View source for Sampler (musical instrument)

{{Short description|Device that records and plays back samples}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=January 2020}}
{{More citations needed|date=May 2010}}
{{multiple image |direction=horizontal |total_width=460px
| image2   = Akai MPC2000.jpg | caption2 = An [[Akai]] [[Akai MPC|MPC2000]] sampling [[Music sequencer|sequencer]] (1997)
| image1   = Lichtorgel.jpg   | caption1 = [[w:de:Lichttonorgel|Lichttonorgel]] (1936), <br/>an earlier sampling organ utilizing analog [[optical disc]]
}}
A '''sampler''' is an electronic [[musical instrument]] that records and plays back [[Sampling (music)|samples]] (portions of [[Sound recording|sound recordings]]). Samples may comprise elements such as rhythm, melody, speech, sound effects or longer portions of music.

The mid-20th century saw the introduction of keyboard instruments that played sounds recorded on tape, such as the [[Mellotron]]. As technology improved, cheaper standalone samplers with more [[Computer memory|memory]] emerged, such as the [[E-mu Emulator]], [[Akai S900|Akai S950]] and [[Akai MPC]].

Samples may be loaded or recorded by the user or by a manufacturer. The samples can be played back by means of the sampler program itself, a [[MIDI keyboard]], [[Music sequencer|sequencer]] or another triggering device (e.g., [[electronic drums]]). Because these samples are usually stored in digital memory, the information can be quickly accessed. A single sample may be [[pitch shift|pitch-shifted]] to different pitches to produce musical [[scale (music)|scale]]s and [[chord (music)|chord]]s.

Often samplers offer [[filter (signal processing)|filter]]s, [[effects unit]]s, modulation via [[low frequency oscillation]] and other synthesizer-like processes that allow the original sound to be modified in many different ways. Most samplers have [[Timbrality|Multitimbrality]] capabilities – they can play back different sounds simultaneously.  Many are also [[Polyphony and monophony in instruments|polyphonic]] – they are able to play more than one note at the same time.

==History==
{{multiple image |align=right |direction=horizontal
|caption1=Mellotron (Introduced 1963)   |width1=157  |image1=Mellotron.jpg
<!-- |caption2=EMS Synthi-100 (1971) {{right|as a part of EMS Musys}}
                              |width2=187 |image2=EMS Synthi 100.jpg -->
|caption3=EMS MUSYS-3 (1970) (based on {{harvnb|Nunzio|2014}})
                              |width3=143  |image3=EMS MUSYS-3 (1970) system diagram.jpg
}}

Prior to computer memory-based samplers, musicians used tape replay keyboards, which store recordings on analog tape. When a key is pressed the tape head contacts the moving tape and plays a sound. The [[Mellotron]] was the most notable model, used by a number of groups in the late 1960s and the 1970s, but such systems were expensive and heavy due to the multiple tape mechanisms involved, and the range of the instrument was limited to three octaves at the most. To change sounds a new set of tapes had to be installed in the instrument. The emergence of the [[digital signal processing|digital]] sampler made sampling far more practical.

