View source for Scientific literature

{{Short description|Literary genre}}

{{For|information about journal article databases, and abstract and indexing services|List of academic databases and search engines}}

{{Broader|Academic publishing}}

{{Multiple issues|
{{More citations needed|date=August 2009}}
{{More footnotes|date=November 2012}}
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[[File:Philosophical_Transactions_Volume_1_frontispiece.jpg|thumb|right|The frontispiece for some early scientific literature published in the ''[[Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society]]'']]

{{Science|expanded=Overview}}

'''Scientific literature''' encompasses a vast body of [[academic papers]] that spans various disciplines within the [[Natural science|natural]] and [[social science]]s. It primarily consists of academic papers that present original [[empirical research]] and [[Theory|theoretical]] contributions. These papers serve as essential sources of knowledge and are commonly referred to simply as "'''the literature'''" within specific research fields.

The process of academic publishing involves disseminating [[research]] findings to a wider audience. Researchers submit their work to reputable journals or conferences, where it undergoes rigorous evaluation by experts in the field. This evaluation, known as [[peer review]], ensures the quality, validity, and reliability of the research before it becomes part of the scientific literature. Peer-reviewed publications contribute significantly to advancing our understanding of the world and shaping future research endeavors.

Original [[Scientific method|scientific research]] first published in [[scientific journal]]s constitutes [[primary literature]]. [[Patent]]s and [[technical report]]s, which cover minor research results and engineering and design efforts, including [[Software|computer software]], are also classified as primary literature.

[[Secondary source]]s comprise review articles that summarize the results of published studies to underscore progress and new research directions, as well as books that tackle extensive projects or comprehensive arguments, including article compilations.

[[Tertiary source]]s encompass [[encyclopedia]]s and similar works designed for widespread public consumption.

== Types of scientific publications ==
{{Prose|section|date=March 2025}}
Scientific literature can include the following kinds of publications:<ref name=":1">{{Citation|last=Öchsner|first=Andreas|date=2013|pages=9–21|publisher=Springer Berlin Heidelberg|language=en|doi=10.1007/978-3-642-38646-6_3|isbn=9783642386459|title=Introduction to Scientific Publishing|series=SpringerBriefs in Applied Sciences and Technology|chapter=Types of Scientific Publications}}</ref>

* Scientific articles published in [[scientific journal]]s.
* Patents in the relevant subject (for example, [[biological patent]]s and [[chemical patent]]s).
* Books wholly written by one author or a few co-authors.
* [[Edited volume]]s, where each [[Chapter (books)|chapter]] is the responsibility of a different author or group of authors, while the editor is responsible for determining the scope of the project, keeping the work on schedule, and ensuring consistency of style and content.
* Presentations at [[academic conference]]s, especially those organized by [[Learned society|learned societies]].
* [[Government]] reports such as a [[forensic investigation]] conducted by a government agency such as the [[NTSB]].
* Scientific publications on the [[World Wide Web]] (although e.g. scientific journals are now commonly published on the web).
* Books, [[technical report]]s, pamphlets, and [[working paper]]s issued by individual researchers or research organizations on their own initiative; these are sometimes organized into a series.

Literature may also be published in areas considered to be "[[Grey literature|grey]]", as they are published outside of traditional channels.<ref name=":1" /> This material is customarily not indexed by major databases and can include manuals, theses and dissertations, or newsletters and bulletins.<ref name=":1" />

