 |title=The higher the better? Differences in phenolics and cyanogenic glycosides in ''Sambucus nigra'' leaves, flowers and berries from different altitudes |journal=Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture |volume=97 |issue=8 |pages=2623–2632 |doi=10.1002/jsfa.8085 |pmid=27734518}}</ref><ref name="Knopf" /> Leaves, twigs, branches, seeds, roots, flowers, and berries of some ''Sambucus'' plants produce [[cyanogenic glycoside]]s, which have [[toxic]] properties.<ref name="senica" /> Ingesting a sufficient quantity of cyanogenic glycosides from berry juice, flower tea, or beverages made from fresh leaves, branches, and fruit has been shown to cause [[adverse event|illness]], including [[nausea]], vomiting, abdominal cramps, [[diarrhea]], and weakness.<ref name="nih" /><ref name="senica" /><ref name="cdc">{{cite journal |author1=Centers for Disease Control (CDC) |date=April 6, 1984 |title=Poisoning from Elderberry Juice—California |url=https://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/preview/mmwrhtml/00000311.htm |journal=Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report |volume=33 |issue=13 |pages=173–174 |pmid=6422238 |access-date=December 15, 2012}}</ref> In August 1983, a group of 25 people in [[Monterey County, California]], became ill after ingesting elderberry juice pressed from fresh, uncooked ''[[Sambucus mexicana|S.&nbsp;mexicana]]'' berries, leaves, and stems.<ref name="cdc" /> The concentration of cyanogenic glycosides is higher in tea made from flowers (or leaves) than from the berries.<ref name="senica" /><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Viapiana |first1=A |last2=Wesolowski |first2=M |year=2017 |title=The Phenolic Contents and Antioxidant Activities of Infusions of ''Sambucus nigra'' L |journal=Plant Foods for Human Nutrition |volume=72 |issue=1 |pages=82–87 |doi=10.1007/s11130-016-0594-x |pmc=5325840 |pmid=28084608|bibcode=2017PFHN...72...82V }}</ref>

The berries and leaves of the species ''Sambucus nigra, spp. canadensis'' have been shown to lack cyanogenic glycosides. In a 2021 scientific analysis, commercial elderberry juice made from ''Sambucus nigra, spp. canadensis'' in Illinois, USA, had no trace of cyanogenic glycosides.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Appenteng |first=Michael |date=4 March 2021 |title=Cyanogenic Glycoside Analysis in American Elderberry |journal=Molecules (Basel, Switzerland) |volume=26 |issue=5 |page=1384 |doi=10.3390/molecules26051384 |doi-access=free |pmid=33806603 |pmc=7961730 }}</ref> The authors also point out that the 1983 "poisoning" event in California which coincided with consumption of ''Sambucus cerulea'', rather than ''Sambucus mexicana'', was not caused by cyanide.

The seeds of ''[[Sambucus racemosa]]'' are reported to be poisonous and may cause vomiting or diarrhea.<ref name="Knopf" />

{{nutritionalvalue
| name=Elderberries, raw<br />''Sambucus'' spp.
| water=79.80 g
| kJ=305
| protein=0.66 g
| fat=0.5 g
| carbs=18.4 g
| fibre=7 g
| calcium_mg=38
| iron_mg=1.6
| magnesium_mg=5
| phosphorus_mg=39
| potassium_mg=280
| zinc_mg=0.11
| vitC_mg=36
| thiamin_mg=0.07
| riboflavin_mg=0.06
| niacin_mg=0.5
| pantothenic_mg=0.14
| vitB6_mg=0.23
| folate_ug=6
| vitA_ug=30
| source_usda=1
| note=[https://web.archive.org/web/20160309000049/https://ndb.nal.usda.gov/ndb/search/list?qlookup=09088&format=Full Link to USDA Database entry]
}}

== Uses ==
The cooked berries (pulp and skin) of most species of ''Sambucus'' are edible.<ref name="nih" /><ref name="jekka">McVicar, Jekka (2007). "Jekka's Complete Herb Book" p. 214–215. Raincoast Books, Vancouver. {{ISBN|1-55192-882-5}}</ref>

