View source for Seafood

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{{About||other uses|Seafood (band)|and|Seafood (film){{!}}''Seafood'' (film)|just fish|Fish as food}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=February 2020}}
[[File:Plateau van zeevruchten.jpg|thumb| {{center|Seafood includes any form of food taken from the sea.}}|alt=A seafood platter composed of shrimp, oyster, snail and crab.]]
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'''Seafood''' is any form of [[Marine life|sea life]] regarded as food by humans, prominently including [[Fish as food|fish]] and [[shellfish]]. Shellfish include various species of [[Mollusca|mollusc]]s (e.g., bivalve molluscs such as [[clam]]s, [[oyster]]s, and [[mussel]]s, and [[cephalopod]]s such as octopus and squid), [[crustacean]]s (e.g. shrimp, crabs, and lobster), and [[echinoderm]]s (e.g. sea cucumbers and sea urchins). Historically, [[marine mammal]]s such as [[cetacean]]s ([[whale]]s and [[dolphin]]s) as well as [[Pinniped|seals]] have been eaten as food, though that happens to a lesser extent in modern times. Edible sea plants such as some [[Edible seaweed|seaweeds]] and [[microalgae]] are widely eaten as [[:Category:edible seaweeds|sea vegetables]] around the world, especially in Asia.

Seafood is an important source of (animal) [[protein]] in many [[Diet (nutrition)|diets]] around the world, especially in coastal areas. [[Semi-vegetarianism|Semi-vegetarians]] who consume seafood as the only source of meat are said to adhere to [[pescetarianism]].

The harvesting of [[Wild fisheries|wild seafood]] is usually known as [[fishing]] or [[hunting]], while the cultivation and farming of seafood is known as [[aquaculture]] and [[fish farming]] (in the case of fish). Most of the seafood harvest is consumed by humans, but a significant proportion is used as [[fish food]] to farm other fish or rear [[farm animals]]. Some seafoods (i.e. [[kelp]]) are used as food for other plants (a [[fertilizer]]). In these ways, seafoods are used to produce further food for human consumption. Also, products such as [[fish oil]], [[spirulina (dietary supplement)|spirulina]] tablets, fish collagen, and [[chitin]] are made from seafoods. Some seafood is fed to [[aquarium]] fish, or used to feed domestic pets such as [[cat]]s. A small proportion is used in medicine or is used industrially for nonfood purposes (e.g. [[leather]]).

==History==
{{main|History of seafood}}
{{More citations needed section|date=July 2021}}
[[File:Maler der Grabkammer des Menna 009.jpg|thumb|left|Various foods depicted in an Egyptian burial chamber, including fish, {{Circa|1400}} BCE|alt=]]
The harvesting, processing, and consuming of seafoods are ancient practices with archaeological evidence dating back well into the [[Paleolithic]].<ref name=Inman/><ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20060117013632/http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2001/11/1108_bonetool_2.html African Bone Tools Dispute Key Idea About Human Evolution] National Geographic News article.</ref> Findings in a [[sea cave]] at [[Pinnacle Point]] in [[South Africa]] indicate ''[[Homo sapiens]]'' (modern humans) harvested marine life as early as 165,000 years ago,<ref name=Inman>{{cite news|url=http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2007/10/071017-cave-coasts.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071018083449/http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2007/10/071017-cave-coasts.html|archive-date=18 October 2007|title=African Cave Yields Earliest Proof of Beach Living|last=Inman|first=Mason|publisher=National Geographic News|date=17 October 2007}}</ref> while the [[Neanderthal]]s, an extinct human species contemporary with early ''Homo sapiens'', appear to have been eating seafood at sites along the Mediterranean coast beginning around the same time.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://phys.org/news/2011-09-neanderthals-ate-shellfish-years.html|title=Neanderthals ate shellfish 150,000 years ago: study|publisher=Phys.org|date=15 September 2011}}</ref> Isotopic analysis of the skeletal remains of [[Tianyuan man]], a 40,000-year-old [[anatomically modern human]] from eastern Asia, has shown that he regularly consumed freshwater fish.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Yaowu Hu | first1 = Y | last2 = Hong Shang | first2 = H | last3 = Haowen Tong | first3 = H | last4 = Olaf Nehlich | first4 = O | last5 = Wu Liu | first5 = W | last6 = Zhao | first6 = C | last7 = Yu | first7 = J | last8 = Wang | first8 = C | last9 = Trinkaus | first9 = E | last10 = Richards | first10 = M | date = 2009 | title = Stable isotope dietary analysis of the Tianyuan 1 early modern human | journal = Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences | volume = 106 | issue = 27| pages = 10971–10974 | doi=10.1073/pnas.0904826106 | pmid=19581579 | pmc=2706269| bibcode = 2009PNAS..10610971H | doi-access = free }}</ref><ref>[http://www.physorg.com/news166120605.html First direct evidence of substantial fish consumption by early modern humans in China] ''[[PhysOrg.com]]'', 6 July 2009.</ref> [[Archaeological|Archaeology]] features such as [[midden|shell middens]],<ref>[http://www.york.ac.uk/depts/arch/middens/index.htm Coastal Shell Middens and Agricultural Origins in Atlantic Europe].</ref> discarded fish bones, and [[cave painting]]s show that sea foods were important for survival and consumed in significant quantities. During this period, most people lived a [[hunter-gatherer]] lifestyle and were, of necessity, constantly on the move. However, early examples of permanent settlements (though not necessarily permanently occupied), such as those at [[Lepenski Vir]], were almost always associated with fishing as a major source of food.

The ancient [[river]] [[Nile]] was full of fish; fresh and dried fish were a staple food for much of the population.<ref>{{cite web |url= http://www.icsf.net/jsp/publication/samudra/pdf/english/issue_28/art01.pdf |title= Fisheries history: Gift of the Nile |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20061110185510/http://www.icsf.net/jsp/publication/samudra/pdf/english/issue_28/art01.pdf |archive-date= 10 November 2006 }}</ref> The [[Egyptians]] had implements and methods for fishing and these are illustrated in [[tomb]] scenes, drawings, and [[papyrus]] documents. Some representations hint at fishing being pursued as a pastime.

{{multiple image
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| image1 = Global FAOSTAT group production.png
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| caption1 = World [[fisheries]] harvest, both wild and farmed, in million tonnes, 1950–2010<ref name=FAOSTAT2>Based on data extracted from the FAO [http://faostat.fao.org/site/629/default.aspx FishStat database] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121107001620/http://faostat.fao.org/site/629/default.aspx |date=7 November 2012 }} 22 July 2012.</ref>
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| caption2 = World [[fisheries]] harvest, wild capture versus aquaculture production, in million tonnes 1950–2010<ref name=FAOSTAT2/>
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Fishing scenes are rarely represented in [[ancient Greek]] culture, a reflection of the low social status of fishing. However, [[Oppian|Oppian of Corycus]], a Greek author wrote a major treatise on sea fishing, the ''Halieulica'' or ''Halieutika'', composed between 177 and 180. This is the earliest such work to have survived to the modern day. The consumption of fish varied by the wealth and location of the household. In the Greek islands and on the coast, fresh fish and seafood ([[Squid as food|squid]], [[Octopus as food|octopus]], and [[shellfish]]) were common. They were eaten locally but more often transported inland. [[Sardines as food|Sardines]] and [[Anchovies as food|anchovies]] were regular fare for the citizens of Athens. They were sometimes sold fresh, but more frequently salted. A [[stele]] of the late 3rd century BCE from the small Boeotian city of [[Akraiphia]], on [[Lake Copais]], provides us with a list of fish prices. The cheapest was ''skaren'' (probably [[parrotfish]]) whereas [[Atlantic bluefin tuna]] was three times as expensive.<ref>Dalby, p.67.</ref> Common salt water fish were [[yellowfin tuna]], [[red mullet]], [[Batoidea|ray]], [[swordfish]], or [[sturgeon]], a delicacy that was eaten salted. Lake Copais itself was famous in all of Greece for its [[Eel as food|eels]], celebrated by the hero of ''[[The Acharnians]]''. Other freshwater fish were [[esox|pike fish]], [[carp]], and the less appreciated [[catfish]].

Pictorial evidence of [[Ancient Rome|Roman]] fishing comes from [[mosaic]]s.<ref>[http://museum.agropolis.fr/english/pages/expos/aliments/poissons/images/mosaique.htm Image of fishing illustrated in a Roman mosaic] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110717033618/http://museum.agropolis.fr/english/pages/expos/aliments/poissons/images/mosaique.htm |date=17 July 2011 }}.</ref> At a certain time, the [[goatfish]] was considered the epitome of luxury, above all because its scales exhibit a bright red colour when it dies out of water. For this reason, these fish were occasionally allowed to die slowly at the table. There even was a recipe where this would take place ''in Garo'', in the [[Garum|sauce]]. At the beginning of the Imperial era, however, this custom suddenly came to an end, which is why ''mullus'' in the feast of [[Trimalchio]] (see ''the [[Satyricon]]'') could be shown as a characteristic of the ''[[parvenu]]'', who bores his guests with an unfashionable display of dying fish.