The significance of different types of the scientific publications can vary between disciplines and change over time.{{Citation needed|date=October 2018}} According to [[James Speight|James G. Speight]] and [[Russell Foster|Russell Foote]], peer-reviewed journals are the most prominent and prestigious form of publication.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4ORgP4AwPtQC&q=peer-reviewed+journal+articles+remain+the+predominant+publication+type%2C+and+have+the+highest+prestige.&pg=PA241|title=Ethics in Science and Engineering|last1=Speight|first1=James G.|last2=Foote|first2=Russell|date=2011-04-27|publisher=John Wiley & Sons|isbn=9781118104842|pages=241|language=en}}</ref> University presses are more prestigious than commercial press publication.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://libguides.oulu.fi/evaluatingpublications/books|title=Evaluation based on scientific publishing: Evaluating books|website=University of Oulu|access-date=November 4, 2019|archive-date=November 4, 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191104192159/https://libguides.oulu.fi/evaluatingpublications/books|url-status=dead}}</ref> The status of working papers and [[conference proceeding]]s depends on the discipline; they are typically more important in the [[applied sciences]]. The value of publication as a [[preprint]] or scientific report on the web has in the past been low, but in some subjects, such as [[mathematics]] or [[high energy physics]], it is now an accepted alternative.{{citation needed|date=October 2018}}

=== Scientific papers and articles ===
Scientific papers have been categorized into ten types. Eight of these carry specific objectives, while the other two can vary depending on the style and the intended goal.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|last=Peh|first=Wilfred|date=2008|title=Basic structure and types of scientific papers|journal=Effective Medical Writing|volume=49|issue=7|pages=522–5|pmid=18695858|via=Singapore Medical Journal}}</ref>

Papers that carry specific objectives are:<ref name=":0" />

* An ''original article'' provides new information from original research supported by evidence.
* ''Case reports'' are unique events{{clarify|date=January 2020}} that researchers read to obtain information on the subject.
* A ''technical note'' is a description of a technique or piece of equipment that has been modified from an existing one to be new and more effective.
* A ''[[pictorial essay]]'' is a series of high-quality images published for teaching purposes.
* A ''[[Review article|review]]'' is a detailed analysis of recent developments on a topic.
* A ''commentary'' is a short summary of an author's personal experience.
* ''[[Editorial]]s'' are short reviews or critiques of original articles.
* ''Letters to the editor'' are communications directed to the editor of an article to ask questions and provide constructive criticism.

The following two categories are variable, including for example historical articles and speeches:<ref name=":0" />

* ''Nonscientific material'': This type of material comes from the result of an article being published.{{clarify|date=January 2020}} It does not advance an article scientifically but instead contributes to its reputation as a scientific article.
* ''Other'': Other types of papers not listed under non-scientific material or in any of the above eight categories. They can vary depending on the objective and style of the article.

== Scientific article ==
{{See also|Academic publishing#Scholarly paper|Academic journal#Scholarly articles}}

=== Preparation ===
The actual day-to-day records of scientific information are kept in research notebooks or logbooks. These are usually kept indefinitely as the basic evidence of the work, and are often kept in duplicate, signed, notarized, and archived. The purpose is to preserve the evidence for scientific priority, and in particular for priority for obtaining patents. They have also been used in scientific disputes.  Since the availability of computers, the notebooks in some data-intensive fields have been kept as database records, and appropriate software is commercially available.<ref>{{Cite conference
| publisher = IEEE Computer Society
| doi = 10.1109/ISCST.2005.1553305
| isbn = 0-7695-2387-0
| pages = 136–143
| last = Talbott
| first = T. |author2=M. Peterson |author3=J. Schwidder |author4=J.D. Myers
| title = Adapting the electronic laboratory notebook for the semantic era
| book-title = International Symposium on Collaborative Technologies and Systems
| location = Los Alamitos, CA, US
| year = 2005
}}</ref>

The work on a project is typically published as one or more technical reports, or articles. In some fields both are used, with preliminary reports, working papers, or [[preprint]]s followed by a formal article. Articles are usually prepared at the end of a project, or at the end of components of a particularly large one. In preparing such an article vigorous rules for [[scientific writing]] have to be followed.