The earliest digital sampling was done on the [[Electronic Music Studios|EMS]] Musys system, developed by Peter Grogono (software), [[David Cockerell]] (hardware and interfacing) and [[Peter Zinovieff]] (system design and operation) at their London (Putney) Studio c. 1969. The system ran on two mini-computers, Digital Equipment [[PDP-8]]'s. These had a pair of fast [[Digital-to-analog converter|D/A]] and [[Analog-to-digital|A/D]] converters,<ref name=Cockerell2013>
{{citation
 | first       = David |last=Cockerell
 | title       = Interview – David Cockerell
 | url         = http://www.radionz.co.nz/concert/programmes/hopefulmachines/audio/201812323/interview-david-cockerell
 | format      = <!-- interview -->
 | date        = 1 October 2013
 | url-status     = live
 | archive-url  = https://web.archive.org/web/20171021163619/http://www.radionz.co.nz/concert/programmes/hopefulmachines/audio/201812323/interview-david-cockerell
 | archive-date = 21 October 2017
}}<br/>on {{citation
 | title       = These Hopeful Machines
 | url         = http://www.radionz.co.nz/concert/programmes/hopefulmachines
 | url-status     = live
 | archive-url  = https://web.archive.org/web/20171021111715/http://www.radionz.co.nz/concert/programmes/hopefulmachines
 | archive-date = 21 October 2017
}}<br/>as a corner of radio program {{citation
 | title     = Sound Lounge
 | publisher = [[Radio New Zealand]]
 | quote     = {{smaller|[Q] ''...<!-- By the time you get to something like -->Chronometer [3], as I understand it, the sounds of the clock mechanisms and all the rest of it were effectively sampled by an ADC, stored and manipulated by the computer and then spat out again. What was the breakthrough ...<!-- that got you from this one second of sound to being able to put together a piece like that? -->'' [A] ''Peter kept buying the latest computers that came out and of course the memory increased. Then I built him a hard disc recorder so that one could store some of the sounds on this hard disc. ...''<!-- [Q] ''And you devised a filter and oscillator bank to deal with the inputs and outputs of that. ... It's a kind of vocoding idea rather than a sampling idea as we’d think of it now.'' [A] ''Indeed, That's exactly the principle of the vocoder.'' -->}}
}}
</ref><ref name=Nunzio2014>{{cite book
 |first        = Alex Di
 |last         = Nunzio
 |chapter      = The structure
 |title        = MUSYS
 |chapter-url  = http://www.musicainformatica.org/topics/musys.php
 |date         = 16 May 2014
 |work         = musicainformatica.org / musicainformatica.it
 |quote        = ''figure 2'' A summary that shows the position of the two PDP computers within the MUSYS system, and all the devices connected to them.
 |access-date  = 21 October 2017
 |archive-date = 21 October 2017
 |archive-url  = https://web.archive.org/web/20171021111945/http://www.musicainformatica.org/topics/musys.php
 |url-status   = bot: unknown
}} ({{citation |title=figure 2|url=http://www.musicainformatica.org/wp-content/uploads/2014/05/schema-musys-computer-music-system.png }})
</ref> 12,000 (12k) bytes of [[core memory]] ([[Random-access memory|RAM]]), backed up by a hard drive of 32k and by tape storage (DecTape).<ref name=Hinton2002>
{{cite web
 |first       = Graham
 |last        = Hinton
 |title       = The Putney Studio (1970)
 |url         = http://emssynthesisers.co.uk/emsstory.html#putney
 |date        = 27 December 2002
 |work        = EMS: The Inside Story
 |publisher   = [[Electronic Music Studios]]
 |location    = [[Cornwall]], UK
 |url-status     = live
 |archive-url  = https://web.archive.org/web/20160513142559/http://emssynthesisers.co.uk/emsstory.html#putney
 |archive-date = 13 May 2016
}}
</ref><ref name=Grogono1973>
{{cite journal | first     = Peter | last = Grogono 
  | date = 1973
  | title     = MUSYS: Software for an electronic music studio
  | journal   = Software: Practice and Experience
  | volume    = 3 | issue = 4
  | doi       = 10.1002/spe.4380030410
  | issn      = 1097-024X
  | pages     = 369–383
 | s2cid = 206507040 }}<div style="line-height:110%;">{{smaller|1="[SUMMARY]'' MUSYS is a system of programs used to create electronic music at the computer studio of Electronic Music Studios, London. This paper describes the programming language employed by composers, and the implementation of its compiler and of other programs in the system. It is shown that by the use of a macrogenerator, an efficient and useful system can be built from simple software on a small computer.''"}}</div>
</ref><ref name=Grogono2014>
{{cite web | first     = Peter | last = Grogono
  | date      = 26 November 2014
  | title     = Electronic Music Studios (London) Ltd.
  | url       = https://users.encs.concordia.ca/~grogono/Bio/ems.html
  | publisher = Department of Computer Science, Faculty of Engineering and Computer Science, [[Concordia University]]
  | archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20210515172629/https://users.encs.concordia.ca/~grogono/Bio/ems.html
  | archivedate=2021-05-15
 }} (See also: {{cite web
  | title     = The Mouse Programming Language
  | url       = https://users.encs.concordia.ca/~grogono/Mouse/mouse.html
  | archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20210515171905/https://users.encs.concordia.ca/~grogono/Mouse/mouse.html
  | archivedate=2021-05-15
 }})
</ref> EMS equipment was used to control the world's first digital studio (EMS London (Putney) Studio), and their earliest digital sampling was done on that system during 1971–1972 for [[Harrison Birtwistle]]'s "''Chronometer''" released in 1975.<ref name=Cockerell2013/><ref name=Hall2015>
{{citation
 |first            = Tom
 |last             = Hall
 |date = 2015
 |chapter          = Before The Mask: Birtwistle's electronic music collaborations with Peter Zinovieff
 |chapter-url       = https://books.google.com/books?id=vTFvBwAAQBAJ&q=Grogono%2C%20Peter%3B%20Musys%3A%20Software%20for%20an%20Electronic%20Music%20Studio%20in%20Software%3A%20Practice%20and%20Experience&pg=PA75
 |editor1= Beard, David |editor2=Gloag, Kenneth |editor3=Jones, Nicholas
 |title            = Harrison Birtwistle Studies
 |publisher        = [[Cambridge University Press]]
 |isbn             = 978-1-107-09374-4
 |pages            = 63–94
 |archive-url       = https://web.archive.org/web/20171220052939/https://books.google.com/books?id=vTFvBwAAQBAJ&lpg=PA75&pg=PA75&dq=Grogono%2C%20Peter%3B%20Musys%3A%20Software%20for%20an%20Electronic%20Music%20Studio%20in%20Software%3A%20Practice%20and%20Experience
|archive-date = 20 December 2017
 }}</ref><ref name=Birtwistle|1975>
{{cite AV media | first     = Harrison | last = Birtwistle
 | author-link=Harrison Birtwistle
 | title     = Chronometer
 | date      = 1975
}} on {{cite AV media
 |title     = The Triumph Of Time / Chronometer (Calouste Gulbenkian Foundation Series #8)
 |url       = https://www.discogs.com/en/Harrison-Birtwistle-The-Triumph-Of-Time-Chronometer/release/1559264
 |medium    = Vinyl, LP, Album
 |publisher = Argo
 |location  = UK
 |id        = ZRG 790
}} ([https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hmi3PT6-Tvo video] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171220052939/https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hmi3PT6-Tvo |date=20 December 2017 }} on YouTube)
* According to {{harvnb|Cockerell|2013}}, this piece was "''realised in 1971–72 by Peter Zinovieff at the Putney studio''".
</ref>