In [[medieval]] times, seafood was less prestigious than other animal meats, and was often seen as merely an alternative to meat on fast days. Still, seafood was the mainstay of many coastal populations. [[Kipper]]s made from herring caught in the [[North Sea]] could be found in markets as far away as [[Constantinople]].<ref>Adamson (2002), p. 11.</ref> While large quantities of fish were eaten fresh, a large proportion was salted, dried, and, to a lesser extent, smoked. [[Stockfish]] - cod that was split down the middle, fixed to a pole, and dried - was very common, though preparation could be time-consuming, and meant beating the dried fish with a mallet before soaking it in water. A wide range of [[Mollusca|mollusk]]s (including [[oyster]]s, [[Mussel#As food|mussel]]s and [[scallop]]s) were eaten by coastal and river-dwelling populations, and freshwater [[Crayfish as food|crayfish]] were seen as a desirable alternative to meat during fish days. Compared to meat, fish was much more expensive for inland populations, especially in Central Europe, and therefore not an option for most.<ref>Adamson (2004), pp. 45–39.</ref>

Modern knowledge of the reproductive cycles of aquatic species has led to the development of [[Fish hatchery|hatcheries]] and improved techniques of [[fish farming]] and [[aquaculture]]. A better understanding of the [[shellfish poisoning|hazards]] of eating raw and undercooked fish and shellfish has led to improved preservation methods and processing.

{{clear}}

==Types of seafood==
{{See also|List of types of seafood|List of harvested aquatic animals by weight}}
The following table is based on the ISSCAAP classification (International Standard Statistical Classification of Aquatic Animals and Plants) used by the [[FAO]] to collect and compile fishery statistics.<ref>{{cite web |publisher=[[Food and Agriculture Organization]] |work=Fishery Fact Sheets |url=http://www.fao.org/fishery/collection/asfis/en |title=ASFIS List of Species for Fishery Statistics Purposes |access-date=22 July 2012}}</ref> The production figures have been extracted from the FAO FishStat database,<ref name=FishStat>Total production, both wild and aquaculture, of seafood species groups in thousand tonnes, sourced from the data reported in the [[FAO]] [http://faostat.fao.org/site/629/default.aspx FishStat database] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121107001620/http://faostat.fao.org/site/629/default.aspx |date=7 November 2012 }}</ref> and include both capture from wild fisheries and aquaculture production.