=== Language ===
{{See also|Impact factor|Copy editing}}

Often, career advancement depends upon publishing in high-impact journals, which, especially in hard and applied sciences, are usually published in English.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.nlm.nih.gov/pubs/factsheets/medline.html | title=MEDLINE Fact Sheet | publisher=[[United States National Library of Medicine]] | location=Washington DC | access-date=October 15, 2011 | url-status=dead | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111016122141/http://www.nlm.nih.gov/pubs/factsheets/medline.html | archive-date=October 16, 2011 | df=mdy-all }}</ref> Consequently, scientists with poor English writing skills are at a disadvantage when trying to publish in these journals, regardless of the quality of the scientific study itself.<ref>{{cite journal|author=Pan, Z|title=Crossing the language limitations|journal=PLOS Medicine |volume=3|pages=E410|year=2006|pmid=17002510|doi=10.1371/journal.pmed.0030410|last2=Gao|first2=J|issue=9|pmc=1576334 |doi-access=free }}</ref> Yet many{{which|date=August 2018}} international universities require publication in these high-impact journals by both their students and faculty. One way that some international authors are beginning to overcome this problem is by contracting with freelance copy editors who are native speakers of English and specialize in ESL (English as a second language) editing to polish their manuscripts' English to a level that high-impact journals will accept.{{citation needed|date=August 2018}}

=== Structure and style ===
[[File:Wineglass model for IMRaD structure..png|thumb|IMRaD structure of Scientific articles according to so called Wineglass model]]
{{Main|IMRAD}}

Although the content of an article is more important than the format, it is customary for scientific articles to follow a standard structure, which varies only slightly in different subjects. Although the IMRAD structure emphasizes the organization of content, and in scientific journal articles, each section (Introduction, Methods, Results, and Discussion) has unique conventions for scientific writing style.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://www.routledge.com/Scientific-And-Medical-Communication-A-Guide-For-Effective-Practice/Mogull/p/book/9781138842557|title=Scientific And Medical Communication: A Guide For Effective Practice|last=Mogull|first=Scott A.|publisher=Routledge|year=2017|isbn=9781138842557|location=New York|archive-date=2023-06-23|access-date=2018-10-23|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230623124015/https://www.routledge.com/Scientific-And-Medical-Communication-A-Guide-For-Effective-Practice/Mogull/p/book/9781138842557|url-status=dead}}</ref>

The following are key guidelines for formatting, although each journal etc will to some extent have its own house style:

*The ''title'' attracts readers' attention and informs them about the contents of the article.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Langdon-Neuner|first=Elise|title=Titles in medical articles: What do we know about them?|journal=The Write Stuff|year=2007|volume=16|issue=4|pages=158–160|url=http://www.emwa.org/members/indevelopment/neuner.pd|access-date=25 February 2013}}</ref>  Titles are distinguished into three main types: declarative titles (state the main conclusion), descriptive titles (describe a paper's content), and interrogative titles (challenge readers with a question that is answered in the text).<ref>{{cite web |last=Vasilev |first=Martin |title=How to write a good title for journal articles |url=http://jeps.efpsa.org/blog/2012/09/01/how-to-write-a-good-title-for-journal-articles/ |access-date=25 February 2013 |work=JEPS Bulletin |publisher=European Federation of Psychology Students' Associations |archive-date=28 December 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121228025359/http://jeps.efpsa.org/blog/2012/09/01/how-to-write-a-good-title-for-journal-articles/ |url-status=dead }}</ref> Some journals indicate, in their instructions to authors, the type (and length) of permitted titles.
*The names and affiliations of all ''authors'' are given. In the wake of some [[scientific misconduct]] cases, publishers often require that all co-authors know and agree on the content of the article.<ref>[[Scientific fraud#Responsibility of authors and of coauthors]]</ref>
*An [[abstract (summary)|''abstract'']] summarizes the work (in a single paragraph or in several short paragraphs) and is intended to represent the article in bibliographic databases and to furnish subject [[metadata]] for indexing services.
*The ''context'' of previous scientific investigations should be presented, by citation of relevant documents in the existing literature, usually in a section called an "Introduction".
*''Empirical techniques'', laid out in a section usually called "Materials and Methods", should be described in such a way that a subsequent scientist, with appropriate knowledge of and experience in the relevant field, should be able to repeat the observations and know whether he or she has obtained the same result. This naturally varies between subjects, and does not apply to mathematics and related subjects.
*Similarly, the ''results'' of the investigation, in a section usually called "Results", should be presented in tabular or graphic form ([[image]], [[chart]], [[schematic]], [[diagram]] or [[drawing]]). These display elements should be accompanied by a caption and should be discussed in the text of the article.
*''Interpretation'' of the meaning of the results is usually addressed in a "Discussion" or "Conclusions" section. The conclusions drawn should be based on the new empirical results while taking established knowledge into consideration, in such a way that any reader with knowledge of the field can follow the argument and confirm that the conclusions are sound. That is, acceptance of the conclusions must not depend on personal [[appeal to authority|authority]], [[rhetoric|rhetorical skill]], or [[faith]].
*Finally, a "References" or "Literature Cited" section lists the ''sources'' cited by the authors.