[[Image:Fairlight green screen.jpg|thumb|152px|Fairlight CMI (1979)]]

The first commercially available sampling synthesizer was the Computer Music Melodian by [[Harry Mendell]] (1976), while the first polyphonic digital sampling synthesizer was the Australian-produced [[Fairlight CMI]], first available in 1979. These early sampling synthesizers used wavetable [[sample-based synthesis]].<ref name="russ">Martin Russ, [https://books.google.com/books?id=X9h5AgAAQBAJ&pg=PA29 ''Sound Synthesis and Sampling'', page 29] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171021111921/https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=X9h5AgAAQBAJ&pg=PA29 |date=21 October 2017 }}, [[CRC Press]]</ref> The Fairlight CMI played and recorded low quality samples at 8-bit [[Audio bit depth|audio depth]] and 8{{ndash}}24&nbsp;kHz [[sampling rate]].<ref name="WholeStory">{{cite journal |url=http://www.anerd.com/fairlight/fairlightstory.htm |title=Fairlight – The Whole Story |journal=Audio Media Magazine |issue=January 1996}}</ref>

In 1981, [[Toshiba]] introduced the [[:ja:LMD-649|LMD-649]] in Japan. It was an early digital sampler that played and recorded high quality [[pulse-code modulation]] (PCM) samples at 12-bit audio depth and 50&nbsp;kHz sampling rate, stored in 128 [[Kibibyte|KB]] of [[dynamic RAM]].<ref name="rockin">''[[:nl:Rockin'f|Rockin'f]]'', March 1982, [http://tokyosky.sub.jp/tokyosky_webmasters_blog/2011/02/f-19823-lmd-649-1982.html pages 140–141]</ref> It was created by engineer Kenji Murata for Japanese [[electronic music]] band [[Yellow Magic Orchestra]], who used it for extensive [[Sampling (music)|sampling]] and [[Music loop|looping]] in their 1981 album ''[[Technodelic]]''.<ref>[http://www.electricityclub.co.uk/a-beginners-guide-to-yellow-magic-orchestra/ A Beginner's Guide To YELLOW MAGIC ORCHESTRA] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170519153825/http://www.electricityclub.co.uk/a-beginners-guide-to-yellow-magic-orchestra/ |date=19 May 2017 }}, ''The Electricity Club''</ref> The LMD-649 was also used by other Japanese [[synthpop]] artists in the early 1980s, including [[:ja:真鍋ちえみ|Chiemi Manabe]]<ref>[https://www.discogs.com/Chiemi-Manabe-%E4%B8%8D%E6%80%9D%E8%AD%B0%E5%B0%91%E5%A5%B3-/release/4389700 Chiemi Manabe – 不思議・少女] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170427192212/https://www.discogs.com/Chiemi-Manabe-%E4%B8%8D%E6%80%9D%E8%AD%B0%E5%B0%91%E5%A5%B3-/release/4389700 |date=27 April 2017 }}, [[discogs]]</ref> and [[Hideki Matsutake|Logic System]].<ref>[https://www.discogs.com/Logic-System-Orient-Express/release/703523 Logic System – Orient Express] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170427103536/https://www.discogs.com/Logic-System-Orient-Express/release/703523 |date=27 April 2017 }}, [[discogs]]</ref>

Sampling keyboards were notable for their high price which was out of reach for the majority of working musicians – with the early Fairlight starting at $30,000.  The [[E-mu Emulator]] brought the price down to under $10,000 but it was not until the mid-1980s that genuinely affordable keyboard samplers began to hit the market with the [[Ensoniq Mirage]] in 1985 and the [[E-mu Emax]] the following year, which had a sub-$2000 price point.  The Korg DSS-1 and Roland's S-Series followed shortly afterwards.

During the 1980s, hybrid synthesizers began to utilize short samples (such as the attack phase of an instrument) along with digital synthesis to create more realistic imitations of instruments than had previously been possible. Examples are the [[Korg M1]], [[Roland U-110]], Yamaha's SY series, and the Kawai K series of instruments. Limiting factors at the time were the cost of physical memory ([[RAM]]) and the limitations of external data storage devices, and this approach made best use of the tiny amount of memory available to the design engineers. 

{{multiple image |align=right |direction=horizontal
|caption1=E-mu SP-12 (1986)   |width1=152 |image1=E-mu SP-12.jpg
|caption2=[[Akai MPC60]] (1988) |width2=152 |image2=Akai MPC60.jpg
}}

The [[E-mu SP-1200]] percussion sampler, upon its release in August 1987, popularized the use of digital samplers within [[hip hop music]] in the late 1980s. [[Akai Professional|Akai]] pioneered many processing techniques, such as [[Crossfade (audio engineering)|crossfade]] looping and "time stretch" to shorten or lengthen samples without affecting pitch and vice versa. The [[Akai MPC60]], released in 1988, went on to become the most influential sampler in hip hop music.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.engadget.com/2017/01/22/akai-mpc-live-mpc-x/ |title=Hip-hop's most influential sampler gets a 2017 reboot |date=22 January 2017 |access-date=20 June 2017 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170519174516/https://www.engadget.com/2017/01/22/akai-mpc-live-mpc-x/ |archive-date=19 May 2017 }}</ref> That same year, the [[Ensoniq EPS]] – the successor to the Mirage – was launched and was the first sampling keyboard which was designed specifically for live performance rather being a purely studio based tool as most samplers had been hitherto.

