View source for Samuel

{{Short description|Biblical prophet and seer}}
{{about|the prophet described in the [[Books of Samuel]]|other people named Samuel|Samuel (name)|other uses}}
{{distinguish|Samael}}
{{Infobox saint
|name=Samuel
|image=Saul and the Witch of Endor (Stom, 1635) (cropped).jpg
|caption=Detail from ''Saul and the Witch of Endor'' by [[Matthias Stom]], c. 1635
|titles=Prophet, seer
|birth_date={{circa|1070 BCE}}<ref>I. Singer, "The Philistines in the Bible: A Reflection of the Late Monarchic Period?"; ''Zmanim'' (2006 Heb.), pp. 74–82; Garsiel, "The Valley of Elah Battle and the Duel of David with Goliath," pp. 404–410</ref>
|birth_place=[[Ramathaim-Zophim]] (traditional)|death_date={{circa|1012 BCE}}
|death_place=[[Ramah in Benjamin]] (traditional)
|feast_day= {{unbulletedlist|August 20 ([[Catholic Church|Catholicism]], [[Eastern Orthodoxy]], [[Lutheranism]])|July 30 ([[Armenian Apostolic Church]])|[[Paoni 9|9 ''Paoni'']] ([[Coptic Orthodox Church]])}}
|venerated_in={{hlist|[[Judaism]]|[[Christianity]]|[[Islam]]|[[Baháʼí Faith]]|[[Rastafari]]}}
|attributes=
|patronage=
}}
{{Judges}}

'''Samuel'''{{efn|{{IPAc-en|ˈ|s|æ|m|j|uː|əl}};<ref>[https://www.churchofjesuschrist.org/study/scriptures/bofm/pronunciation?lang=eng churchofjesuschrist.org: "Book of Mormon Pronunciation Guide"] (retrieved 2012-02-25), [[Wikipedia:IPA for English|IPA]]-ified from «săm'yū-ĕl»</ref> {{Hebrew Name|שְׁמוּאֵל|Šəmūʾēl|Šămūʾēl}};<ref>{{Cite book|last=Khan|first=Geoffrey|title=The Tiberian Pronunciation Tradition of Biblical Hebrew, Volume 1|publisher=Open Book Publishers|year=2020|isbn=978-1783746767}}</ref> {{langx|ar|شموئيل or صموئيل}} ''{{transliteration|ar|Šamūʾīl or Ṣamūʾīl}}''; {{langx|el|Σαμουήλ}} ''Samouḗl''; {{langx|la|Samūēl}}}} is a figure who, in the narratives of the [[Hebrew Bible]], plays a key role in the transition from the [[biblical judges]] to the [[Kingdom of Israel (united monarchy)|United Kingdom of Israel]] under [[Saul]], and again in the [[monarchy]]'s transition from Saul to [[David]]. He is [[Veneration|venerated]] as a [[prophet]] in [[Judaism]], [[Christianity]], and [[Islam]]. In addition to his role in the Bible, Samuel is mentioned in Jewish [[rabbinic literature|rabbinical literature]], in the Christian [[New Testament]], and in the second chapter of the [[Quran]] (although the text does not mention him by name). He is also treated in the fifth through seventh books of ''[[Antiquities of the Jews]]'', written by the Jewish scholar [[Josephus]] in the first century. He is first called "the Seer" in [[Books of Samuel|1 Samuel 9:9]].

==Biblical account==
[[File:Gerbrand van den Eeckhout - Anna toont haar zoon Samuël aan de priester Eli.jpg|thumb|[[Gerbrand van den Eeckhout]] – [[Hannah (Bible)|Hannah]] presenting her son Samuel to the priest [[Eli (bible)|Eli]] {{circa|1665}}]]

===Family===
Samuel's mother was [[Hannah (biblical figure)|Hannah]] and his father was [[Elkanah]]. Elkanah lived at [[Ramathaim-Zophim|Ramathaim]] in the district of [[Zuph]].<ref name=oca>{{cite web|url=http://oca.org/saints/lives/2015/08/20/102349-prophet-samuel|title=Prophet Samuel|website=oca.org|access-date=14 February 2018}}</ref><ref>The Bible does not say specifically say that Elkanah lived in a place known as Zuph. There is, however, a "land of Zuph" mentioned (once only) in 1 Samuel 9:5, an area in which Samuel is said to have been found. Furthermore, 1 Samuel 1:1, as the text now stands, mentions Zuph as an ancestor of Elkanah. And, according to the theory explained in the ''Jewish Encyclopedia'', "Elkanah" [http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/5691-elkanah] the term "Zophim" in 1:1 is a corruption of the original identification of Elkanah as a "Zuphite." For confirmation that more contemporary scholarship still considers this theory seriously, see the ''Holman Bible Dictionary'', "Ramathaim-Zophim." [https://www.studylight.org/dictionaries/hbd/r/ramathaim-zophim.html]</ref> His genealogy is also found in a pedigree of the [[Kohathites]] (1 Chronicles 6:3–15) and in that of [[Heman the Ezrahite]], apparently his grandson (1 Chronicles 6:18–33).