{| class="wikitable sortable" border="1" style="border-spacing:0 style="width:100%"
! Group
! style="width:80px;"| Image
! Subgroup
! Description
! style="width:80px;"| 2010&nbsp;production<br /><small>1000&nbsp;tonnes<ref name=FishStat /></small>
|-
! rowspan=5 | [[Fish (food)|fish]]
| colspan="3" style="text-align:left; background:#ddf8f8;"| [[Fish]] are aquatic [[vertebrate]]s which lack [[Limb (anatomy)|limbs]] with [[Digit (anatomy)|digits]], use [[gill]]s to breathe, and have heads protected by hard [[bone]] or [[cartilage]] skulls. ''See: [[Fish (food)]].'' {{right|Total for fish: &nbsp;}}
| style="vertical-align:bottom; text-align:center; background:#ddf8f8;"| 106,639
|-
| [[File:Bluefin-big.jpg|100px|Pelagic fish (Atlantic bluefin tuna)]]
| style="text-align:right; vertical-align:top;"| [[Pelagic fish|marine<br />pelagic]]
| valign= top | [[Pelagic fish]] live and feed near the surface or in the [[water column]] of the sea, but not on the bottom of the sea. The main seafood groups can be divided into larger [[predator fish]] ([[Shark meat|sharks]], [[Tuna as food|tuna]], [[billfish]], [[mahi-mahi]], [[Mackerel as food|mackerel]], [[Salmon as food|salmon]]) and smaller [[forage fish]] ([[Herring as food|herring]], [[Sardines as food|sardines]], [[sprat]]s, [[Anchovies as food|anchovies]], [[menhaden]]). The smaller forage fish feed on plankton, and can accumulate toxins to a degree. The larger predator fish feed on the forage fish, and accumulate toxins to a much higher degree than the forage fish.
| {{center|33,974}}
|-
| [[File:Hippoglossoides platessoides.jpg|100px|Demersal fish (American plaice)]]
| style="text-align:right; vertical-align:top;"| [[Demersal fish|marine<br />demersal]]
| valign= top | [[Demersal fish]] live and feed on or near the bottom of the sea.<ref name="seafloor">Walrond C [http://www.teara.govt.nz/en/coastal-fish/5 Carl . "Coastal fish – Fish of the open sea floor"] Te Ara – the Encyclopedia of New Zealand. Updated 2 March 2009</ref> Some seafood groups are [[cod]], [[flatfish]], [[grouper]] and [[stingray]]s. Demersal fish feed mainly on crustaceans they find on the sea floor, and are more sedentary than the pelagic fish. Pelagic fish usually have the red flesh characteristic of the powerful swimming muscles they need, while demersal fish usually have white flesh.
| {{center|23,806}}
|-
| [[File:Salmo salar GLERL 1.jpg|100px|Diadromous fish (Atlantic salmon)]]
| style="text-align:right; vertical-align:top;"| [[Diadromous fish|diadromous]]
| valign= top | [[Diadromous fish]] are fishes which migrate between the sea and fresh water. Some seafood groups are [[Salmon as food|salmon]], [[shad]], [[Eel as food|eels]] and [[lamprey]]s. ''See: [[Salmon run]].''
| {{center|5,348}}
|-
| [[File:Tilapia cabrae.jpg|100px|Freshwater fish (tilapia)]]
| style="text-align:right; vertical-align:top;"| [[Freshwater fish|freshwater]]
| valign= top | [[Freshwater fish]] live in [[river]]s, [[lake]]s, [[reservoir]]s, and [[pond]]s. Some seafood groups are [[carp]], [[tilapia]], [[catfish]], [[bass (fish)|bass]], and [[trout]]. Generally, freshwater fish lend themselves to [[fish farming]] more readily than the ocean fish, and the larger part of the tonnage reported here refers to farmed fish.
| {{center|43,511}}
|-
! rowspan=5 | [[mollusc]]s
| colspan="3" style="text-align:left; background:#ddf8f8;"| [[Mollusc]]s (from the Latin ''molluscus'', meaning ''soft'') are [[invertebrate]]s with soft bodies that are not segmented like crustaceans. [[Bivalve]]s and [[gastropod]]s are protected by a [[calcareous]] [[Mollusc shell|shell]] which grows as the mollusc grows. {{right|Total for molluscs: &nbsp;}}
| valign=bottom style="background:#ddf8f8;" |{{center|20,797}}
|-
| [[File:A clam.jpg|100px|Bivalve]]
| style="text-align:right; vertical-align:top;"| [[bivalve]]s
| valign= top | [[Bivalve]]s, sometimes referred to as [[clam]]s, have a protective shell in two hinged parts. A [[Valve (mollusc)|valve]] is the name used for the protective shell of a bivalve, so bivalve literally means ''two shells''. Important seafood bivalves include [[oyster]]s, [[scallop]]s, [[mussel]]s and [[cockle (bivalve)|cockle]]s. Most of these are [[filter feeder]]s which bury themselves in sediment on the [[seabed]] where they are safe from [[predation]]. Others lie on the sea floor or attach themselves to rocks or other hard surfaces. Some, such as scallops, can [[nekton|swim]]. Bivalves have long been a part of the diet of coastal communities. Oysters were [[oyster farming|cultured]] in ponds by the Romans and [[mariculture]] has more recently become an important source of bivalves for food.
| align=center | 12,585
|-
| [[File:AbaloneInside.jpg|100px|Empty shell of an abalone]]
| style="text-align:right; vertical-align:top;"| [[gastropod]]s
| valign= top | Aquatic [[gastropod]]s, also known as [[sea snail]]s, are univalves which means they have a protective shell that is [[gastropod shell|in a single piece]]. Gastropod literally means ''stomach-foot'', because they appear to crawl on their stomachs. Common seafood groups are [[abalone]], [[conch]], [[limpet]]s, [[whelk]]s and [[Common periwinkle|periwinkle]]s.
| align=center | 526
|-
| [[File:Expl0717 - Flickr - NOAA Photo Library.jpg|100px|Octopus]]
| style="text-align:right; vertical-align:top;"| [[cephalopod]]s
| valign= top | Cephalopods, except for [[nautilus]], are not protected by an external shell. Cephalopod literally means ''head-foots'', because they have limbs which appear to issue from their head. They have excellent vision and high intelligence. Cephalopods propel themselves with a water jet and lay down "smoke screens" with [[Cephalopod ink|ink]]. Examples are [[octopus]], [[squid]] and [[cuttlefish]]. They are eaten in many cultures. Depending on the species, the arms and sometimes other body parts are prepared in various ways. Octopus must be boiled properly to rid it of slime, smell, and residual ink. Squid are popular in Japan. In Mediterranean countries and in English-speaking countries squid are often referred to as [[calamari]].<ref name="MW">{{cite dictionary|url=http://m-w.com/dictionary/calamari|title=Definition of calamari|date=18 August 2023 |dictionary=[[Merriam-Webster|Merriam-Webster's]] Online Dictionary}}</ref> Cuttlefish is less eaten than squid, though it is popular in Italy and [[Dried shredded squid|dried, shredded cuttlefish]] is a snack food in East Asia. ''See: [[Squid (food)]], [[Octopus (food)]].''
| align=center |3,653
|-
|
| style="text-align:right; vertical-align:top;"| other
| valign= top | Molluscs not included above are [[Chiton#Culinary uses|chitons]].
| align=center | 4,033
|-
! rowspan=6 | [[crustacean]]s
| colspan="3" style="text-align:left; background:#ddf8f8;"| [[Crustacean]]s (from Latin ''crusta'', meaning ''crust'') are invertebrates with segmented bodies protected by hard crusts (shells or [[exoskeleton]]s), usually made of [[chitin]] and structured somewhat like a [[knight's armour]]. The shells do not grow, and must periodically be shed or [[Ecdysis|moulted]]. Usually two legs or limbs issue from each segment. Most commercial crustaceans are [[decapoda|decapods]], that is they have ten legs, and have [[compound eye]]s set on [[Eyestalk|stalks]]. Their shell turns pink or red when cooked.{{right|Total for crustaceans: &nbsp;}}
| style="vertical-align:bottom; text-align:center; background:#ddf8f8;" |11,827
|-
| [[File:Pandborealisind.jpg|100px|Northern prawn]]
| style="text-align:right; vertical-align:top;"| [[shrimp]]s
| valign= top | [[Shrimp and prawn]]s are small, slender, stalk-eyed ten-legged crustaceans with long spiny [[rostrum (anatomy)|rostrum]]s. They are widespread, and can be found near the seafloor of most coasts and estuaries, as well as in rivers and lakes. They play important roles in the [[food chain]]. There are numerous species, and usually there is a species adapted to any particular habitat. Any small crustacean which resembles a shrimp tends to be called one.<ref>* Rudloe, Jack and Rudloe, Anne (2009) [https://books.google.com/books?id=rpRq7CoXQo0C&q=shrimp ''Shrimp: The Endless Quest for Pink Gold''] FT Press. {{ISBN|9780137009725}}.</ref> ''See: [[shrimp (food)]], [[shrimp fishery]], [[shrimp farming]], [[freshwater prawn farming]].''
| align=center | 6,917
|-
| [[File:Mud crab.jpg|100px|Mud crab]]
| style="text-align:right; vertical-align:top;"| [[crab]]s
| valign= top | Crabs are stalk-eyed ten-legged crustaceans, usually walk sideways, and have grasping [[Chela (organ)|claws]] as their front pair of limbs. They have small [[Abdomen#Invertebrates|abdomen]]s, short [[Antenna (biology)|antennae]], and a short [[carapace]] that is wide and flat. Also usually included are [[king crab]]s and [[Coconut crab#Relationship with humans|coconut crabs]], even if these belongs to a different group of decapods than the true crabs. ''See: [[crab fisheries]].''
| align=center | 1,679<ref>Includes crabs, sea spiders, king crabs and squat lobsters</ref>
|-
| [[File:Homarus americanus.png|100px|Clawed lobster]]
| style="text-align:right; vertical-align:top;"| [[lobster]]s
| valign= top | [[Clawed lobster]]s and [[spiny lobster]]s are stalk-eyed ten-legged crustaceans with long abdomens. The clawed lobster has large asymmetrical claws for its front pair of limbs, one for crushing and one for cutting ''(pictured)''. The spiny lobster lacks the large claws, but has a long, spiny antennae and a spiny carapace. Lobsters are larger than most shrimp or crabs. ''See: [[lobster fishing]].''
| align=center | 281<ref>Includes lobsters, spiny-rock lobsters</ref>
|-
| [[File:Meganyctiphanes norvegica2.jpg|100px|Northern krill]]
| style="text-align:right; vertical-align:top;"| [[krill]]
| valign= top | [[Krill]] resemble small shrimp, however they have external [[gill]]s and more than ten legs ([[pleopod|swimming]] plus feeding and grooming legs). They are found in oceans around the world where they [[filter feed]] in huge pelagic [[swarm]]s.<ref name=Nicol1997 /> Like shrimp, they are an important part of the marine food chain, converting [[phytoplankton]] into a form larger animals can consume. Each year, larger animals eat half the estimated biomass of krill (about 600 million tonnes).<ref name=Nicol1997>{{cite book |author=Steven Nicol|author2=Yoshinari Endo|name-list-style=amp |url=http://www.fao.org/DOCREP/003/W5911E/W5911E00.HTM |series=Fisheries Technical Paper |volume=367 |title=Krill Fisheries of the World |publisher=[[Food and Agriculture Organization]] |date=1997 |isbn=978-92-5-104012-6}}</ref> Humans consume krill in Japan and Russia, but most of the krill harvest is used to make [[fish feed]] and for extracting oil. Krill oil contains omega-3 fatty acids, similar to [[fish oil]]. ''See: [[Krill fishery]].''
| align=center | 215
|-
|
| style="text-align:right; vertical-align:top;"| other
| valign= top | Crustaceans not included above are [[Goose barnacle#As food|gooseneck barnacles]], [[Austromegabalanus psittacus#Use by humans and oceanic organisms|giant barnacle]], [[Mantis shrimp#Culinary uses|mantis shrimp]] and [[brine shrimp]].<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://imb.umt.edu.my/wp-content/uploads/sites/15/2021/07/5-HoaSorgeloos2020.pdf |title=Brine Shrimp Artemia as a Direct Human Food |access-date=30 January 2022 |archive-date=30 January 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220130122622/https://imb.umt.edu.my/wp-content/uploads/sites/15/2021/07/5-HoaSorgeloos2020.pdf }}</ref>
| align=center | 1,359
|-
! rowspan=6 | other aquatic animals
| colspan="3" style="text-align:center; background:#ddf8f8;"| {{right|Total for other aquatic animals: &nbsp;}}
| style="text-align:center; background:#ddf8f8;"| 1,409+
|-
| [[File:Tursiops truncatus 01.jpg|100px|Dolphin]]<br /><br />
[[File:Sanc0116 - Flickr - NOAA Photo Library.jpg|100px|Fluke of a whale]]
| style="text-align:right; vertical-align:top;"| [[aquatic mammal]]s
| valign= top | [[Marine mammal]]s form a diverse group of 128 species that rely on the ocean for their existence.<ref name="pompa">{{cite journal | last1 = Pompa | first1 = S. | last2 = Ehrlich | first2 = P. R. | last3 = Ceballos | first3 = G. | date = 2011 | title = Global distribution and conservation of marine mammals | journal = PNAS | volume = 108 | issue = 33| pages = 13600–13605 | doi = 10.1073/pnas.1101525108 | pmid = 21808012 | bibcode = 2011PNAS..10813600P | pmc = 3158205 | doi-access = free }}</ref> Whale meat is still harvested from legal, non-commercial hunts.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-us-canada-10549107 |title=Native Alaskans say oil drilling threatens way of life |work=BBC News |date=20 July 2010 |access-date=2010-08-11}}</ref> About one thousand [[long-finned pilot whale]]s are still killed annually.<ref name="contaminated">{{cite news|last=Nguyen|first=Vi|title=Warning over contaminated whale meat as Faroe Islands' killing continues|url=http://www.theecologist.org/News/news_round_up/687202/warning_over_contaminated_whale_meat_as_faroe_islands_killing_continues.html|newspaper=The Ecologist|date=26 November 2010}}</ref> Japan has resumed hunting for whales, which they call "research whaling".<ref>{{cite news|url=http://search.japantimes.co.jp/cgi-bin/nn20080308a2.html |title=Greenpeace: Stores, eateries less inclined to offer whale |newspaper=The Japan Times Online |date=2008-03-08 |access-date=2010-07-29}}</ref> In modern Japan, two cuts of whale meat are usually distinguished: the belly meat and the more valued tail or fluke meat. Fluke meat can sell for $200 per kilogram, three times the price of belly meat.<ref name="slate1">{{cite magazine|last=Palmer |first=Brian |url=http://www.slate.com/id/2247583 |title=What Does Whale Taste Like? |magazine=Slate Magazine |date=11 March 2010 |access-date=2010-07-29}}</ref> [[Fin whale]]s are particularly desired because they are thought to yield the best quality fluke meat.<ref name=kershaw>{{Harvnb|Kershaw|1988|p=67}}</ref> In [[Taiji, Wakayama|Taiji]] in Japan and parts of Scandinavia such as the [[Faroe Island]]s, [[dolphin]]s are traditionally considered food, and are killed in [[harpoon]] or [[dolphin drive hunting|drive hunts]].<ref>