The 2010s-era [[music workstation]] usually uses sampling, whether simple playback or complex editing that matches all but the most advanced dedicated samplers, and also includes features such as a [[Music sequencer|sequencer]]. Samplers, together with traditional [[Foley artist]]s, are the mainstay of modern [[sound effect]]s production.  Using digital techniques various effects can be pitch-shifted and otherwise altered in ways that would have required many hours when done with tape.

==Elements==

===Interface===
[[Image:KeyboardZone.jpg|thumb|472px|right|Fig. 1: An example of how multiple samples can be arranged across a keyboard range. In this example, four different recordings of a violin are distributed across 12 notes. Each sample will play back at three different pitch values<!-- FIXED ON SVG & JPG version: NOTE that G2 should be G#2 -->]]

Usually a sampler is controlled by an attached music keyboard or other external [[MIDI]] controller or source. Each note-message received by the sampler accesses a particular sample. Often multiple samples are arranged across the keyboard, each assigned to a note or group of notes. Keyboard tracking allows samples to be shifted in [[Pitch (music)|pitch]] by an appropriate amount, typically in semitones and tones. Each group of notes to which a single sample has been assigned is often called a "keyzone", and the resultant set of zones is called a [[keymap]].

For example, in Fig 1, a keymap has been created with four different samples. Each sample, if pitched, should be associated with a particular center pitch.  The first sample (Violin G#2) is distributed across three different notes, G2, G#2, and A2. If the note G#2 is received the sampler will play back the Violin G#2 sample at its original pitch. If the note received is G2 the sampler will shift the sample down a [[semitone]] while the note A2 will play it back a semitone tone higher. If the next note (Bb2) is input the sampler will select the Violin B2 sample, playing it a semitone lower than its center pitch of B2.

In general, samplers can play back any kind of recorded audio. Most samplers offer editing tools that allow the user to modify and process the audio and apply a wide range of [[effects unit|effect]]s. This makes the sampler a powerful and versatile musical tool.

{{clear|left}}

===Hierarchy===
A sampler is organized into a hierarchy of progressively more complicated data structures. At the bottom lie '''samples''', individual recordings of any sound, recorded at a particular sample rate and resolution. While a common sound to sample is a musical instrument being played (e.g., a pianist playing a piano note or an organist playing a [[pipe organ]]), a sample could be any sound, including "non-musical" sounds such as a typewriter clacking or a dog barking. A reference center pitch indicates the actual frequency of the recorded note.  Samples may also be "looped" by defining points at which a repeated section of the sample starts and ends, allowing a relatively short sample to play endlessly. In some cases, a "loop crossfade" is indicated, allowing less obvious transitions at the loop point by fading the end of the loop out while fading its beginning in.

Keymaps are arranged into '''instruments'''. At this level parameters may be added to define how the keymaps are played. Filters can be applied to change the sound-color while low frequency oscillators and envelope generators can shape the amplitude, pitch, filter or other parameters of the sound. Instruments may have multiple layers of keymaps to play more than one sample at the same time and each keymap may have a different set of parameters so that the incoming note-events affect each layer differently. For example, two layers may have a different sensitivity to the velocity of the incoming note, altering the resulting timbre according to how hard the note is played.

At this level, there are two basic approaches to sampler organization. In a '''bank''' approach, each instrument is assigned to a different MIDI channel and multiple banks can be stored to reconfigure the sampler. A different and more powerful approach is to associate each instrument with a patch number or ID so that each MIDI channel can be configured separately by sending controller information on the individual channel.

===Types===
[[Image:Sampler yamaha jpereira.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Joaquín Lana using a Yamaha SU10 Sampler]]

Many samplers work as described above: the keymapping system "spread out" a sample over a certain range of keys. This has side-effects that may be desirable in some contexts, such as speeding up or slowing down drum loops. However, the higher and lower-pitched parts of such a keymap may sound unnatural. For example, if a [[harpsichord]] is sampled in its lower register and then the samples are moved up to very high pitches, the high notes may not sound natural and authentic. When arranging a pitched instrument over several keymaps, the transition from one to another may be too noticeable for realistic imitation of the instrument – the art is to make transitions as smooth as possible.

Some '''phrase samplers''' are more optimised for triggering single "one-shot" sounds such as drum hits. Each keymap spans only a single key, requiring a large number of zones (61 on a five-octave keyboard), each with its own settings. "Phrase sampling" aims to simplify this, particularly on interfaces such as the 16 pads on the Akai [[Music Production Center|MPC]] series: the fact that each pad is actually a note is hidden from the user. The sampling engine does not re-pitch samples, it only plays them back. The user interface is simplified. Phrase samplers often have a [[groovebox]] format, which makes them lightweight, easy to operate and light to carry.