According to the genealogical tables in Chronicles, Elkanah was a [[Levite]]—a fact not mentioned in the books of Samuel. The fact that Elkanah, a Levite, was denominated an [[Tribe of Ephraim|Ephraimite]]<ref>Hebrew ''Ephrathi'', which is interpreted as meaning "Ephraimite" by Gesenius [https://www.blueletterbible.org/lang/lexicon/lexicon.cfm?Strongs=H673&t=KJV], and a variety of translations including NIV, NLT, NASB, HCSB, NET, JPS(1917), ASV [http://biblehub.com/1_samuel/1-1.htm]. See the ''Jewish Encyclopedia'', "Elkanah" for details. [http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/5691-elkanah]</ref> is analogous to the designation of a Levite belonging to [[Tribe of Judah|Judah]] (Judges 17:7, for example).<ref>"Hence in I Sam. i. 1 his ancestral line is carried back to Zuph (comp. I Sam. ix. 5 et seq.). The word צופים in I Sam. i. 1 should be amended to הצופי ('the Zuphite'), the final mem being a dittogram of that with which the next word, מהר, begins; as the LXX. has it, Σειφὰ. Elkanah is also represented in I Sam. i. 1 as hailing from the mountains of Ephraim, the word here אפרתי denoting this (comp. Judges xii. 5; I Kings xi. 26)—if indeed אפרתי is not a corruption for 'Ephraimite'—and not, as in Judges i. 2 and I Sam. xvii. 12, an inhabitant of Ephrata (see LXX.)." [http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/view.jsp?artid=302&letter=E "Elkanah," in the 1906 ''Jewish Encyclopedia.'']</ref>

According to 1 Samuel 1:1–28, Elkanah had two wives, [[Peninnah]] and Hannah. Peninnah had children; Hannah did not. Nonetheless, Elkanah favored Hannah. Jealous, Peninnah reproached Hannah for her lack of children, causing Hannah much heartache. Elkanah was a devout man and would periodically take his family on pilgrimage to the holy site of [[Shiloh (biblical city)|Shiloh]].<ref name=Bergant>{{cite book |last1=Bergant |first1=Dianne|author-link1=Dianne Bergant |last2=Karris |first2=Robert J. |author-link2=Robert J. Karris |title=The Collegeville Bible Commentary: Old Testament |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Nj-AkOJ9wRQC&pg=PA271 |year=1992 |publisher=Liturgical Press|isbn=978-0-8146-2210-0 |page=271}}</ref>

On one occasion, Hannah went to the sanctuary and prayed for a child. In tears, she vowed that if she were granted a child, she would dedicate him to God as a [[nazirite]].<ref name=Bergant/> [[Eli (biblical figure)|Eli]], who was sitting at the foot of the doorpost in the sanctuary at Shiloh, saw her apparently mumbling to herself and thought she was drunk, but was soon assured of both her motivation and sobriety. Eli was the priest of [[Shiloh (biblical city)|Shiloh]], and one of the last [[Biblical judges|Israelite Judges]] before the rule of kings in [[Kingdom of Israel (united monarchy)|ancient Israel]]. He had assumed the leadership after [[Samson]]'s death.<ref name=chabad>{{cite web|url=http://www.chabad.org/library/article_cdo/aid/463969/jewish/Samuel-the-Prophet.htm|title=Samuel the Prophet|website=www.chabad.org|access-date=14 February 2018}}</ref> Eli blessed her and she returned home. Subsequently, Hannah became pregnant, later giving birth to Samuel, and praised God for his mercy and faithfulness.

After the child was weaned, she left him in Eli's care,<ref name=oca/> and from time to time she would come to visit her son.<ref name=chabad/>