{{cite news
|last=Matsutani |first=Minoru
|url=http://search.japantimes.co.jp/cgi-bin/nn20090923f1.html
|title=Details on how Japan's dolphin catches work
|newspaper=[[Japan Times]]
|date=23 September 2009
|page=3
}}</ref> [[Ringed seal]]s are still an important food source for the people of [[Nunavut]]<ref>{{cite web |url=http://inuitarteskimoart.com/artists/About-Seals.html |title=Eskimo Art, Inuit Art, Canadian Native Artwork, Canadian Aboriginal Artwork |publisher=Inuitarteskimoart.com |access-date=2009-05-07 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130530223528/http://inuitarteskimoart.com/artists/About-Seals.html |archive-date=30 May 2013 }}</ref> and are also hunted and eaten in Alaska.<ref name=autogenerated3>{{cite web |url=http://www.seashepherd.org/seals/seals_seal_hunt_facts.html |title=Seal Hunt Facts |work=Sea Shepherd Conservation Society |publisher=Sea Shepherd |access-date=2011-07-24 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081011043206/http://seashepherd.org/seals/seals_seal_hunt_facts.html |archive-date=11 October 2008 }}</ref> The meat of sea mammals can be high in mercury, and may pose health dangers to humans when consumed.<ref>
{{cite news
|last=Johnston |first=Eric
|url=http://search.japantimes.co.jp/cgi-bin/nn20090923f2.html
|title=Mercury danger in dolphin meat
|newspaper=[[Japan Times]]
|date=23 September 2009
|page=3
}}</ref> The FAO records only the reported numbers of aquatic mammals harvested, and not the tonnage. In 2010, it reported 2500 whales, 12,000 dolphins and 182,000 seals. ''See: [[marine mammals as food]], [[whale meat]], [[seal hunting]]''.
| align=center | ?
|-
| [[File:Green turtle swimming in Kona May 2010.jpg|100px|Sea cucumber]]
| style="text-align:right; vertical-align:top;"| [[Marine reptile|aquatic reptiles]]
| valign= top | [[Sea turtle]]s have long been valued as food in many parts of the world. Fifth century BC Chinese texts describe sea turtles as exotic delicacies.<ref name="EatingTurtlesChina">{{cite journal | last =Schafer | first =Edward H. | author-link =Edward H. Schafer | title =Eating Turtles in Ancient China | journal =Journal of the American Oriental Society | volume =82 | issue =1 | pages =73–74 | date =1962 | doi = 10.2307/595986| jstor=595986}}</ref> Sea turtles are caught worldwide, although in many countries it is illegal to hunt most species.<ref name="CITES">{{cite web| author=CITES | author-link =CITES | title =Appendices | publisher =Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Flora and Fauna | date =14 June 2006 | url =http://www.cites.org/eng/app/appendices.shtml |format =SHTML | access-date = 5 February 2007 | archive-url =https://web.archive.org/web/20070203100154/http://www.cites.org/eng/app/appendices.shtml | archive-date =3 February 2007 }}</ref> Many coastal communities around the world depend on sea turtles as a source of protein, often gathering sea turtle eggs, and keeping captured sea turtles alive on their backs until needed for consumption.<ref>{{cite journal | title = Status of Nesting Populations of Sea Turtles in Thailand and Their Conservation | last1 = Settle | first1 = Sam | date = 1995 | url = http://www.seaturtle.org/mtn/archives/mtn68/mtn68p8.shtml | journal = Marine Turtle Newsletter | volume = 68 | pages = 8–13 }}</ref> Most species of sea turtle are now endangered, and some are [[critically endangered]].<ref>{{cite web|author=International Union for the Conservation of Nature|title=IUCN Red List of Endangered Species|url=http://www.iucnredlist.org|access-date=12 April 2012}}</ref>
| align=center | 296+
|-
| [[File:Three-Rowed Sea Cucumber.jpg|100px|Sea cucumber]]
| style="text-align:right; vertical-align:top;"| [[echinoderm]]s
| valign= top | [[Echinoderm]]s are headless invertebrates, found on the [[seafloor]] in all oceans and at all depths. They are not found in fresh water. They usually have a five-pointed radial symmetry, and move, breathe and perceive with their retractable [[tube feet]]. They are covered with a calcareous and spiky [[Test (biology)|test]] or skin. The name echinoderm comes from the Greek ''ekhinos'' meaning ''hedgehog'', and ''dermatos'' meaning ''skin''. Echinoderms used for seafood include [[Sea cucumbers as food|sea cucumber]]s, [[Sea urchin as food|sea urchin]]s, and occasionally [[starfish]]. Wild sea cucumbers are caught by divers and in China they are farmed commercially in artificial ponds.<ref name=NF>{{cite web |url=http://www.nationalfisherman.com/2008.asp?ItemID=1800&pcid=373&cid=375&archive=yes |author=Ess, Charlie |title=Wild product's versatility could push price beyond $2 for Alaska dive fleet |publisher=National Fisherman |access-date=2008-08-01 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090122074025/http://www.nationalfisherman.com/2008.asp?ItemID=1800&pcid=373&cid=375&archive=yes |archive-date=22 January 2009 }}</ref> The [[gonad]]s of both male and female sea urchins, usually called sea urchin [[roe]] or corals,<ref>Rogers-Bennett, Laura, "The Ecology of ''Strongylocentrotus franciscanus'' and ''Strongylocentrotus purpuratus''" ''in'' John M. Lawrence, ''Edible sea urchins: biology and ecology'', p. 410</ref> are delicacies in many parts of the world.<ref>Alan Davidson, ''[[Oxford Companion to Food]]'', ''s.v.'' sea urchin</ref><ref>Lawrence, John M., "Sea Urchin Roe Cuisine" ''in'' John M. Lawrence, ''Edible sea urchins: biology and ecology''</ref>
| align=center | 373
|-
| [[File:Jellyfish sesame oil and chili sauce.jpg|100px|Rehydrated jellyfish strips]]
| style="text-align:right; vertical-align:top;"| [[Jellyfish as food|jellyfish]]
| valign= top | [[Jellyfish]] are soft and gelatinous, with a body shaped like an umbrella or bell which pulsates for locomotion. They have long, trailing tentacles with stings for capturing prey. They are found free-swimming in the [[water column]] in all oceans, and are occasionally found in freshwater. Jellyfish must be dried within hours to prevent spoiling. In Japan they are regarded as a delicacy. Traditional processing methods are carried out by a jellyfish master. This involve a 20 to 40-day multi-phase procedure which starts with removing the gonads and [[mucous membrane]]s. The umbrella and oral arms are then treated with a mixture of [[Edible salt|table salt]] and [[alum]], and compressed. Processing reduces liquefaction, odor, the growth of spoilage organisms, and makes the jellyfish drier and more acidic, producing a crisp and crunchy texture. Only [[scyphozoan]] jellyfish belonging to the order [[Rhizostomeae]] are harvested for food; about 12 of the approximately 85 species. Most of the harvest takes place in southeast Asia.<ref>{{cite journal | doi = 10.1023/A:1011879821323 | last1 = Omori | first1 = M. | last2 = Nakano | first2 = E. | name-list-style =vanc | date = 2001 | title = Jellyfish fisheries in southeast Asia | journal = Hydrobiologia | volume = 451 | issue = 1–3 | pages = 19–26 | bibcode = 2001HyBio.451...19O | s2cid = 6518460 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Hsieh | first1 = Yun-Hwa P | last2 = Leong | first2 = F-M | last3 = Rudloe | first3 = J | date = 2001 | title = Jellyfish as food | journal = Hydrobiologia | volume = 451 | issue = 1–3| pages = 11–17 | doi = 10.1023/A:1011875720415 | bibcode = 2001HyBio.451...11P | s2cid = 20719121 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Li | first1 = Jian-rong | last2 = Hsieh | first2 = Yun-Hwa P | date = 2004 | title = Traditional Chinese food technology and cuisine | url = http://apjcn.nhri.org.tw/server/APJCN/13/2/147.pdf | journal = Asia Pacific J Clin Nutr | volume = 13 | issue = 2| pages = 147–155 | pmid = 15228981 }}</ref>
| {{center|404}}
|-
| [[File:SeaSquirt.jpg|100px|Sea squirt]]
| style="text-align:right; vertical-align:top;"| other
| valign= top | Aquatic animals not included above, such as [[Anatidae|waterfowl]], [[frog]]s, [[Echiura#As food|spoon worms]], [[Sipuncula#As food|peanut worms]], [[Palola viridis#Cultural use|palolo worms]], [[Brachiopod#Interactions with other organisms|lamp shells]], [[lancelet]]s, [[Anemonia sulcata#Uses|sea anemones]] and [[Ascidiacea#Culinary|sea squirts]] ''(pictured)''.
| align=center | 336
|-
! rowspan=4 | [[aquatic plant]]s and [[microphyte]]s
| colspan="3" style="text-align:center; background:#ddf8f8;"| {{right|Total for aquatic plants and microphytes: &nbsp;}}
| style="text-align:center; background:#ddf8f8;"| 19,893
|-
| [[File:Korean soup-Miyeokguk-01.jpg|100px|Seaweed/sea urchin soup]]
[[File:Umibudou at Miyakojima01s3s2850.jpg|100px|Sea grapes]]
| style="text-align:right; vertical-align:top;"| [[seaweed]]
| valign= top | Seaweed is a loose colloquial term which lacks a formal definition. Broadly, the term is applied to the larger, [[macroscopic]] forms of [[algae]], as opposed to [[microalga]]. Examples of seaweed groups are the multicellular [[rhodophyta|red]], [[phaeophyceae|brown]] and [[green alga]]e.<ref>Smith, G.M. 1944. ''Marine Algae of the Monterey Peninsula, California''. Stanford Univ., 2nd Edition.</ref> Edible seaweeds usually contain high amounts of fibre and, in contrast to terrestrial plants, contain a [[complete protein]].<ref name="Nutritional evaluation of seaweeds">{{cite journal | author=K.H. Wong| author2=Peter C.K. Cheung | title=Nutritional evaluation of some subtropical red and green seaweeds: Part I – proximate composition, amino acid profiles and some physico-chemical properties | journal=Food Chemistry | volume=71 | issue=4 | date=2000 | pages=475–482 | doi=10.1016/S0308-8146(00)00175-8}}</ref> Seaweeds are used extensively as food in coastal cuisines around the world. Seaweed has been a part of diets in [[Chinese cuisine|China]], [[Japanese cuisine|Japan]], and [[Korean cuisine|Korea]] since prehistoric times.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.seaweed.ie/uses_general/humanfood.html |title=Seaweed as Human Food |publisher=Michael Guiry's Seaweed Site |access-date=2011-11-11 |archive-date=8 October 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111008061022/http://www.seaweed.ie/uses_general/humanfood.html }}</ref> Seaweed is also consumed in many traditional European societies, in [[Icelandic cuisine|Iceland]] and western [[Norwegian cuisine|Norway]], the Atlantic coast of [[French cuisine|France]], northern and western [[Irish cuisine|Ireland]], [[Welsh cuisine|Wales]] and some coastal parts of South West England,<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/devon/discovering/taste/laver.shtml |title=Spotlight presenters in a lather over laver |publisher=BBC |date=2005-05-25 |access-date=2011-11-11}}</ref> as well as Nova Scotia and Newfoundland. ''See: [[edible seaweed]], [[seaweed farming]], [[aquaculture of giant kelp]], [[laverbread]]''.
| align=center |
|-
| [[File:Spirulina tablets.jpg|100px|Spirulina tablets]]
| style="text-align:right; vertical-align:top;"| [[microphytes]]
| valign= top | [[Microphyte]]s are microscopic organisms, and can be algal, bacterial or fungal. [[Microalga]]e are another type of aquatic plant, and includes species that can be consumed by humans and animals. Some species of aquatic bacteria can also be used as seafood, such as [[spirulina (genus)|spirulina]] ''(pictured in tablet form)'', a type of [[cyanobacteria]]. ''See: [[culture of microalgae in hatcheries]].''
| align=center |
|-
| [[File:Nelumbo nucifera LOTUS bud.jpg|100px|Lotus bud]]
| style="text-align:right; vertical-align:top;"| [[aquatic plants]]
| valign= top | Edible aquatic plants are [[flowering plant]]s and [[fern]]s that have adapted to a life in water. Known examples are [[Sagittaria latifolia|duck potato]], [[Eleocharis dulcis|water chestnut]], [[Typha#Culinary|cattail]], [[watercress]], [[Nelumbo nucifera#Human consumption|lotus]] and [[Marsilea drummondii|nardoo]].
| align=center |
|- style="background:#ddf8f8;"
| colspan="4" style="text-align:right; "| '''Total production (thousand tonnes)&nbsp;&nbsp;'''
| style="text-align:center; "| '''168,447'''
|}