=== Nutrition ===
Raw elderberries are 80% water, 18% [[carbohydrate]]s, and less than 1% each of [[protein]] and [[fat]]. In a {{convert|100|g|oz|frac=2|adj=on}} amount, elderberries supply {{convert|305|kJ|kcal}} of [[food energy]] and are a rich source of [[vitamin&nbsp;C]], providing 43% of the [[Daily Value]] (DV). Elderberries also have moderate contents of [[vitamin B6|vitamin B<sub>6</sub>]] (18% DV) and [[iron]] (12% DV), with no other nutrients in significant content.

=== Chemistry ===
[[File:Anthocyanidine.svg|thumb|Structure of [[anthocyanin]]s, the blue pigments in elderberries<ref>{{cite journal|pmc=4472577|year=2015|last1=Johnson|first1=M. C|title=Impact of Frozen Storage on the Anthocyanin and Polyphenol Content of American Elderberry Fruit Juice|journal=Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry|volume=63|issue=23|pages=5653–5659|last2=Thomas|first2=A. L|last3=Greenlief|first3=C. M|doi=10.1021/acs.jafc.5b01702|pmid=26028422|bibcode=2015JAFC...63.5653J }}</ref>]]

''Sambucus'' fruit is rich in [[anthocyanidin]]s<ref name=USDA6>[https://www.ams.usda.gov/sites/default/files/media/Colors%20Derived%20from%20Ag%20Products%20TR.pdf Colors Derived from Agricultural Products], [[USDA]]</ref> that combine to give elderberry juice an intense blue-purple colour that turns reddish on dilution with water.<ref name=register>{{Cite web|url=https://www.federalregister.gov/documents/2007/05/15/07-2388/national-organic-program-nop-proposed-amendments-to-the-national-list-of-allowed-and-prohibited|title=National Organic Program (NOP)-Proposed Amendments to the National List of Allowed and Prohibited Substances (Processing)|date=May 15, 2007|website=Federal Register}}</ref>

===Dietary supplement===
Elderberry fruit or flowers are used as [[dietary supplement]]s to prevent or provide relief from minor diseases, such as [[flu]], colds, [[constipation]], seasonal allergies, inflammation, gut biome improvement,<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Teets |first=Christy |date=20 October 2024 |title=A One-Week Elderberry Juice Intervention Augments the Fecal Microbiota and Suggests Improvement in Glucose Tolerance and Fat Oxidation in a Randomized Controlled Trial |journal=Nutrients |volume=16 |issue=20 |page=3555 |doi=10.3390/nu16203555 |doi-access=free |pmid=39458549 |pmc=11510622 }}</ref> weight loss, and other conditions, served as a tea, extract or in a [[capsule (pharmacy)|capsule]].<ref name="nih">{{cite web | url=https://www.nccih.nih.gov/health/elderberry | title=European elder | publisher=National Center for Complementary and Integrative Health, US National Institutes of Health | date=September 2016 | access-date=8 November 2016}}</ref> The use of elderberry supplements increased early in the COVID-19 pandemic.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web|title=Dietary Supplements in the Time of COVID-19: Fact Sheet for Health Professionals|url=https://ods.od.nih.gov/factsheets/COVID19-HealthProfessional/#h4|access-date=16 December 2021|publisher=National Institutes of Health, Office of Dietary Supplements|date=5 October 2021}}</ref> There is insufficient research to establish its effectiveness for such uses, or its safety profile.<ref name=nih/> The raw or unripe fruit of ''S.&nbsp;nigra'' or its extracts may contain a cyanogenic glycoside that is potentially toxic.<ref name=:1/>

=== Traditional medicine ===
[[File:Elderberries.jpeg|upright=1.1|thumb|Dried elderberries ready for [[steeping]]]]