===Name===
According to 1 Samuel 1:20,<ref>{{bibleverse|1|Samuel|1:20|HE}}</ref> Hannah named Samuel to commemorate her prayer to [[God]] for a child. "... [She] called his name Samuel, saying, Because I have asked him of the Lord" (KJV). From its appearance, the name Samuel ([[Hebrew language|Hebrew:]] שְׁמוּאֵל ''Šəmūʾēl'', [[Tiberian Hebrew|Tiberian:]] ''Šămūʾēl'') appears to be constructed from the Hebrew Śāmū (שָׂמוּ)<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://biblehub.com/hebrew/samu_7760.htm|title=Hebrew Concordance: śā·mū -- 14 Occurrences|website=biblehub.com}}</ref> + ʾĒl,<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://biblehub.com/hebrew/410.htm|title=Strong's Hebrew: 410. אֵל (el) -- God, in pl. gods|website=biblehub.com}}</ref> meaning "God has set" or "God has placed". This meaning relating to the idea of God setting/placing a child in the womb, alongside [[Hannah (biblical figure)|Hannah]] dedicating Samuel as a [[Nazirite]] to God. The Hebrew śāmū is also related to the [[Akkadian language|Akkadian]] šâmū (𒊮𒈬), which shares the same meaning.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Akkadian Dictionary: Šiāmu/Šâmu |url=https://www.assyrianlanguages.org/akkadian/dosearch.php?searchkey=%C5%A1i%C4%81mu&language=rawakkadian |website=Assyrianlanguages.org}}</ref> From the explanation given in [[1 Samuel 1|1 Samuel 1:20]], however, it would seem to come from a contraction of the Hebrew שְׁאִלְתִּיו מֵאֵל ([[Modern Hebrew|Modern:]] ''Šəʾīltīv mēʾĒl,'' [[Tiberian Hebrew|Tiberian:]] ''Šĭʾīltīw mēʾĒl''), meaning "I have asked/borrowed him from God".<ref>{{Cite web |title=I Samuel 1:20 |url=https://www.sefaria.org/I_Samuel.1.20?with=all&lang=bi |website=Sefaria}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Radak on Genesis 5:29:1 |url=https://www.sefaria.org/Radak_on_Genesis.5.29?lang=bi |website=Sefaria}}</ref> Further shortened to שָׁאוּל מֵאֵל (''Šāʾūl mēʾĒl, "asked/borrowed from God"''),<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://biblehub.com/hebrew/7592.htm|title=Strong's Hebrew: 7592. שָׁאַל (shaal) -- to ask, inquire|website=biblehub.com}}</ref> then finally contracted to שְׁמוּאֵל (''Šəmūʾēl/Šămūʾēl''). This meaning also relating to Hannah dedicating Samuel as a Nazirite to [[God]] as well.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://biblehub.com/hebrew/shaul_7592.htm|title=Hebrew Concordance: šā·'ūl -- 2 Occurrences|website=biblehub.com}}</ref>

===Calling===
Samuel worked under Eli in the service of the shrine at Shiloh. One night, Samuel heard a voice calling his name. According to the first-century Jewish historian [[Josephus]], Samuel was 12 years old.<ref name="Josephus">{{cite web|last=Josephus|title=Book 5 Chapter 10 Section 4|url=http://www.sacred-texts.com/jud/josephus/ant-5.htm|work=[[Antiquities of the Jews]]|publisher=Sacred Texts|access-date=7 October 2011}}</ref> Samuel initially assumed it was coming from [[Eli (Bible)|Eli]] and went to Eli to ask what he wanted. Eli, however, sent Samuel back to sleep. After this happened three times, Eli realised that [[Bath ḳōl|the voice]] was the Lord's, and instructed Samuel on how to answer:

<blockquote>If He calls you, then you must say, "Speak, Lord, for Your servant hears".<ref>{{bibleverse|1|Samuel|3:9|NKJV}}</ref></blockquote>

Once Samuel responded, the Lord told him that the wickedness of the [[Hophni and Phinehas|sons of Eli]] had resulted in their dynasty being condemned to destruction.<ref name=oca/> In the morning, Samuel was hesitant about reporting the message to Eli, but Eli asked him to honestly recount to him what he had been told by the Lord. Upon receiving the communication, Eli merely said that the Lord should do what seems right unto him.

Samuel grew up and "all Israel [[from Dan to Beersheba]]" came to know that Samuel was a trustworthy prophet of the Lord.<ref>{{bibleverse|1|Samuel|3:20|NKJV}}</ref> Anglican theologian [[Donald Spence Jones]] comments that "the minds of all the people were thus gradually prepared when the right moment came to acknowledge Samuel as a God-sent chieftain".<ref>[http://biblehub.com/commentaries/ellicott/1_samuel/3.htm Ellicott's Commentary for English Readers on 1 Samuel 3], accessed 21 April 2017</ref>

===Leader===
[[File:Vitral com representação de Samuel e a batalha entre Israelitas e Filisteus (1728), Palácio da Pena (cropped).png|250px|thumb|Samuel offers God a sacrifice and erects a large stone at [[Eben-Ezer|the battle site]] as the Israelites slaughter the Philistines in the background, as depicted in an 18th-century stained-glass window ([[Pena Palace]], [[Portugal]]).]]

During Samuel's youth at [[Shiloh (Biblical city)|Shiloh]], the [[Philistines]] inflicted a decisive defeat against the [[Israelites]] at [[Eben-Ezer]], placed the land under Philistine control, and [[Ark of the Covenant#Capture by the Philistines|took the sanctuary's Ark for themselves]]. Upon hearing the news of the capture of the Ark of the Covenant, and the death of his sons, Eli collapsed and died. When the Philistines had been in possession of the Ark for seven months and had been visited with calamities and misfortunes, they decided to return the Ark to the Israelites.<ref name=chabad/>

According to Bruce C. Birch, Samuel was a key figure in keeping the Israelites' religious heritage and identity alive during Israel's defeat and occupation by the Philistines. "[I]t may have been possible and necessary for Samuel to exercise authority in roles that would normally not converge in a single individual (priest, prophet, judge)."<ref name=Birch>{{Cite book |title=Eerdmans Dictionary of the Bible |last=Birch |first=Bruce C. |publisher=Amsterdam University Press |year=2000 |isbn=9780802824004 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qRtUqxkB7wkC&q=prophet%20samuel%20bible |editor-last=Freedman |editor-first=David Noel |chapter=Samuel |editor-last2=Myers |editor-first2=Allen C.}}</ref>

After 20 years of oppression, Samuel, who had gained national prominence as a prophet (1 Samuel 3:20), summoned the people to the hill of [[Mizpah in Benjamin|Mizpah]], and led them against the Philistines. The Philistines, having marched to Mizpah to attack the newly amassed Israelite army, were soundly defeated and fled in terror. The retreating Philistines were slaughtered by the Israelites. The text then states that Samuel erected a large stone at the battle site as a memorial, and there ensued a long period of peace thereafter.