===Specifications===
Samplers can be classified by several specifications;
*'''Polyphony''':  How many voices (or notes) can play simultaneously, to create chords
*'''Sample Space''':  How much memory is available to load samples
*'''Channels''':  How many different MIDI channels are available for different instruments
*'''Bit depth''':  How much sample resolution can be supported
*'''Outputs''':  How many discrete audio outputs are available

==Manufacturers and models==

===Computer Music Melodian===
[[Image:PDP-8A 400 front panel.jpg|thumb|[[Digital Equipment Corporation|DEC]] [[PDP-8]]/A (a [[minicomputer]]).<br/>Computer Music Melodian (1976) was developed based on it<ref name="KbdMag_June2010"/><ref name="PennGazette_SeptOct2013"/>]]

Computer Music Inc. was started in [[New Jersey]] United States in 1972 by [[Harry Mendell]] and Dan Coren. The company was established to develop and market musical instruments based on computer software. The Melodian, developed in 1976,<ref name="KbdMag_June2010">
{{cite magazine | last      = Preve | first      = Francis | date      = 1 June 2010 | title      = Sampler Evolution | url      = http://www.keyboardmag.com/gear/1183/sampler-evolution/27797 | magazine      = Keyboard Magazine | quote      = {{smaller|''1976 / COMPUTER MUSIC MELODIAN / Based on a DEC PDP-8 computer, it had then-unheard-of 12-bit/22kHz resolution.''}} | url-status      = live | archive-url      = https://web.archive.org/web/20160918114118/http://www.keyboardmag.com/gear/1183/sampler-evolution/27797 | archive-date      = 18 September 2016 }}
</ref><ref name="PennGazette_SeptOct2013">
{{cite magazine
 |last        = Chinen
 |first       = Nate<!-- (C’97) -->
 |date        = 27 August 2013
 |title       = Synthesizing Music and Science
 |url         = http://www.upenn.edu/gazette/0913/arts02.html
 |department  = ARTS
 |magazine    = The Pennsylvania Gazette
 |publisher   = University of Pennsylvania
 |issue       = Sept–Oct 2013
 |url-status     = live
 |archive-url  = https://web.archive.org/web/20140227213757/http://www.upenn.edu/gazette/0913/arts02.html
 |archive-date = 27 February 2014
}} (see also [http://www.upenn.edu/gazette/0913/images/0913arts_mendell03.gif a photograph] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160113091559/http://www.upenn.edu/gazette/0913/images/0913arts_mendell03.gif |date=13 January 2016 }} of the Computer Music Melodian and Harry Mendell)<div style="margin-left:1em;font-size:90%;line-height:2.5ex;">"''...Mendell's pursuit of innovation, which brought some rather momentous results during his undergraduate years at Penn. / It was then, in the mid-1970s, that Mendell invented the world's first digital sampling synthesizer at an electronic-music laboratory that had been set up in the Annenberg Center. ... / Mendell licensed the Melodian technology to Yamaha, which used it to make a chip for commercial purposes. He also worked with Commodore. ... / A few days after our meeting, Mendell sends an email with the subject line "Exactly what I had in mind (in 1975)!"...''"</div>
</ref> was based on [[Digital Equipment Corporation|Digital Equipment Corporation's]] PDP-8 computer. It included hand-wired digital-to-analog and analog-to-digital conversion functions, as well as tracking [[anti-aliasing filter]]s. The Melodian was first used by [[Stevie Wonder]] on his album ''[[Stevie Wonder's Journey Through "The Secret Life of Plants"]]'' (1979).

The Melodian was a monophonic synthesizer with 12-bit analog-to-digital sampling at rates up to 22&nbsp;kHz. It was designed to be compatible with analog synthesizers and had a feature allowing it to synchronize to the pitch of an analog synthesizer, such as an [[ARP 2600]]. This meant that the Melodian captured all frequency modulation effects, including those produced through the ARP's touch ribbon control. It also could trigger off the ARPs keyboard, thus functioning somewhat as a hybrid of sampler and analog synthesizer and making the most of the technology available at the time.

===Synclavier===
{{multiple image | align = right | direction = horizontal | width = 183
 | caption1 = Synclavier PSMT rack (1984)
 | image1   = NED_Synclavier_PSMT,_MIM_PHX_(transformed).jpg
 | caption2 = Synclavier PSMT & VPK (1984)<ref name="ses">
	{{cite web
 |title       = SYNCLAVIER EARLY HISTORY
 |url         = http://www.500sound.com/synclavierhistory.html
 |publisher   = Synclavier European Services
 |url-status     = live
 |archive-url  = https://web.archive.org/web/20161114050731/http://www.500sound.com/synclavierhistory.html
 |archive-date = 14 November 2016
}}</ref>
 | image2   = NED Synclavier VPK (Velocity Pressure Keyboard) 1.jpg
}}
{{main|Synclavier}}

The [[Synclavier]] System was an early digital synthesizer and sampler, manufactured by New England Digital. First released in 1977, it proved to be highly influential among both music producers and electronic musicians, due to its versatility, its cutting-edge technology and distinctive sound. [[Synclavier]] Systems were expensive – the highest price ever paid for one was about $500,000, although average systems were closer to about $200,000 – $300,000. Although this made it inaccessible for most musicians, it found widespread use among producers and professional recording studios, and it competed in this market with other high-end production systems, such as the [[Fairlight CMI]]. Though scarce, the [[Synclavier]] remains in use in many studios to this day.

===Fairlight Instruments===
{{multiple image | align = right | direction = horizontal
 | caption1 = [[Fairlight CMI]] (1979)
 | image1   = Fairlight.JPG			| width1 =220
 | caption2 = Fairlight CMI ''Series III'' (1985)
 | image2   = Fairlight CMI III (1985).jpg	| width2 =146
}}
{{main|Fairlight CMI}}
Fairlight Instruments was started in Sydney, in 1975 by [[Peter Vogel (computer designer)|Peter Vogel]] and [[Kim Ryrie]]. The company was originally established as a manufacturer and retailer of video special effects equipment.