== Peer review ==
{{Main|Scholarly peer review}}

Increasing reliance on digital [[Indexing and abstracting service|abstracting service]]s and [[academic search engines]] means that the ''de facto'' acceptance in the academic discourse is predicted by the inclusion in such selective sources. Commercial providers of proprietary data include [[Chemical Abstracts Service]], [[Web of Science]] and [[Scopus]], while [[open data]] (and often [[open source]], [[non-profit]] and [[library]]-led) services include [[DOAB]], [[DOAJ]] and (for [[open access]] works) [[Unpaywall]] (based on [[CrossRef]] and [[Microsoft Academic]] records enriched with [[OAI-PMH]] data from [[open archive]]s).<ref>{{cite journal|first1=Sandra|last1=Miguel|first2=Zaida|last2=Chinchilla-Rodriguez|first3=Félix|last3=de Moya-Anegón|title=Open access and Scopus: A new approach to scientific visibility from the standpoint of access|journal=Journal of the American Society for Information Science and Technology|date=2011|pages=1130–1145|volume=62|issue=6|doi=10.1002/asi.21532|hdl=10760/16100|s2cid=5924132 |url=http://eprints.rclis.org/16100/1/Miguel_et%20al_2011_Open%20Access%20and%20Scopus_Proof%20Version.pdf|hdl-access=free}}</ref>

== Ethics ==
{{See also|Scientific integrity}}

The transfer of [[copyright]] from author to publisher, used by some journals, can be controversial because many authors want to propagate their ideas more widely and re-use their material elsewhere without the need for permission. Usually an author or authors circumvent that problem by rewriting an article and using other pictures. Some publishers may also want publicity for their journal so will approve [[facsimile]] [[reproduction]] unconditionally; other publishers are more resistant.{{Citation needed|date=May 2008}}