===King-Maker===
Samuel initially appointed his two sons [[Joel (son of Samuel)|Joel]] and [[Abijah]] as his successors; however, just like Eli's sons, Samuel's proved unworthy for they accepted bribes and perverted judgement. The Israelites rejected them. Because of the external threat from other tribes, such as the Philistines, the tribal leaders decided that there was a need for a more unified, central government,<ref name=Zucker>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nTtJAwAAQBAJ&dq=prophet+samuel+bible&pg=PA51|title=The Bible's Prophets: An Introduction for Christians and Jews|first=David J.|last=Zucker|date=December 10, 2013|publisher=Wipf and Stock Publishers|isbn=9781630871024 |via=Google Books}}</ref> and demanded Samuel appoint a king so that they could be like other nations. Samuel interpreted this as a personal rejection, and at first was reluctant to oblige, until reassured by a divine revelation.<ref name=Birch/> He warned the people of the potential negative consequences of such a decision. When Saul and his servant were searching for [[Kish (Bible)|his father]]'s lost donkeys, the servant suggested consulting the nearby Samuel. Samuel recognized Saul as the future king.

Just before his retirement, Samuel gathered the people to an assembly at [[Gilgal]], and delivered a farewell speech<ref>Sub-heading in [[New International Version]]</ref> or coronation speech<ref>Sub-heading in [[New King James Version]]</ref> in which he emphasised how prophets and judges were more important than kings, that kings should be held to account, and that the people should not fall into idol worship, or worship of [[Asherah]] or of [[Baal]]. Samuel promised that God would subject the people to foreign invaders should they disobey. 1 Kings 11:5, 33,<ref>{{bibleverse|1|Kings|11:5, 33|NKJV}}</ref> and 2 Kings 23:13<ref>{{bibleverse|2|Kings|23:13|NKJV}}</ref> note that the Israelites fell into Asherah worship later on.<ref>[[Israel Finkelstein]], ''[[The Bible Unearthed]]''; [[Richard Elliott Friedman]], ''Who wrote the Bible?''</ref>

===Critic of Saul===
[[File:Louvre rosa apparition.jpg|upright|right|thumb|Apparition of the spirit of Samuel to [[Saul]], by [[Salvator Rosa]], 1668]]
When Saul was preparing to fight the Philistines, Samuel denounced him for proceeding with the pre-battle sacrifice without waiting for the overdue Samuel to arrive. He prophesied that Saul's rule would see no dynastic succession.

Samuel also directed Saul to "utterly destroy" the [[Amalek]]ites in fulfilment of the commandment in Deuteronomy 25:17–19:<ref>{{bibleverse||Deuteronomy|25:17–19|NKJV}}</ref>
:''When the Lord your God has given you rest from your enemies all around, in the land which the Lord your God is giving you to possess as an inheritance, ... you will blot out the remembrance of Amalek from under heaven''.

During the campaign against the Amalekites, King Saul spared [[Agag]], the king of the Amalekites, and the best of their livestock. Saul told Samuel that he had spared the choicest of the Amalekites' sheep and oxen, intending to sacrifice the livestock to the Lord. This was in violation of the Lord's command, as pronounced by Samuel, to "... utterly destroy all that they have, and spare them not; but slay both man and woman, infant and suckling, ox and sheep, camel and ass" (1 Samuel 15:3, KJV). Samuel confronted Saul for his disobedience and told him that God made him king, and God can unmake him king. Samuel then proceeded to execute Agag. Saul never saw Samuel alive again after this.<ref>Stern, David H. (1998) Complete Jewish Bible: An English Version of the Tanakh and B'rit Hadashah. Clarksville, Maryland: Jewish New Testament Publications pp. 314–15. Sh'mu'el Alef 15. {{ISBN|978-965-359-018-2}}</ref>

Samuel then proceeded to [[Bethlehem]] and secretly anointed David as king. He would later provide sanctuary for David, when the jealous Saul first tried to have him killed.