The [[Fairlight CMI]] or Computer Music Instrument, released in 1979, started life as the Qasar M8. The M8 was handwired and legend has it that it took two hours to boot up. The CMI was the first commercially available polyphonic digital sampling instrument. The original Fairlight CMI sampled using a resolution of 8 bits per sample,<ref name=Holmes>
{{cite web
 |title       = The Holmes Page: The Fairlight CMI
 |url         = http://www.ghservices.com/gregh/fairligh/
 |year        = 2010
 |publisher   = GH Services
 |url-status     = live
 |archive-url  = https://web.archive.org/web/20051029110307/http://ghservices.com/gregh/fairligh/
 |archive-date = 29 October 2005
}}</ref> at a rate of 24&nbsp;kHz, and used two 8-bit [[Motorola 6800]] processors (later upgraded to the more powerful 16/32-bit [[Motorola 68000]]).<ref name="VintageSynth">{{cite web |url=http://www.vintagesynth.com/index2.html |title=Fairlight CMI (Series I – III) |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070703085221/http://www.vintagesynth.com/index2.html |archive-date=3 July 2007 }}</ref> It was equipped with two [[octave|six-octave]] keyboards, an alphanumeric keyboard, and an interactive [[video display unit]] (VDU) where soundwaves could be edited or even drawn from scratch using a [[light pen]]. Software allowed for editing, looping, and mixing of sounds which could then be played back via the keyboard or the software-based sequencer. It retailed for around US$25,000.

Fairlight later released the Series IIx, which increased the sampling rate to 32&nbsp;kHz<ref name="VintageSynth"/> and was the first to feature basic MIDI functionality.  In 1985, the Series III was released with two significant upgrades: bit rate and sampling rate were increased to CD quality (16 bit/44.1&nbsp;kHz) and [[SMPTE time code]] was now supported.  Notable users of the Fairlight CMI include [[Peter Gabriel]], [[Herbie Hancock]], [[Trevor Horn]], [[Art of Noise]], [[Yello]], [[Pet Shop Boys]], [[Jean Michel Jarre]], [[Duran Duran]] and [[Kate Bush]]. Horn, considered the "Man who invented the eighties", first used his well-known [[sampling (music)|sampling]] techniques on the album ''[[Adventures in Modern Recording]]'', the second studio album released under the name of his project [[The Buggles]]. Saying that he was "quite fascinated by Fairlight brass and all of those kind of things that Geoffrey and I had started messing around with before he went off to join Asia", the sampling techniques on ''Adventures'' would later be used for records Horn produced like ''[[Slave to the Rhythm (album)|Slave to the Rhythm]]'' by [[Grace Jones]], [[Art of Noise]]'s ''[[The Seduction of Claude Debussy]]'' and [[Frankie Goes To Hollywood]]'s ''[[Welcome to the Pleasuredome]]''.<ref>Peel, Ian (1 January 2010). [http://www.trevorhorn.com/horniculture/from_the_art_of_plastic_to_the.html "From the Art of Plastic to the Age of Noise"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131111231255/http://www.trevorhorn.com/horniculture/from_the_art_of_plastic_to_the.html |date=11 November 2013 }}. Sleeve notes for the deluxe reissue of ''Adventures in Modern Recording'', posted on trevorhorn.com. Retrieved 12 January 2016.</ref>

===E-mu Systems===
{{multiple image | align = right | direction = vertical
| caption1 = [[E-mu Emulator|Emulator I]] (1981)
| image1   = E-mu Emulator I.jpg		|width1=220
| caption2 = [[E-mu Emulator II|Emulator II]] (1984)
| image2   = E-mu Emulator II - front.jpg	|width2=220
| caption3 = [[E-mu Emulator III|Emulator III]] (1987)
| image3   = E-mu Emulator III.jpg		|width3=220
| caption4 = [[E-mu SP-12]] (1986)
| image4   = E-mu SP-12.jpg			|width4=120
| caption5 = {{nowrap|[[E-mu SP-1200]] (1987)}}<!-- , <br/>a successor of SP-12 (1986) -->
| image5   = E-mu SP-1200 (111607sp1200).jpg 	|width5=120
}}
{{main|E-mu Systems|E-mu Emulator|E-mu SP-12|E-mu SP-1200}}

'''[[E-mu Emulator]]''' (1981) was [[E-mu]] Systems' initial foray into sampling, and saved the company from financial disaster after the complete failure of the [[E-mu Audity|Audity]] due to a price tag of $70,000. The name 'Emulator' came as the result of leafing through a thesaurus and matched the name of the company perfectly. The Emulator came in 2-, 4-, and 8-note polyphonic versions, the 2-note being dropped due to limited interest, and featured a maximum sampling rate of 27.7&nbsp;kHz, a four-octave keyboard and 128 kB of memory.

'''[[E-mu Emulator II]]''' (1984) was designed to bridge the gap between the [[Fairlight CMI]] and [[Synclavier]] and the [[Ensoniq Mirage]]. It featured 8 notes polyphony, 8-bit sampling, 512kb of RAM (1mb in the EII+ though only accessible as two independent 512kb banks), an 8-track sequencer, and analog filtering. With the addition of the hard disk option, the Emulator II was comparable to samplers released 5 years later.

'''[[E-mu SP-12]]''' (1986) was a forerunner of [[E-mu SP-1200]].