==Processing==
{{multiple image
| caption_align = center
| header_align = center
| align = right
| direction = vertical
| width = 200
| image1 = Wangfujing food 2009.jpg
| caption1 = Deep-fried [[starfish]] for sale as "food-on-a-stick", [[Beijing]]
| image2 = FishAtSupermarket.jpg
| caption2 = Fish at an [[Asian supermarket]] in [[Virginia]], U.S.
| image3 = Früchte des Meeres.jpg
| caption3 = Seafood in [[Étretat]], France
| image4 = PlateOfFishLg.jpg
| caption4 = Fish for sale in a market in Hong Kong
| image6 = Echiura in Korea1.jpg
| caption6 = [[Urechis unicinctus|Penis fish]] (a [[spoon worm]]) for sale in a market, South Korea
| image7 = CantoneseRestaurantSeafood.jpg
| caption7 = Seafood tanks in a [[Guangzhou|Cantonese]] restaurant
| image8 = Raw seafood.jpg
| caption8 = {{center|[[Raw fish|Raw seafoods]]}}
| image9 = Haemul-sutbul-gui.jpg
| caption9 = Grilling seafood
| total_width =
| alt1 =
}}
{{See also|Fish processing|Fish preservation}}

Fish is a highly [[Decomposition|perishable]] product: the "fishy" smell of dead fish is due to the breakdown of [[amino acid]]s into [[Polyamine|biogenic amines]] and [[ammonia]].<ref>N. Narain and Nunes, M.L. Marine Animal and Plant Products. ''In:'' Handbook of Meat, Poultry and Seafood Quality, L.M.L. Nollet and T. Boylston, eds. Blackwell Publishing 2007, p 247.</ref>

Live [[food fish]] are often transported in tanks at high expense for an [[live food fish trade|international market]] that prefers its seafood killed immediately before it is cooked. Delivery of live fish without water is also being explored.<ref>{{Cite web |title=WO2005039280 - PROCESS FOR TRANSPORT OF LIVE FISH WITHOUT WATER |url=https://patentscope.wipo.int/search/en/detail.jsf?docId=WO2005039280 |access-date=15 May 2025 |website=patentscope.wipo.int}}</ref> While some seafood [[restaurant]]s keep live fish in [[aquarium|aquaria]] for display purposes or cultural beliefs, the majority of live fish are kept for dining customers. The live food fish trade in [[Hong Kong]], for example, is estimated to have driven imports of live food fish to more than 15,000 [[tonne]]s in 2000. Worldwide sales that year were estimated at US$400&nbsp;million, according to the World Resources Institute.<ref>[http://marine.wri.org/pubs_content_text.cfm?ContentID=645 The World Resources Institute, The live reef fish trade] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070207183454/http://marine.wri.org/pubs_content_text.cfm?ContentID=645 |date=7 February 2007 }}</ref>

If the [[cool chain]] has not been adhered to correctly, food products generally decay and become harmful before the [[Shelf life|validity date]] printed on the package. As the potential harm for a consumer when eating rotten fish is much larger than for example with dairy products, the [[Food and Drug Administration (United States)|U.S. Food and Drug Administration]] (FDA) has introduced regulation in the USA requiring the use of a [[time temperature indicator]] on certain fresh chilled seafood products.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.fda.gov/ICECI/EnforcementActions/WarningLetters/2003/ucm147270.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090710032434/http://www.fda.gov/ICECI/EnforcementActions/WarningLetters/2003/ucm147270.htm |archive-date=10 July 2009 |title=La Rosa Logistics Inc 14-Jan-03 |publisher=Fda.gov |access-date=2012-04-02}}</ref>

Because fresh fish is highly perishable, it must be eaten promptly or discarded; it can be kept for only a short time. In many countries, fresh fish are [[Fish fillet|filleted]] and displayed for sale on a bed of [[crushed ice]] or [[refrigeration|refrigerated]]. Fresh fish is most commonly found near bodies of water, but the advent of refrigerated [[Refrigerator car|train]] and [[Refrigerator truck|truck]] [[transportation]] has made fresh fish more widely available inland.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Hicks |first=Doris T. |date=2016-10-28 |title=Seafood Safety and Quality: The Consumer's Role |journal=Foods |volume=5 |issue=4 |page=71 |doi=10.3390/foods5040071 |issn=2304-8158 |pmc=5302431 |pmid=28231165 |doi-access=free }}</ref>