===Death===
[[File:The Tomb Of Propet Samuel.JPG|thumb|right|[[Tomb of Samuel]]]]
Samuel is described in the biblical narrative as being buried in [[Ramah in Benjamin|Ramah]].<ref>{{bibleverse|1|Samuel|25:1|NKJV}}</ref> According to tradition, this burial place has been identified with [[Tomb of Samuel|Samuel's tomb]] in the [[West Bank]] village of [[Nabi Samwil]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=McCown |first1=Chester Charlton |title=Muslim Shrines in Palestine |journal=The Annual of the American Schools of Oriental Research in Jerusalem |date=1921 |volume=2 |pages=56 |doi=10.2307/3768451 |jstor=3768451 }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Israel's national parks gear up for weekend tours - Israel News - Jerusalem Post |url=https://www.jpost.com/Israel-News/Israels-national-parks-gear-up-for-weekend-tours-591098 |access-date=23 October 2019 |work=www.jpost.com}}</ref>

Some time after his death, Saul had the [[Witch of Endor]] conjure Samuel's spirit from [[Sheol]] in order to predict the result of an upcoming battle (1 Samuel 28:3–24). Samuel was angered by his recalling, and told Saul that the Lord had left him.

===Rabbinical literature===
While the [[Witch of Endor]] remains anonymous in the Biblical account, the rabbinical [[Midrash]] maintains that she was Zephaniah, the mother of [[Abner]] (Yalḳ, Sam. 140, from Pirḳe R. El.). That a supernatural appearance is here described is inferred from the repeated emphasis laid on the statement that Samuel had died and had been buried (I Sam. xxv. 1, xxviii. 3), by which the assumption that Samuel was still living when summoned, is discredited (Tosef., Soṭah, xi. 5). Still he was invoked during the first twelve months after his death, when, according to the Rabbis, the spirit still hovers near the body (Shab. 152b). In connection with the incidents of the story the Rabbis have developed the theory that the necromancer sees the spirit but is unable to hear his speech, while the person at whose instance the spirit is called hears the voice but fails to see; bystanders neither hear nor see (Yalḳ., l.c.; Redaḳ and RaLBaG's commentaries). The outcry of the woman at the sight of Samuel was due to his rising in an unusual way—upright, not, as she expected, in a horizontal position (comp. LXX. ὄρθιον in verse 14).<ref>[https://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/5755-endor-the-witch-of Jewish Encyclopedia]{{Source-attribution|no-icon=y |pl=y |inline=y}}</ref>

==Documentary hypothesis==
{{see also|Documentary hypothesis}}

===Birth narrative===
The birth-narrative of the prophet Samuel is found at 1 Samuel 1:1-28. It describes how Samuel's mother [[Hannah (Bible)|Hannah]] requests a son from [[Yahweh]], and dedicates the child to God at the shrine of Shiloh. The passage appears to make extensive play with the root-elements of Saul's name, and ends with the phrase ''hu sa'ul le-Yahweh'', "he is dedicated to Yahweh." Hannah names the resulting son Samuel, giving as her explanation, "because from God I requested him." Samuel's name, however, can mean "name of God," (or "Heard of God" or "Told of God") and the etymology and multiple references to the root of the name would seem to fit Saul instead. Thus, several scholars argue that the narrative originally described the birth of Saul, and was given to Samuel to enhance the position of David and Samuel at the former king's expense.<ref>[[P. Kyle McCarter Jr.|P. Kyle McCarter]], "I Samuel: A New Translation with Introduction, Notes and Commentary", Anchor Bible Series, 1980, pp. 62–66.</ref> Alternatively, [[Nadav Na'aman]] argues that the verbal root ''sh-'-l'' is actually related to the name "Shiloh", the place where Samuel was born.<ref>{{cite journal |title=Samuelʼs Birth Legend and the Sanctuary of Shiloh |journal=Journal of Northwest Semitic Languages |url=https://www.academia.edu/38485667 |last=Na’aman |first=Nadav |issue=1 |volume=43 |pages=51–61 |year=2017 |issn=0259-0131 |hdl=10520/EJC-87008214d}}</ref>

===National prophet, local seer===
Some authors see the biblical Samuel as combining descriptions of two distinct roles:
*A ''[[wikt:seer|seer]]'', based at [[Ramathaim-Zophim|Ramah]], and seemingly known scarcely beyond the immediate neighbourhood of Ramah (Saul, for example, not having heard of him, with his servant informing him of his existence instead). In this role, Samuel is associated with the bands of musical ecstatic roaming prophets (''[[Nevi'im]]'') at Gibeah, Bethel, and Gilgal, and some traditional scholars have argued that Samuel was the founder of these groups. At Ramah, Samuel secretly anointed Saul, after having met him for the first time, while Saul was looking for his father's lost [[donkey]]s, and treated him to a meal.
*A ''prophet'', based at Shiloh, who went throughout the land, from place to place, with unwearied zeal, reproving, rebuking, and exhorting the people to [[repentance]]. In this role, Samuel acted as a [[Biblical judges|(biblical) judge]], publicly advising the nation, and also giving private advice to individuals. Eventually Samuel delegated this role to his sons, based at [[Beersheba]], but they behaved corruptly and so the people, facing invasion from the [[Ammon]]ites, persuaded Samuel to appoint a king. Samuel reluctantly did so, and anointed Saul in front of the entire nation, who had gathered to see him.