Although practitioners of [[traditional medicine]] have used elderberries over centuries,<ref name=stevens/> there are no large scale studies that such practices provide benefits. However, there are some smaller studies showing antiviral effects. In one placebo-controlled study of air travellers, Elderberry Extract did not reduce the instance of developing the common cold, but did reduce the duration and intensity of symptoms significantly in the Elderberry group compared to the placebo group.<ref>{{cite journal | last1=Barak | first1=V. | last2=Halperin | first2=T. | last3=Kalickman | first3=I. | title=The effect of Sambucol, a black elderberry-based, natural product, on the production of human cytokines: I. Inflammatory cytokines | journal=European Cytokine Network | date=2001 | volume=12 | issue=2 | pages=290–296 | pmid=11399518 }}</ref><ref name=nih/><ref>{{cite journal | last1=Tiralongo | first1=E. | last2=Wee | first2=S. S. | last3=Lea | first3=R. A. | title=Elderberry Supplementation Reduces Cold Duration and Symptoms in Air-Travellers: A Randomized, Double-Blind Placebo-Controlled Clinical Trial | journal=Nutrients | date=2016 | volume=8 | issue=4 | page=182 | doi=10.3390/nu8040182 | doi-access=free | pmid=27023596 | pmc=4848651 }}</ref>
Further, Elderberry flavonoids bind to H1N1 flu virons, preventing them infecting host cells.<ref>{{cite journal | last1=Roschek Jr | first1=B. | last2=Fink | first2=R. C. | last3=McMichael | first3=M. D. | last4=Li | first4=D. | last5=Alberte | first5=R. S. | title=Elderberry flavonoids bind to and prevent H1N1 infection in vitro | journal=Phytochemistry | date=2009 | volume=70 | issue=10 | pages=1255–1261 | doi=10.1016/j.phytochem.2009.06.003 | pmid=19682714 | bibcode=2009PChem..70.1255R }}</ref> Therefore, the historical use in traditional medicine is moderately supported by present science for some viral infections. It has been shown to inhibit replication of SARS-COV-2 (COVID-19) in Vitro.<ref>{{cite journal | last1=Christian | first1=Setz | last2=Maria | first2=Fröba | last3=Maximilian | first3=Große | last4=Pia | first4=Rauch | last5=Janina | first5=Auth | last6=Alexander | first6=Steinkasserer | last7=Stephan | first7=Plattner | last8=Ulrich | first8=Schubert | title=European Black Elderberry Fruit Extract Inhibits Replication of SARS-CoV-2 in Vitro | journal=Nutraceuticals | date=March 2023 | volume=3 | issue=1 | url=https://www.mdpi.com/1661-3821/3/1/7 }}</ref>

===Pigments===
The pigments are used as colourants in various products,{{r|USDA6}} and "elderberry juice color" is listed by the US [[Food and Drug Administration]] as allowable in certified organic food products.{{r|USDA6}} In Japan, elderberry juice is listed as an approved "natural colour additive" under the Food and Sanitation Law.<ref name="CRC">{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rPjKBQAAQBAJ |title=Processing Fruits: Science and Technology |date=2004 |publisher=[[CRC Press]] |isbn=9781420040074 |edition=Second |pages=322–324 |access-date=20 August 2018}}</ref> Fibres can be dyed with elderberry juice (using [[alum]] as a [[mordant]]) to give a "muted purple" shade.<ref name="dye">{{cite book |last1=Burgess |first1=Rebecca |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8CwxW75P_dsC |title=Harvesting Color: How to Find Plants and Make Natural Dyes |date=2011 |publisher=Artisan Books |isbn=9781579654252 |pages=74–75 |access-date=20 August 2018}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Hall |first1=Alicia |title=Seasonal Plant Dyes Creating Year Round Colour from Plants, Beautiful Textile Projects. |date=2020 |publisher=[[Pen & Sword Books]] |isbn=9781526747242 |location=Barnsley, England |chapter=Elderberries}}</ref>

===Other===
The berry of ''S. racemosa'' can be made into [[fruit wine|wine]].<ref name="Knopf" /> The flowers of ''S.&nbsp;nigra'' are used to produce [[elderflower cordial]]. [[St-Germain (liqueur)|St-Germain]], a French liqueur, is made from elderflowers. Hallands Fläder, a Swedish [[akvavit]], is flavoured with elderflowers.