Long term [[Food preservation|preservation]] of fish is accomplished in a variety of ways. The oldest and still most widely used techniques are [[Stockfish|drying]] and [[salting (food)|salting]]. [[Desiccation]] (complete drying) is commonly used to preserve fish such as [[cod]]. Partial drying and salting are popular for the preservation of fish like [[herring]] and [[mackerel]]. Fish such as [[salmon]], [[tuna]], and [[herring]] are cooked and [[canning|canned]]. Most fish are filleted before canning, but some small fish (e.g. [[sardine]]s) are only [[decapitation|decapitated]] and gutted before canning.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Messina |first1=Concetta Maria |last2=Arena |first2=Rosaria |last3=Ficano |first3=Giovanna |last4=Randazzo |first4=Mariano |last5=Morghese |first5=Maria |last6=La Barbera |first6=Laura |last7=Sadok |first7=Saloua |last8=Santulli |first8=Andrea |date=2021-10-21 |title=Effect of Cold Smoking and Natural Antioxidants on Quality Traits, Safety and Shelf Life of Farmed Meagre (Argyrosomus regius) Fillets, as a Strategy to Diversify Aquaculture Products |journal=Foods |volume=10 |issue=11 |page=2522 |doi=10.3390/foods10112522 |issn=2304-8158 |pmc=8619432 |pmid=34828803 |doi-access=free }}</ref>

==Consumption==
{{More citations needed section|date=July 2021}}
{{See also|List of countries by seafood consumption|Fishing industry by country}}
Seafood is consumed all over the world; it provides the world's prime source of high-quality [[protein]]: 14–16% of the animal protein consumed worldwide, with over one billion people reliant on seafood as their primary source of animal protein.<ref>World Health Organization [https://web.archive.org/web/20061122184857/http://www.who.int/nutrition/topics/3_foodconsumption/en/index5.html].</ref><ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Tidwell | first1 = James H. | last2 = Allan | first2 = Geoff L. | date = 2001 | title = Fish as food: aquaculture's contribution Ecological and economic impacts and contributions of fish farming and capture fisheries | journal = EMBO Reports | volume = 2 | issue = 11| pages = 958–963 | doi = 10.1093/embo-reports/kve236 | pmc=1084135 | pmid=11713181}}</ref> Fish is among the most common [[food allergy|food allergens]].

Since 1960, annual global seafood consumption has more than doubled to over 20&nbsp;kg per capita. Among the top consumers are Korea (78.5&nbsp;kg per head), Norway (66.6&nbsp;kg) and Portugal (61.5&nbsp;kg).<ref>[https://ec.europa.eu/jrc/en/news/how-much-fish-do-we-consume-first-global-seafood-consumption-footprint-published How much fish do we consume? First global seafood consumption footprint published] ''European Commission science and knowledge service''. Last update: 27/ September 2018.</ref>

The UK [[Food Standards Agency]] recommends that at least two portions of seafood should be consumed each week, one of which should be oil-rich. There are over 100 different types of seafood available around the coast of the UK.

Oil-rich fish such as [[mackerel]] or [[herring]] are rich in long-chain [[omega-3]] oils. These oils are found in every cell of the human body, and are required for human biological functions such as brain functionality.

Whitefish such as haddock and cod are very low in fat and calories which, combined with oily fish rich in omega-3 such as [[mackerel]], [[sardine]]s, fresh [[tuna]], [[salmon]] and [[trout]], can help to protect against [[coronary heart disease]], as well as helping to develop strong bones and teeth.

[[Shellfish]] are particularly rich in [[zinc]], which is essential for healthy skin and muscles as well as fertility. [[Casanova]] reputedly ate 50 [[oyster]]s a day.<ref>Slovenko R (2001) [http://heinonline.org/HOL/LandingPage?collection=journals&handle=hein.journals/jpsych29&div=12&id=&page= "Aphrodisiacs-Then and Now"] ''Journal of Psychiatry and Law'', '''29''': 103f.</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Patrick McMurray|title=Consider the Oyster: A Shucker's Field Guide|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MJHU67VwJ9kC|year=2007|publisher=St. Martin's Press|isbn=978-0-312-37736-6|page=15}}</ref>

==Texture and taste==
Over 33,000 [[species]] of fish and many more marine invertebrate species have been identified.<ref>[[FishBase]]: [http://www.fishbase.org/search.php October 2017 update.] Retrieved 30 December 2017.</ref> Bromophenols, which are produced by marine algae, give marine animals an odor and taste that is absent from freshwater fish and invertebrates. Also, a chemical substance called dimethylsulfoniopropionate (DMSP) that is found in red and green algae is transferred into animals in the marine food chain. When broken down, dimethyl sulfide (DMS) is produced, and is often released during food preparation when fresh fish and shellfish are heated. In small quantities it creates a specific smell one associates with the ocean, but in larger quantities gives the impression of rotten seaweed and old fish.<ref>{{cite web| url = https://www.americanscientist.org/article/the-science-of-seaweeds| title = The Science of Seaweeds {{!}} American Scientist| date = 6 February 2017}}</ref> Another molecule known as [[Trimethylamine N-oxide|TMAO]] occurs in fishes and gives them a distinct smell. It also exists in freshwater species, but becomes more numerous in the cells of an animal the deeper it lives, so fish from the deeper parts of the ocean have a stronger taste than species that live in shallow water.<ref>{{cite web| url = http://www.bbc.com/earth/story/20150129-life-at-the-bottom-of-the-ocean| title = BBC – Earth – What does it take to live at the bottom of the ocean?}}</ref> Eggs from seaweed contain sex pheromones called dictyopterenes, which are meant to attract the sperm. These pheromones are also found in edible seaweeds, which contributes to their aroma.<ref>{{cite web| url = https://www.popsci.com/seasmells| title = Why Does The Sea Smell Like The Sea? {{!}} Popular Science| date = 19 August 2014}}</ref>

{| class="wikitable collapsible"
! colspan="4" style="width:570px;"| Common species used as seafood<ref>Peterson, James and editors of Seafood Business (2009) [https://books.google.com/books?id=s-r5bx-SG6kC&q=%22seafood%22 ''Seafood Handbook: The Comprehensive Guide to Sourcing, Buying and Preparation''] John Wiley & Sons. {{ISBN|9780470404164}}.</ref>
|-
! style="width:100px;"|
! width=33% | Mild flavour
! width=33% | Moderate flavour
! width=33% | Full flavour
|-
! valign=top | Delicate<br />texture
|  style="vertical-align:top; background:#f5f5f5;"| [[Pangasius bocourti|basa]], [[flounder]], [[hake]], [[scup]], [[Rainbow smelt|smelt]], [[rainbow trout]], [[Mercenaria mercenaria|hardshell clam]], [[Portunus pelagicus|blue crab]], [[peekytoe crab]], [[spanner crab]], [[cuttlefish]], [[eastern oyster]], [[Pacific oyster]]
|  style="vertical-align:top; background:#f1f1fa;"| [[Anchovies as food|anchovy]], [[Herring as food|herring]], [[lingcod]], [[Polydactylus sexfilis|moi]], [[orange roughy]], [[Rose fish|Atlantic Ocean perch]], [[Lake Victoria perch]], [[yellow perch]], [[Ostrea edulis|European oyster]], [[Sea urchin as food|sea urchin]]
|  style="vertical-align:top; background:#e8e8f8;"| [[Atlantic mackerel]]
|-
! valign=top | Medium<br />texture
|  style="vertical-align:top; background:#e8f8e8;"| [[black sea bass]], [[European sea bass]], [[hybrid striped bass]], [[bream]], [[Cod as food|cod]], [[drum (fish)|drum]], [[haddock]], [[Macruronus novaezelandiae|hoki]], [[Alaska pollock]], [[Sebastidae|rockfish]], [[pink salmon]], [[Lutjanus campechanus|snapper]], [[tilapia]], [[turbot]], [[walleye]], [[lake whitefish]], [[wolffish]], [[Mya arenaria|hardshell clam]], [[Spisula solida|surf clam]], [[cockle (bivalve)|cockle]], [[Jonah crab]], [[snow crab]], [[Crayfish as food|crayfish]], [[bay scallop]], [[Penaeus|Chinese white shrimp]]
|  style="vertical-align:top; background:#f3eaea;"| [[sablefish]], [[Atlantic salmon]], [[coho salmon]], [[Skate (fish)|skate]], [[dungeness crab]], [[king crab]], [[blue mussel]], [[Perna canaliculus|greenshell mussel]], [[Pandalus borealis|pink shrimp]]
|  style="vertical-align:top; background:#f0e0f0;"| [[escolar]], [[chinook salmon]], [[chum salmon]], [[American shad]]
|-
! valign=top | Firm<br />texture
|  style="vertical-align:top; background:#ddf8dd;"| [[Arctic char]], [[carp]], [[catfish]], [[List of fishes known as dory|dory]], [[grouper]], [[halibut]], [[monkfish]], [[pompano]], [[Solea solea|Dover sole]], [[sturgeon]], [[tilefish]], [[wahoo]], [[Seriola quinqueradiata|yellowtail]], [[Abalone]], [[conch]], [[Chionoecetes|stone crab]], [[American lobster]], [[spiny lobster]], [[Octopus as food|octopus]], [[black tiger shrimp]], [[Macrobrachium rosenbergii|freshwater shrimp]], [[Penaeus|gulf shrimp]], [[Pacific white shrimp]], [[Squid as food|squid]]
|  style="vertical-align:top; background:#e8f0d8;"| [[barramundi]], [[brosmius brosme|cusk]], [[Squalidae|dogfish]], [[kingklip]], [[mahimahi]], [[opah]], [[mako shark]], [[swordfish]], [[albacore tuna]], [[yellowfin tuna]], [[geoduck|geoduck clam]], [[squat lobster]], [[sea scallop]], [[Sicyonia brevirostris|rock shrimp]]
|  style="vertical-align:top; background:#f0e0e0;"| [[barracuda]], [[Chilean sea bass]], [[cobia]], [[Atlantic croaker|croaker]], [[Eel as food|eel]], [[Atlantic blue marlin|blue marlin]], [[Mugil cephalus|mullet]], [[sockeye salmon]], [[bluefin tuna]]
|}