Source-critical scholarship suggests that these two roles come from different sources, which later were spliced together to form the Book(s) of Samuel. The oldest is considered to be that marking Samuel as the local seer of Ramah, who willingly anointed Saul as king in secret, while the latter presents Samuel as a national figure, begrudgingly anointing Saul as king in front of a national assembly. This later source is generally known as the [[Republican source]], since it denigrates the monarchy (particularly the actions of Saul) and favours religious figures, in contrast to the other main source—the [[Monarchial source]]—which treats it favourably. The Monarchial source would have Saul appointed king by public acclamation, due to his military victories, and not by Samuel's [[cleromancy]]. Another difference between the sources is that the Republican source treats the ecstatic prophets as somewhat independent from Samuel (1 Samuel 9:1ff) rather than having been led by him.<ref>{{Bibleverse|1|Samuel|19:18ff|HE}}</ref>

The passage in which Samuel is described as having exercised the functions of a (biblical) judge, during an annual circuit from Ramah to [[Bethel]] to [[Gilgal]] (the ''Gilgal'' between [[Ebal]] and [[Gerizim]]) to Mizpah and back to Ramah ([[1 Samuel 7#Samuel judges Israel (7:15–17)|1 Samuel 7:15-17]]), is foreshadowed by [[Deborah]], who used to render judgments from a place beneath a palm between Ramah and Bethel.<ref name=Duane>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-5KvCmOcEjgC&dq=prophet+samuel+bible&pg=PA90|title=The Unity of the Bible: Exploring the Beauty and Structure of the Bible|first=Duane L.|last=Christensen|date=October 14, 2003|publisher=Paulist Press|isbn=9780809141104 |via=Google Books}}</ref> Source-critical scholarship often considers it to be a redaction aimed at harmonizing the two portrayals of Samuel.<ref name=J-Enc>{{cite book|last1=Hirsch|first1=Emil G.|last2=Bacher|first2=Wilhelm|last3=Lauterbach|first3=Jacob Zallel|title=Jewish Encyclopedia|date=1906|chapter-url=http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/13079-samuel|chapter=Samuel}}</ref>

The Book(s) of Samuel variously describe Samuel as having carried out sacrifices at sanctuaries, and having constructed and sanctified [[altar]]s. According to the [[Priestly Code]]/[[Deuteronomic Code]] only [[Aaron]]ic priests/[[Levites]] (depending on the underlying tradition) were permitted to perform these actions, and simply being a nazarite or prophet was insufficient. The books of Samuel and Kings offer numerous examples where this rule is not followed by kings and prophets, but some critical scholars look elsewhere seeking a harmonization of the issues. In the [[Book of Chronicles]], Samuel is described as a Levite, rectifying this situation; however critical scholarship widely sees the Book of Chronicles as an attempt to redact the Book(s) of Samuel and [[Books of Kings|of Kings]] to conform to later religious sensibilities. Since many of the Biblical law codes themselves are thought to postdate the Book(s) of Samuel (according to the [[Documentary Hypothesis]]), this would suggest Chronicles is making its claim based on religious motivations. According to most modern scholarship, the Levitical genealogy of 1 Chronicles 4<ref>{{Bibleverse|1|Chronicles|4|HE}}</ref> is not historical.<ref name=J-Enc/>

===Deuteronomistic Samuel===
According to the [[documentary hypothesis]] of Biblical source criticism, which postulates that "[[Deuteronomist|Deuteronomistic historians]]" redacted the [[Former Prophets]] (Joshua, Judges, 1 and 2 Samuel, and 1 and 2 Kings), the Deuteronomists idealized Samuel as a figure larger than life, like [[Joshua]]. For example, Samuel's father [[Elkanah (husband of Hannah)|Elkanah]] is described as having originated from [[Zuph]], specifically [[Ramathaim-Zophim]], which was part of the tribal lands of [[Ephraim]], while [[Books of Chronicles|1 Chronicles]] states that he was a [[Levite]].<ref>1 Chronicles 6:33–38</ref> Samuel is portrayed as a judge who leads the military, as the judges in the Book of Judges, and also who exercises judicial functions. In 1 Sam 12:6–17, a speech of Samuel that portrays him as the judge sent by God to save Israel may have been composed by the Deuteronomists.<ref name="Michael D. Coogan 2009">Michael D. Coogan, ''A Brief Introduction to the Old Testament: the Hebrew Bible in its Context'' (New York: Oxford, 2009), 196.{{ISBN?}}</ref> In 1 Samuel 9:6–20, Samuel is seen as a local "seer". According to documentary scholarship, the Deuteronomistic historians preserved this view of Samuel while contributing him as "the first of prophets to articulate the failure of Israel to live up to its covenant with God."<ref name="Michael D. Coogan 2009"/> For the Deuteronomistic historians, Samuel would have been an extension of Moses and continuing Moses' function as a prophet, judge, and priest, which makes the nature of the historical Samuel uncertain.<ref name="Michael D. Coogan 2009"/>