'''[[E-mu Emulator III]]''' (1987) was a 16-bit stereo digital sampler with 16-note polyphony, 44.1&nbsp;kHz maximum sample rate and had up to 8 MB of memory. It featured a 16 channel sequencer, SMPTE and a 40 MB hard disk.

'''[[E-mu SP-1200]]''' (1987) was, and still is, one of the most highly regarded samplers for use in [[Hip hop music|hip-hop]] related production. Its 12-bit sampling engine gave a desirable warmth to instruments and a gritty punch to drums. It featured 10 seconds of sample time spread across four 2.5-second sections.

'''[[E-mu Emax]]''', sold between 1985 & 1995, and aimed at the lower end of the market.

'''E-mu ESI-32''' (1994) was a stripped down, far cheaper, and simplified EIIIx, and could use the same samples.  The unit could accommodate up to 32 MB RAM, 32 note polyphony and sounds could be routed internally to one of four polyphonic outputs. Via optional SCSI interface, the ESI-32 could access external CD-ROM, [[Iomega Zip Drives|Zip-100]], and hard drives.
{{clear}}

===Akai===
{{main|Akai|Akai S900|Akai S1000|Akai S3000XL|Music Production Center}}

{{multiple image |align=right |direction=vertical |width=165
|caption1=Linn LM-1 (1980)  |image1=Linn LM-1.jpg
|caption2=Akai S612 (1985) |image2=AKAI S612.jpg
|caption3=Akai S900 (1986) |image3=AKAI S900.jpg
|caption4=Akai MPC60 (1988) |image4=AkaiMPC60.jpg
|caption5=Akai S1000 (1988) |image5=Akai S1000.jpg
}}

[[Akai Professional|Akai]] entered the electronic musical instrument world in 1984 when [[Roger Linn]], the creator of the [[Linn LM-1]], the [[Linn 9000]], and the [[LinnDrum]], partnered with the Japanese/Singaporean [[Akai]] Corporation to create samplers similar to the ones created at Linn's own company, [[Linn Electronics]]. With this came the first in a series of affordable samplers, the S612, a 12 bit digital sampler module. The S612 was superseded in 1986 by the S900.

The '''Akai S900''' (1986) was the first truly affordable digital sampler. It was 8-note polyphonic and featured 12-bit sampling with a frequency range up to 40&nbsp;kHz and up to 750 kB of memory that allowed for just under 12 seconds at the best sampling rate. It could store a maximum of 32 samples in memory. The operating system was software based and allowed for upgrades that had to be [[booting|booted]] each time the sampler was switched on.

The '''Akai MPC60''' Digital Sampler/Drum Machine and MIDI Sequencer (1988) was the first non-rack mounted model released. It is also the first time a sampler with touch sensitive trigger pads was produced by AKAI, giving birth to the popular [[Music Production Center|MPC]] series of sampler sequencers.

The '''Akai S950''' (1988) was an improved version of the S900, with a maximum sample frequency of 48&nbsp;kHz and some of the editing features of the contemporary S1000.

The '''[[Akai S1000]]''' (1988) was possibly the most popular 16-bit 44.1&nbsp;kHz stereo sampler of its time. It featured 16-voices, up to 32 MB of memory, and 24-bit internal processing, including a digital filter (18&nbsp;dB/octave), an LFO, and two [[ADSR envelope]] generators (for amplitude and filtering). The S1000 also offered up to 8 different loop points. Additional functions included Autolooping, Crossfade Looping, Loop in Release (which cycles through the loop as the sound decays), Loop Until Release (which cycles through the loop until the note begins its decay), Reverse and Time Stretch (version 1.3 and higher).

Other samplers released by AKAI include the S01, S20, S700, S2000, S2800, S3000, S3000XL, S3200, S5000, S6000, [[MIDI Production Center|MPC]]500, MPC1000, MPC2000, MPC2000XL, MPC2500, MPC3000, MPC3000XL, MPC3000LE, MPC4000, MPC5000, Z4 and Z8.
{{clear}}

===Roland===
{{main|Roland Corporation}}

[[Roland Corporation]] manufactured the S series.  These were true samplers that provide all of the features described above, including sampling, sample editing, pitch transposition, and keyzone mapping:

{{div col|colwidth=10em}}
* Roland S-10
* [[Roland S-50]]
* Roland S-330
* [[Roland S-50|Roland S-550]]
* Roland S-760
* Roland S-770
{{div col end}}

More recently, Roland introduced the ''Groove Sampler'' concept. These devices are renowned for their ease of use, but a few lack the pitch transposition and keyzone mapping capabilities that most samplers have.  Some have limits to rendering loops or sound effects samples that are played back at the same pitch they were recorded.  Although these machines are equipped with a wide range of built-in effects, a few lack pitch transposition and keyzone mapping that diminishes their utility significantly.  The Roland ''Groove Sampler'' line includes the following:

{{div col|colwidth=12em}}
* [[Roland DJ-70]]MKII
* [[Roland DJ-70]] 
* Roland JS-30
* [[Roland MC-909]]
* [[Roland MC-808]]
* [[Roland MC-09]]
* [[Roland MS-1 Digital Sampler|Roland MS-1]]
* Roland MV-8800
* Roland MV-8000
* [[Roland SP-808EX]]
* [[Roland SP-808]]
* [[Roland SP-404]]
* [[Roland SP-606]]
* [[Roland SP-555]]
* [[Roland W-30]]
* Roland SPD-SX
{{div col end}}

===Boss===
{{multiple image |align=right |direction=vertical |width=165
|caption1=Boss Dr. Sample SP-303 (2001)  |image1=Boss SP-303.jpg
}}
{{main|Boss Corporation}}
Being a division of the Roland Corporation, Boss also contributed to the ''Groove Sampler/Groove Box'' concept with several samplers.