==Health benefits==
[[File:US FDA Advice- Eating Fish.gif|thumb|The [[Food and Drug Administration|US FDA]] recommends moderate consumption of fish as part of a healthy and balanced diet.]]

There is broad scientific consensus that [[Docosahexaenoic acid|docosahexaenoic acid (DHA)]] and [[Eicosapentaenoic acid|eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA)]] found in seafood are beneficial to [[Development of the nervous system in humans|neurodevelopment]] and cognition, especially at young ages.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Harris|first1=W S|last2=Baack|first2=M L|date=2014-10-30|title=Beyond building better brains: bridging the docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) gap of prematurity|journal=Journal of Perinatology|volume=35|issue=1|pages=1–7|doi=10.1038/jp.2014.195|pmid=25357095|issn=0743-8346|pmc=4281288}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Hüppi|first=Petra S|date=1 March 2008|title=Nutrition for the Brain: Commentary on the article by Isaacs et al. on page 308|journal=Pediatric Research|volume=63|issue=3|pages=229–231|doi=10.1203/pdr.0b013e318168c6d1|pmid=18287959|s2cid=6564743|issn=0031-3998|doi-access=free}}</ref> The United Nations [[Food and Agriculture Organization]] has described fish as "nature's super food."<ref>Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. 2016b. The State of World Fisheries and Aquaculture: Contributing to Food Security and Nutrition for AIL Rome: FAO.</ref> Seafood consumption is associated with improved neurologic development during [[pregnancy]]<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Hibbeln|first1=Joseph R|last2=Davis|first2=John M|last3=Steer|first3=Colin|last4=Emmett|first4=Pauline|last5=Rogers|first5=Imogen|last6=Williams|first6=Cathy|last7=Golding|first7=Jean|date=February 2007|title=Maternal seafood consumption in pregnancy and neurodevelopmental outcomes in childhood (ALSPAC study): an observational cohort study|journal=The Lancet|volume=369|issue=9561|pages=578–585|doi=10.1016/s0140-6736(07)60277-3|pmid=17307104|s2cid=35798591|issn=0140-6736}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Fewtrell|first1=Mary S|last2=Abbott|first2=Rebecca A|last3=Kennedy|first3=Kathy|last4=Singhal|first4=Atul|last5=Morley|first5=Ruth|last6=Caine|first6=Eleanor|last7=Jamieson|first7=Cherry|last8=Cockburn|first8=Forrester|last9=Lucas|first9=Alan|date=April 2004|title=Randomized, double-blind trial of long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acid supplementation with fish oil and borage oil in preterm infants|journal=The Journal of Pediatrics|volume=144|issue=4|pages=471–479|doi=10.1016/j.jpeds.2004.01.034|pmid=15069395|issn=0022-3476}}</ref> and early childhood<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Daniels|first1=Julie L.|last2=Longnecker|first2=Matthew P.|last3=Rowland|first3=Andrew S.|last4=Golding|first4=Jean|date=July 2004|title=Fish Intake During Pregnancy and Early Cognitive Development of Offspring|journal=Epidemiology|volume=15|issue=4|pages=394–402|doi=10.1097/01.ede.0000129514.46451.ce|pmid=15232398|s2cid=22517733|issn=1044-3983|doi-access=free}}</ref> and is more tenuously linked to reduced mortality from [[Coronary artery disease|coronary heart disease]].<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal|last1=Mozaffarian|first1=Dariush|last2=Rimm|first2=Eric B.|date=2006-10-18|title=Fish Intake, Contaminants, and Human Health|journal=JAMA|volume=296|issue=15|pages=1885–99|doi=10.1001/jama.296.15.1885|pmid=17047219|issn=0098-7484|doi-access=free}}</ref>

Fish consumption has been associated with a decreased risk of [[dementia]], [[lung cancer]] and [[stroke]].<ref>{{cite journal|author=Song, Jian; Hong, Su; Wang, Bao-long; Zhou, Yang-yang; Guo, Liang-Liang|year=2014|title=Fish Consumption and Lung Cancer Risk: Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis|journal=[[Nutrition and Cancer]]|url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/01635581.2014.894102|volume=66|issue=44|pages=539–549 |doi=10.1080/01635581.2014.894102|pmid=24707954|s2cid=38143108|url-access=subscription}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|author=Bakre AT, Chen R, Khutan R, Wei L, Smith T, Qin G, Danat IM, Zhou W, Schofield P, Clifford A, Wang J, Verma A, Zhang C, Ni J|year=2018|title=Association between fish consumption and risk of dementia: a new study from China and a systematic literature review and meta-analysis|journal=[[Public Health Nutrition]]|volume=21|issue=10|pages=1921–1932|doi=10.1017/S136898001800037X|pmid=29551101|pmc=10260768 |s2cid=3983960|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|author=Zhao, Wei; Tang, Hui; Xiaodong, Yang; Xiaoquan, Luo; Wang, Xiaoya; Shao, Chuan; He, Jiaquan|year=2019|title=Fish Consumption and Stroke Risk: A Meta-Analysis of Prospective Cohort Studies|journal=[[Journal of Stroke & Cerebrovascular Diseases]]|volume=28|issue=3|pages=604–611|doi=10.1016/j.jstrokecerebrovasdis.2018.10.036|pmid=30470619|s2cid=53719088}}</ref> A 2020 [[umbrella review]] concluded that fish consumption reduces all-cause mortality, cancer, cardiovascular disease, stroke and other outcomes. The review suggested that two to four servings per week is generally safe.<ref>{{cite journal|author=Li, Ni; Wu, Xiaoting; Zhuang, Wen; Xia, Lin; Chen, Yi; Wu, Chuncheng; Rao, Zhiyong; Du, Liang; Zhao, Rui; Yi, Mengshi; Wan, Qianyi; Zhou, Yong|year=2020|title=Fish consumption and multiple health outcomes: Umbrella review|journal=[[Trends in Food Science and Technology]]|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0924224419310532|volume=99|pages=273–283|doi=10.1016/j.tifs.2020.02.033|s2cid=216445490|url-access=subscription}}</ref> However, two other recent umbrella reviews have found no statistically significant associations between fish consumption and cancer risks and have cautioned researchers when it comes to interpreting reported associations between fish consumption and cancer risks because the quality of evidence is very low.<ref>{{cite journal|author=Jayedi, Ahmad; Shab-Bidar, Sakineh|year=2020|title=Fish Consumption and the Risk of Chronic Disease: An Umbrella Review of Meta-Analyses of Prospective Cohort Studies|journal=Advances in Nutrition|url=https://academic.oup.com/advances/article-abstract/11/5/1123/5811305|volume=11|issue=5|pages=1123–1133|doi=10.1093/advances/nmaa029|pmid=32207773|pmc=7490170}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|author=Keum Hwa Lee, Hyo Jin Seong, Gaeun Kim, Gwang Hun Jeong, Jong Yeob Kim, Hyunbong Park, Eunyoung Jung, Andreas Kronbichler, Michael Eisenhut, Brendon Stubbs, Marco Solmi, Ai Koyanagi, Sung Hwi Hong, Elena Dragioti, Leandro Fórnias Machado de Rezende, Louis Jacob, NaNa Keum, Hans J van der Vliet, Eunyoung Cho, Nicola Veronese, Giuseppe Grosso, Shuji Ogino, Mingyang Song, Joaquim Radua, Sun Jae Jung, Trevor Thompson, Sarah E Jackson, Lee Smith, Lin Yang, Hans Oh, Eun Kyoung Choi, Jae Il Shin, Edward L Giovannucci, Gabriele Gamerith|year=2020|title=Consumption of Fish and ω-3 Fatty Acids and Cancer Risk: An Umbrella Review of Meta-Analyses of Observational Studies|journal=Advances in Nutrition|url=https://academic.oup.com/advances/article-abstract/11/5/1134/5850613|volume=11|issue=5|pages=1134–1149|doi=10.1093/advances/nmaa055|pmid=32488249|pmc=7490175}}</ref>