==Perspectives on Samuel==
=== Judaism ===
[[File:Samuel Nabi.JPG|thumb|[[Tomb of Samuel]]]]
According to the [[Book of Jeremiah]]<ref>{{bibleverse||Jeremiah|15:1|NKJV}}</ref> and one of the [[Psalms]],<ref>{{bibleverse||Psalm|99|HE}}</ref> Samuel had a high devotion to God. [[Classical Rabbinical literature]] adds that he was more than an equal to [[Moses]], God speaking directly to Samuel, rather than Samuel having to attend the tabernacle to hear God.<ref>Berakot 31b, Ta'anit 5b, Exodus Rashi 14:4</ref> Samuel is also described by the Rabbis as having been extremely intelligent; he argued that it was legitimate for laymen to slaughter sacrifices, since the [[Halakha]] only insisted that the priests ''bring the blood'',<ref>cf {{Bibleverse||Leviticus|1:5|HE}}</ref><ref>Zebahim 32a</ref><ref name=Berakot>Berakot 31b</ref> Eli, who was viewed negatively by many Classical Rabbis, is said to have reacted to this logic of Samuel by arguing that it was technically true, but Samuel should be put to death for making legal statements while Eli (his mentor) was present.<ref name=Berakot/>

Samuel is also treated by the Classical Rabbis as a much more sympathetic character than he appears at face value in the Bible; his annual circuit is explained as being due to his wish to spare people the task of having to journey to him; Samuel is said to have been very rich, taking his entire household with him on the circuit so that he didn't need to impose himself on anyone's hospitality; when Saul fell out of God's favour, Samuel is described as having grieved copiously and having prematurely aged.<ref>[[Berakhot (Talmud)|Berakot]] 10b, [[Nedarim (tractate)|Nedarim]] 38a, [[Ta'anit]] 5b</ref>

His [[yahrzeit]] is observed on the 28th day of [[Iyar]].<ref name="Talmud">[[Bikkurim (Talmud)|Bikkurim]] 6b</ref>

=== Christianity ===
[[File:Икона_пророка_Самуила_из_собрания_ДОХМ.jpg|thumb|226x226px|17th-century icon of Samuel ([[Donetsk#Museums|Donetsk Regional Art Museum]])]]

For [[Christians]], Samuel is considered to be a prophet, judge, and wise leader of Israel, and treated as an example of fulfilled commitments to God. On the Catholic, [[Eastern Orthodox liturgical calendar|Eastern Orthodox]], and [[Lutheran]] calendars, his feast day is August 20.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-08-20 |title=St. Samuel—Blessed with the Spirit of God |url=https://www.ncregister.com/blog/st-samuel-blessed-with-the-spirit-of-god |access-date=2024-01-22 |website=NCR |language=en}}</ref> He is commemorated as one of the Holy Forefathers in the [[Calendar of Saints (Armenian Apostolic Church)|Calendar of Saints]] of the [[Armenian Apostolic Church]] on July 30. In the [[Coptic Orthodox Church]], the commemoration of the departure of Samuel the Prophet is celebrated on [[Paoni 9 (Coptic Orthodox liturgics)|9 Paoni]].

[[Herbert Lockyer]], minister and author, and others have seen in Samuel's combined offices of prophet, priest, and ruler a foreshadowing of Christ.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BrUnECmtnvIC&dq=prophet+samuel+bible&pg=PA232|title=All the Messianic Prophecies of the Bible|first=Herbert|last=Lockyer|date=October 14, 1988|publisher=Zondervan|isbn=9780310280910 |via=Google Books}}</ref>

===Islam===
{{Infobox person
| name               = Shamuil
| honorific_suffix   = [[Islamic honorifics|Alayhi as-Salam]]
| image              = Chester Beatty T 414 fol 56v Samuil and the chest.jpg
| caption            = Samuil kneels next to the chest given by God, which is the [[Ark of the Covenant]] and the coffin of fellow prophet [[Moses in Islam|Musa]].
| predecessor        = [[Joshua]]
| successor          = [[David]]
}}

Samuel ({{langx|ar|صموئيل or شموئيل|Šamūʾīl or Ṣamūʾīl}}) is seen as a [[Prophets and messengers in Islam|prophet]] and seer in the [[Islam]]ic faith. The narrative of Samuel in Islam focuses specifically on his birth and the anointing of [[Talut]]. Other elements from his narrative are in accordance with the narratives of other Prophets of [[Israel]], as [[exegesis]] recounts Samuel's preaching against [[idolatry]]. He is not mentioned by name in the [[Qur'an]], but may be alluded to in {{qref|2|246|c=y|pl=y}}.<ref>[[Abdullah Yusuf Ali]], ''[[The Holy Qur'an: Text, Translation and Commentary]]'', Note '''278''' to verse '''246''': "This was Samuel. In his time Israel had suffered from much corruption within and many reverses without. The Philistines had made a great attack and defeated Israel with great slaughter. The Israelites, instead of relying on Faith and their own valor and cohesion, brought out their most sacred possession, the Ark of the Covenant, to help them in the fight. But the enemy captured it, carried it away, and retained it for seven months. The Israelites forgot that wickedness cannot screen itself behind a sacred relic. Nor can a sacred relic help the enemies of faith. The enemy found that the Ark brought nothing but misfortune for themselves, and were glad to abandon it. It apparently remained twenty years in the village ({{transliteration|ar|qarya}}) of Yaarim (Kirjath-jeafim): I. Samuel, 7:2. Meanwhile, the people pressed Samuel to appoint them a king. They thought that a king would cure all their ills, whereas what was wanting was a spirit of union and discipline and a readiness on their part to fight in the cause of Allah."</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Search Samuel |url=https://quran.com/search?page=1&q=Samuel&translations=203 |access-date=2023-09-11 |website=Quran.com |language=en}}</ref>