Hollowed elderberry twigs have traditionally been used as [[spile]]s to tap [[maple]] trees for [[Maple syrup|syrup]].<ref>Medve, Richard J. et al. ''Edible Wild Plants of Pennsylvania and Neighboring States'' [[Penn State Press]], 1990, {{ISBN|978-0-271-00690-1}}, p. 161</ref> Additionally, they have been hollowed out and used as flutes, blowguns, and syringes.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Lyle|first=Katie Letcher|title=The Complete Guide to Edible Wild Plants, Mushrooms, Fruits, and Nuts: How to Find, Identify, and Cook Them|publisher=[[FalconGuides]]|year=2010|isbn=978-1-59921-887-8|edition=2nd|location=Guilford, CN|pages=92|oclc=560560606|orig-year=2004}}</ref> In addition, the elderberry twigs and fruit are employed in creating dyes for basketry. These stems are dyed a very deep black by soaking them in a wash made from the berry stems of the elderberry.<ref name="stevens" />

The [[pith]] of elder has been used by [[watchmaker]]s for cleaning tools before intricate work.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Britten |first=Frederick James |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5SYJAAAAIAAJ |title=The Watch & Clock Makers' Handbook, Dictionary and Guide |page=281 |date=1896 |publisher=Spon & Chamberlain 
| archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20041023190954/http://www.oldandsold.com:80/articles22/watch-repair-2.shtml
| archive-date= 23 October 2004
| url-status= live 
}}</ref>

== In culture ==
[[Folklore]] related to elder trees is extensive and can vary according to region.<ref>{{cite news|last1=Diacono|first1=Mark|title=In praise of the elderflower|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/gardening/plants/10117751/In-praise-of-the-elderflower.html |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220112/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/gardening/plants/10117751/In-praise-of-the-elderflower.html |archive-date=2022-01-12 |url-access=subscription |url-status=live|access-date=10 September 2017|publisher=The Telegraph|date=15 June 2013}}{{cbignore}}</ref> In some traditions, the elder tree is thought to ward off evil and give protection from [[witch]]es, while other beliefs say that witches often congregate under the plant, especially when it is full of fruit.<ref>{{cite news|author1=Jen Munson|title=Consider warding off witches, monsters with these spooktacular herbs this Halloween|url=http://www.news-herald.com/article/HR/20161025/FEATURES/161029659|access-date=10 September 2017|publisher=The News-Herald, Digital First Media, Denver, CO|date=25 October 2016|archive-date=16 August 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180816061638/http://www.news-herald.com/article/HR/20161025/FEATURES/161029659|url-status=dead}}</ref> If an elder tree was cut down, a spirit known as the [[Elder Mother]] would be released and take her revenge.<ref name="Elderpower2020">{{cite web |last1=Scott-Brown |first1=A |last2=Walker |first2=K |title=Elder power |url=https://www.kew.org/read-and-watch/elder-power |website=Read & watch |publisher=Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew |access-date=9 February 2023}}</ref> The tree could only safely be cut while chanting a rhyme to the Elder Mother.<ref name=":0">Howard, Michael. ''Traditional Folk Remedies'' (Century, 1987); pp. 134–5</ref> [[Romani people]] believe burning elder wood brings bad luck.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iPTSEAAAQBAJ&pg=PT49|title=Magical Herb Compendium: Correspondences, Spells, and Meditations|isbn=9780738775104 |author1=Aurora |date=8 October 2023 |publisher=Llewellyn Worldwide }}</ref>