In scientific publishing, a number of key issues include and are not restricted to:<ref name="Chanson2008">{{cite book|author=Hubert Chanson |title=Digital Publishing, Ethics and Hydraulic Engineering: The Elusive or "Boring" Bore?  |url=http://espace.library.uq.edu.au/view/UQ:159099 |publisher=In: Stefano Pagliara 2nd International Junior Researcher and Engineer Workshop on Hydraulic Structures (IJREW'08), Pisa, Italy, Keynote, pp. 3-13, 30 July-1 August 2008 |year=2008 |isbn=978-88-8492-568-8|author-link=Hubert Chanson }}</ref>
* [[Honesty]] and [[Scientific integrity|integrity]] is a duty of each author and person, expert-reviewer and member of journal editorial boards.
* The [[peer review]] process contributes to quality control and it is an essential step to ascertain the standing and originality of the research.<ref name="Chanson2007">{{cite journal|author=Hubert Chanson |title=Research Quality, Publications and Impact in Civil Engineering into the 21st Century. Publish or Perish, Commercial versus Open Access, Internet versus Libraries ?  |url=http://espace.library.uq.edu.au/view/UQ:124078 |journal=Canadian Journal of Civil Engineering |volume= 34|issue=8| pages= 946–951 |doi=10.1139/l07-027 |year=2007|bibcode=2007CaJCE..34..946C |author-link=Hubert Chanson |url-access=subscription }}</ref>
**Redundant publications: Publications generally should contain new unpublished material.<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal|last1=Benos|first1=Dale J.|last2=Fabres|first2=Jorge|last3=Farmer|first3=John|last4=Gutierrez|first4=Jessica P.|last5=Hennessy|first5=Kristin|last6=Kosek|first6=David|last7=Lee|first7=Joo Hyoung|last8=Olteanu|first8=Dragos|last9=Russell|first9=Tara|date=2005–2006|title=Ethics and scientific publication|journal=Advances in Physiology Education|language=en|volume=29|issue=2|pages=59–74|doi=10.1152/advan.00056.2004|pmid=15905149|s2cid=27019082|issn=1043-4046}}</ref>
**[[Data fabrication]] is the process of purposefully changing data to make the information more in the favor of the author.<ref name=":2" />
* Ethical standards: Recent journal editorials presented some experience of unscrupulous activities.<ref name="Mavinic2006">{{cite journal|author=D. Mavinic |title=The "Art" of Plagiarism |journal=Canadian Journal of Civil Engineering|volume=33|issue=3|pages=iii–vi |year=2006 |doi=10.1139/l06-901}}</ref><ref name="AIAA2007">{{cite journal |title=Publication Ethical Standards: Guidelines and Procedures |journal=AIAA Journal |volume=45 |issue=8 |page= 1794 |doi=10.2514/1.32639 |year=2007  |bibcode=2007AIAAJ..45.1794. }}</ref>
** Human welfare concerns: The guidelines for human experimentation started during WWII with the Nuremberg Code. It has evolved into three main principles from The Belmont Report. The subject must be able to make their own choices to protect themselves, benefits must outweigh the risks, and subjects must be evaluated for their selection and benefits must go to all of society.<ref name=":2" />
**Animal welfare concerns: Is the ethical care of animals in scientific experiments. The APS has set strict guidelines and regulations to stop animals from being unnecessarily harmed in experiments. These are being updated regularly by the APS and is a federal law in the United States enforced by DHHS.<ref name=":2" />
* Authorship: Who may claim a right to authorship?<ref name="Chanson2008" /> In which order should the authors be listed?
**[[Conflicts of interest]]: This refers to biases due to private interest. It can be done knowingly or not. This is unethical because it makes data inaccurate.<ref name=":2" />
**Authorship disputes: The authorship of an article is simply the author of the article. The ethical issue with this is when there are two people that believe to be the author, but there is only one true author. There are guidelines to help pick which get authorship of the writing. The one that does not get authorship is put in the acknowledgments. The guidelines come from NIH and The Council of Science Editors.<ref name=":2" />
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== History ==
{{See also|Scientific writing#History}}

The first recorded editorial pre-publication peer-review occurred in 1665 by the founding editor of ''[[Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society]]'', [[Henry Oldenburg]].<ref>Wagner (2006) p. 220-1</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://eprints.soton.ac.uk/263105/1/399we23.htm|title=The Origin of the Scientific Journal and the Process of Peer Review|last=Select Committee on Science and Technology|publisher=Parliament of the United Kingdom|access-date=5 December 2014}}</ref>

Technical and scientific books were a specialty of [[David Van Nostrand]], and his [[David Van Nostrand#Engineering magazine|Engineering Magazine]] re-published contemporary scientific articles.

== See also ==
* [[Acknowledgment index]]
* [[Citation index]]
* [[Digital object identifier]]
* [[Grey literature]]
* [[Open access (publishing)]]
* [[Research paper mill]]
* [[Scientific communication]]
* [[UKSG]]

== References ==
* [[Robert G. Bartle]] (1990) [http://www.ams.org/publications/60ann/BartleHistory.pdf "A brief history of the mathematical literature"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070207072217/http://www.ams.org/publications/60ann/BartleHistory.pdf |date=2007-02-07 }} from [[American Mathematical Society]].

== Footnotes ==
{{Commons category}}

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{{Academic publishing}}

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[[Category:Academic literature]]
[[Category:Academic works about science| ]]
[[Category:Information science]]
[[Category:Technical communication]]