In the Islamic narrative, the [[Israelites]] after [[Islamic view of Moses|Moses]] wanted a king to rule over their country. Thus, [[God in Islam|God]] sent a prophet, Samuel, to anoint Talut as the first king for the Israelites. However, the Israelites mocked and reviled the newly appointed king, as he was not wealthy from birth (Q{{qref|2|247|pl=y}}). But, assuming Talut to be [[Saul]], in sharp contrast to the Hebrew Bible, the Qur'an praises Saul greatly, and mentions that he was gifted with great spiritual and physical strength. In the Qur'anic account, Samuel prophesies that the sign of Talut's kingship will be that the [[Ark of the Covenant]] will come back to the Israelites.<ref>{{qref|2|246-248|b=y}}</ref>

[[File:Jarih nabi Samuel.jpeg|thumb|center|An Arabic sign denoting where Samuel was buried in the Tomb of Samuel, according to tradition]]

=== Bahá'í ===
[[ʻAbdu'l-Bahá|`Abdu'l-Bahá]], a central figure in [[Baháʼí Faith|the Bahá'í Faith]], mentions Samuel as an example of a genuine Prophet of the House of Israel, alongside [[Ezekiel]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Some Answered Questions {{!}} Bahá'í Reference Library |url=https://www.bahai.org/library/authoritative-texts/abdul-baha/some-answered-questions/8#328857530 |access-date=2022-04-19 |website=www.bahai.org}}</ref>{{better source needed|date=April 2022}}

==Portrayals==
Actors who have portrayed Samuel include [[Denis Quilley]] in the 1985 film ''[[King_David_(film)|King David]]'', [[Leonard Nimoy]] in the 1997 television film ''[[David (1997 film)|David]]'',<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kW8j6sHvrewC&q=%22Nathaniel+Parker%22+david+nimoy&pg=PA368|title=Encyclopedia of Television Film Directors|first=Jerry|last=Roberts|date=5 June 2009|publisher=Scarecrow Press|access-date=14 February 2018|via=Google Books|page=368|isbn=9780810863781}}</ref> [[Eamonn Walker]] in the 2009 television series ''[[Kings (American TV series)|Kings]]'',<ref>{{cite web|url=https://forward.com/culture/104244/david-my-david/|title=David, My David|date=26 March 2009 |access-date=14 February 2018}}</ref> [[Mohammad Bakri]] in the 2016 television series ''[[Of Kings and Prophets]],''<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.bostonglobe.com/arts/2016/03/06/abc-kings-and-prophets-the-bloody-parts-bible/U5t7X0iCig8oUDvNUvipwL/story.html|title=ABC's 'Of Kings and Prophets': The bloody parts of the Bible |publisher= The Boston Globe|access-date=2 March 2018}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://abc.go.com/shows/of-kings-and-prophets/cast/samuel|title=Mohammad Bakri as Samuel – Of Kings and Prophets|website=ABC|access-date=2 March 2018}}</ref> and [[Stephen Lang]] in the 2025 television series ''[[House of David (TV series)|House of David]]''.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |last=Patton |first=Tess |date=2025-02-28 |title='House of David' Cast and Character Guide {{!}} Photos |url=https://www.thewrap.com/house-of-david-cast-and-character-guide-photos/ |access-date=2025-03-01 |website=TheWrap |language=en-US}}</ref>

==See also==
* [[Biblical judges]]
* [[Books of Samuel]]
* [[List of names referring to El]]
* [[Midrash Samuel]]

== Explanatory notes ==
{{Notelist|30em}}

==References==
{{Reflist|30em}}

'''Attribution'''
* {{EBD|wstitle=Samuel}}

== External links ==
* {{Commons category inline}}
{{Wikiquote}}

{{S-start}}
{{S-hou|[[Tribe of Levi]]||||}}
{{S-bef|before=[[Eli (biblical figure)|Eli]]}}
{{S-ttl|title=[[Biblical judges|Judge of Israel]]}}
{{S-non|reason = [[Saul]] as king of Israel}}
{{S-end}}
{{Prophets of the Tanakh}}
{{Muslim saints}}
{{Catholic saints}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Samuel| ]]
[[Category:Books of Samuel people]]
[[Category:Christian saints from the Old Testament]]
[[Category:Eli (biblical figure)]]
[[Category:Hebrew Bible judges]]
[[Category:People celebrated in the Lutheran liturgical calendar]]
[[Category:People from the Kingdom of Israel (united monarchy)]]
[[Category:Tribe of Levi]]
[[Category:Tribe of Ephraim]]
[[Category:People in the Book of Jeremiah]]