[[Elder Wand|A wand]] made from the branch of an elder tree plays a pivotal role in [[Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows|the final book of the ''Harry Potter'' series]], which was almost named ''Harry Potter and the Elder Wand''.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Groves|first1=Beatrice|title=Literary Allusion in Harry Potter|date=2017|publisher=Taylor & Francis|isbn=9781351978736|page=50|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8P8nDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA50|access-date=3 November 2017|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last1=Brown |first1=Jen |date=30 July 2007 |title=Confused by Potter? Author sets record straight |url=https://www.today.com/popculture/confused-potter-author-sets-record-straight-2D80555284 |access-date=3 November 2017 |work=Today |language=en}}</ref>

== Explanatory notes ==
{{notelist}}

== Citations ==
{{Reflist}}

== General and cited references ==
* {{Cite journal |last1=Applequist |first1=W.L. |title=A brief review of recent controversies in the taxonomy and nomenclature of Sambucus nigra sensu lato |journal=[[Acta Horticulturae]] |date=January 2015 |volume=1061 |issue=1061 |pages=25–33 |doi=10.17660/ActaHortic.2015.1061.1|pmid=27158181 |pmc=4859216 }}
* {{Cite web |last=Boland|first=Todd|title=Ornamental Elderberries|url= https://davesgarden.com/guides/articles/view/1061|website=[[Dave's Garden]] |access-date=25 July 2019 |date=15 September 2012}}
* {{Cite journal|last1=Eriksson|first1=Torsten|last2=Donoghue|first2=Michael J.|date=1997|title=Phylogenetic Relationships of Sambucus and Adoxa (Adoxoideae, Adoxaceae) Based on Nuclear Ribosomal ITS Sequences and Preliminary Morphological Data|journal=[[Systematic Botany]]|volume=22|issue=3|pages=555–573|doi=10.2307/2419828|jstor=2419828|bibcode=1997SysBo..22..555E }}
* {{Cite web|last1=TPL|author-link=The Plant List |title=Sambucus|url=http://www.theplantlist.org/1.1/browse/A/Adoxaceae/Sambucus/|publisher =[[Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew]] and [[Missouri Botanical Garden]] |access-date=25 July 2019|date=2013}}
* {{Source-attribution|[[National Institutes of Health]]'s [[National Center for Complementary and Integrative Health]] entry for [https://www.nccih.nih.gov/health/elderberry European Elder]}}

== Further reading ==
* {{cite journal |last1=Bolli |first1=R. |title=Revision of the Genus Sambucus. |date=1994 |journal=Dissertationes Botanicae |volume=223|issue=4 |page=675 |doi=10.2307/1223564 |jstor=1223564 |bibcode=1994Taxon..43Q.675S }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Donoghue |first1=Michael J. |last2=Eriksson |first2=Torsten |last3=Reeves |first3=Patrick A. |last4=Olmstead |first4=Richard G. |title=Phylogeny and phylogenetic taxonomy of Dipsacales, with special reference to Sinadoxa and Tetradoxa (Adoxaceae) |journal=[[Harvard Papers in Botany]] |date=2001 |volume=6 |issue=2 |pages=459–479 |url=http://phylodiversity.net/donoghue/publications/MJD_papers/2001/112_MJD_HarvardPapBot01.pdf |access-date=2019-07-24 |archive-date=2021-02-24 |url-status=usurped |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210224041051/http://phylodiversity.net/donoghue/publications/MJD_papers/2001/112_MJD_HarvardPapBot01.pdf }}

==External links==
{{Commons category}}
{{Wikispecies}}
* [https://www.ams.usda.gov/sites/default/files/media/Elderberry%20Juice%20Color%20Petition.pdf USDA National Organic Program National List Petition for Elderberry Juice Color]

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[[Category:Sambucus| ]]
[[Category:Berries]]
[[Category:Butterfly food plants]]
[[Category:Dipsacales genera]]
[[Category:Drought-tolerant plants]]
[[Category:Garden plants of North America]]
[[Category:Medicinal plants]]
[[Category:Plants used in traditional Native American medicine]]
[[Category:Botanical taxa named by Carl Linnaeus]]