{{div col|colwidth=12em}}
* [[Boss SP-202]]
* [[Boss SP-303]]
* [[Boss SP-505]]
{{div col end}}
===Sample storage===
Most older samplers use SCSI as the protocol for getting sample data in and out of the machine. SCSI interfaces were either standard on the sampler or offered as an option. SCSI provides the ability to move large quantities of data in and out of a sampler in reasonable times. Hard drives, CD-ROM drives, Zip drives and removable cartridge drives such as Syquest and Iomega Jaz drives are the most popular SCSI devices used with samplers. Each has its own strengths and weaknesses, with hard drives being the fastest devices. Modern (after 2000) samplers use solid-state memory cards (such as compact Flash or SmartMedia) for sample storage and transfer.

==Software samplers==
{{multiple image |align=right |direction=vertical |width=220
|caption1=Fantasia, a user interface for [[LinuxSampler]]. LinuxSampler is a clone of GigaSampler by NemeSys, which was one of the first disk-streaming software samplers on PC.
|image1=Fantasia.png
}}In the 1990s and 2000s, the increases in computer power and memory capacity have made it possible to develop software applications that provide the same capabilities as hardware-based units. These are typically produced as [[Software synthesizer|virtual instrument]] [[Audio plug-in|plug-ins]] – for example, using the [[Virtual Studio Technology|VST]] system. Some such samplers provide relatively simple sample playback facilities, requiring the user to turn to other software for such tasks as sample editing, sample recording, and DSP effects, while others provide features beyond those offered by rack-mounted units.

=== Trackers ===
[[File:Renoise 2.6.png|thumb|''[[Renoise]]'', a graphical [[Tracker (music software)|Tracker]] sequencer with integrated sampler]]
In the 1980s, users on [[Home computer]]s invented [[Tracker (music software)|Trackers]]. [[Music sequencer|Sequencers]] are software samplers as the real-time resampling is a required capability for the Tracker concept.<ref name=maz/> Since the 1980s, Trackers were able to perform 4-channel resampling in realtime under usage of the [[Original Amiga chipset#Paula|Paula Chip]] on the [[Amiga]]. Since the early 1990s Trackers performed on PCs multi-track resampling in realtime as pure software solution. This was possible under the usage of highly optimized [[assembly code]], an early example is the ''InertiaPlayer'' released in 1993.<ref>[ftp://ftp.pl.scene.org/vol/rzm1/simtelnet/msdos/sound/iplay10b.zip Inertiaplayer 1.0b]{{dead link|date=May 2025|bot=medic}}{{cbignore|bot=medic}} ''100% Assembler [...] up to 32 channels [...] This player was released 24 Dec '93'' (iplay.doc)</ref> A recent PC Tracker with good sampler capabilities is for instance the ''[[Renoise]]'' Tracker.<ref name="maz">{{cite web |url=http://www.maz-sound.com/index.php?show=mpcs&mpc_id=34 |title=Resampling Qualität im Vergleich |publisher=MAZ-Soundtools |first=Matthias |last=Ziegs |year=2005 |access-date=5 February 2011 |language=de |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110308200142/http://www.maz-sound.com/index.php?show=mpcs&mpc_id=34 |archive-date=8 March 2011 }}</ref><ref name="simonv">{{cite web |url=http://www.simonv.com/tutorials/quality.php |title=Sampler anti-aliasing and pitch-shifting comparison |date=8 May 2001 |access-date=5 February 2011 |publisher=simonv.com |first=Simon |last=V. |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100619123702/http://www.simonv.com/tutorials/quality.php |archive-date=19 June 2010 }}</ref>

==See also==
;Concepts
*[[Sampling (music)]]
*[[Remix]]
*[[Rompler]]
*[[Digital audio workstation]]
;Synthesizers
*[[Sample-based synthesis]]
*[[Drum machine]]
;Historical
*[[Optophonic Piano]]
*[[:de:Lichttonorgel|Lichttonorgel]] (in German)
*[[Chamberlin (music)|Chamberlin]]
*[[Mellotron]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
* {{cite web
   | author    = Harry Mendell
   | title     = Computer Music Melodian interview on NPR 1980!
   | url       = https://soundcloud.com/harry-mendell1/computer-music-melodian
   | format    = audio
   | work      = soundcloud.com
   | quote     = I am interviewed on NPR for inventing the first digital sampling synth
  }}
* [http://120years.net/wordpress/musys-and-mouse-audio-synthesis-language-peter-grogono-untied-kingdom-1965/ History of early sampling instruments at '120 years of Electronic music']
* [http://llamamusic.com/s50s550/s-50_s-550.html S-50 / S-550 / S-330 / W-30 – A Website Dedicated To The Original Roland Samplers]

{{Authority control}}

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[[Category:Samplers (musical instrument)| ]]
[[Category:Electronic musical instruments]]
[[Category:Hip-hop production]]
[[Category:Sampling (music)]]
[[Category:Sound production]]