The parts of fish containing essential fats and micronutrients, often cited as primary health benefits of eating seafood, are frequently discarded in the [[Developed country|developed world]].<ref name=":0">{{Cite book|last1=Hamada|first1=Shingo|title=Seafood: Ocean to the Plate|last2=Wilk|first2=Richard|publisher=Routledge|year=2019|isbn=978-1-138-19186-0|location=New York|pages=2, 8, 5–7, 9, 5, 9, 115 (in order of parenthetical appearance)}}</ref> [[Micronutrient]]s including calcium, potassium, selenium, zinc, and iodine are found in their highest concentrations in the head, intestines, bones, and scales.<ref>{{Cite journal|date=January 2010|title=Report of the Joint FAO/WHO Expert Consultation on the Risks and Benefits of Fish Consumption|url=https://www.fao.org/3/ba0136e/ba0136e00.pdf|journal=FAO Fisheries and Aquaculture Report|volume=978|pages=25–29|eissn=2070-6987}}</ref>

Government recommendations promote moderate consumption of fish. The [[Food and Drug Administration|US Food and Drug Administration]] recommends moderate (4 oz for children and 8–12 oz for adults, weekly) consumption of fish as part of a healthy and balanced diet.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Advice About Eating Fish|url=https://www.fda.gov/media/102331/download|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190502184346/https://www.fda.gov/media/102331/download|archive-date=2 May 2019|date=July 2019|website=United States Environmental Protection Agency|format=PDF|access-date=May 8, 2020}}</ref> [[National Health Service (England)|The UK National Health Service]] gives similar advice, recommending at least 2 portions (about 10 oz) of fish weekly.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Fish and shellfish|url=https://www.nhs.uk/live-well/eat-well/fish-and-shellfish-nutrition/|date=2018-04-27|website=nhs.uk|language=en|access-date=2020-05-09}}</ref> The [[National Health Commission|Chinese National Health Commission]] recommends slightly more, advising 10–20 oz of fish weekly.<ref>{{Cite web|title=《中国居民膳食指南(2016)》核心推荐_中国居民膳食指南|url=http://dg.cnsoc.org/article/04/8a2389fd5520b4f30155be01beb82724.html|website=dg.cnsoc.org|access-date=2020-05-09}}</ref>

==Health hazards==
{{See also|Health hazards of eating fish|Mercury in fish}}

[[File:Barracuda with prey.jpg|thumb|[[Barracuda]] found in Florida are avoided due to a high risk of ciguatera. The same fish found in Belize presents a lesser risk due to the lower prevalence of ciguatera-causing dinoflagellates in the Caribbean. Thus, knowing a fish's origin and life history is essential to determining its health hazards.]]
[[File:The build up of toxins in a food chain.svg|thumb|Organic and inorganic compounds including [[methylmercury]], [[microplastics]], and [[polychlorinated biphenyl]]s (PCBs) can bioaccumulate to dangerous levels in [[apex predator]]s like [[swordfish]] and [[marlin]].]]
There are numerous factors to consider when evaluating health hazards in seafood. These concerns include marine toxins, microbes, [[foodborne illness]], [[Radioactive contamination|radionuclide contamination]], and man-made pollutants.<ref name=":0" /> [[Shellfish]] are among the more common [[Food allergy|food allergens]].<ref>{{cite web | title = Common Food Allergens | url = http://www.foodallergy.org/allergens/index.html | publisher = [[Food Allergy & Anaphylaxis Network]] | access-date = 24 June 2007 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20070613040928/http://www.foodallergy.org/allergens/index.html | archive-date = 13 June 2007 }}</ref> Most of these dangers can be mitigated or avoided with accurate knowledge of when and where seafood is caught. However, consumers have limited access to relevant and actionable information in this regard and the seafood industry's systemic problems with mislabelling make decisions about what is safe even more fraught.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Landrigan |first1=Philip J. |last2=Raps |first2=Hervé |last3=Cropper |first3=Maureen |last4=Bald |first4=Caroline |last5=Brunner |first5=Manuel |last6=Canonizado |first6=Elvia Maya |last7=Charles |first7=Dominic |last8=Chiles |first8=Thomas C. |last9=Donohue |first9=Mary J. |last10=Enck |first10=Judith |last11=Fenichel |first11=Patrick |last12=Fleming |first12=Lora E. |last13=Ferrier-Pages |first13=Christine |last14=Fordham |first14=Richard |last15=Gozt |first15=Aleksandra |title=The Minderoo-Monaco Commission on Plastics and Human Health |journal=Annals of Global Health |date=2023 |volume=89 |issue=1 |page=23 |doi=10.5334/aogh.4056 |issn=2214-9996 |pmid=36969097|pmc=10038118 |doi-access=free }}</ref>

[[Ciguatera fish poisoning]] (CFP) is an illness resulting from consuming toxins produced by [[Gambierdiscus toxicus|dinoflagellates]] which bioaccumulate in the liver, roe, head, and intestines of [[Coral reef fish|reef fish]].<ref>{{Citation|last=Ansdell|first=Vernon|title=Seafood Poisoning|date=2019|work=Travel Medicine|pages=449–456|publisher=Elsevier|doi=10.1016/b978-0-323-54696-6.00049-5|isbn=978-0-323-54696-6}}</ref> It is the most common disease associated with seafood consumption and poses the greatest risk to consumers.<ref name=":0" /> The population of plankton that produces these toxins varies significantly over time and location, as seen in [[red tide]]s. Evaluating the risk of ciguatera in any given fish requires specific knowledge of its origin and life history, information that is often inaccurate or unavailable.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Brand|first1=Larry E.|last2=Campbell|first2=Lisa|last3=Bresnan|first3=Eileen|date=February 2012|title=Karenia: The biology and ecology of a toxic genus|journal=Harmful Algae|volume=14|pages=156–178|doi=10.1016/j.hal.2011.10.020|pmid=36733478 |pmc=9891709 |bibcode=2012HAlga..14..156B |issn=1568-9883}}</ref> While ciguatera is relatively widespread compared to other seafood-related health hazards (up to 50,000 people suffer from ciguatera every year), mortality is very low.<ref>{{Cite journal|date=2013-03-20|title=Ciguatera Fish Poisoning—New York City, 2010-2011|journal=JAMA|volume=309|issue=11|page=1102|doi=10.1001/jama.2013.1523|issn=0098-7484|doi-access=free}}</ref>

[[Scombroid food poisoning]], is also a seafood illness. It is typically caused by eating fish high in histamine from being stored or processed improperly.<ref>{{Cite web |title = Scombroid Fish Poisoning |url =https://www.cdph.ca.gov/Programs/CID/DCDC/Pages/ScombroidFish%20Poisoning.aspx|website = California Department of Public Health|access-date = 2024-03-22}}</ref>

[[Fish]] and [[shellfish]] have a natural tendency to concentrate inorganic and organic toxins and pollutants in their bodies, including [[methylmercury]], a highly toxic organic compound of mercury, polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), and microplastics. Species of fish that are high on the [[food chain]], such as [[Shark meat|shark]], [[swordfish]], [[king mackerel]], [[albacore tuna]], and [[tilefish]] contain higher concentrations of these bioaccumulates. This is because bioaccumulates are stored in the muscle tissues of fish, and when a predatory fish eats another fish, it assumes the entire body burden of bioaccumulates in the consumed fish. Thus species that are high on the [[food chain]] amass body burdens of bioaccumulates that can be ten times higher than the species they consume. This process is called [[biomagnification]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Smith |first1=Madeleine |last2=Love |first2=David C. |last3=Rochman |first3=Chelsea M. |last4=Neff |first4=Roni A. |date=2018 |title=Microplastics in Seafood and the Implications for Human Health |journal=Current Environmental Health Reports |volume=5 |issue=3 |pages=375–386 |doi=10.1007/s40572-018-0206-z |issn=2196-5412 |pmc=6132564 |pmid=30116998|bibcode=2018CEHR....5..375S }}</ref>

Man-made disasters can cause localized hazards in seafood which may spread widely via piscine food chains. The first occurrence of widespread [[mercury poisoning]] in humans occurred this way in the 1950s in [[Minamata, Kumamoto|Minamata]], Japan. Wastewater from a nearby chemical factory released methylmercury that accumulated in fish which were consumed by humans. Severe mercury poisoning is now known as [[Minamata disease]].<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Osiander|first=A.|date=2002-10-01|title=Minamata: Pollution and the Struggle for Democracy in Postwar Japan, by Timothy S. George. Cambridge, MA and London: Harvard University Press, 2001, xxi + 385 pp., $45.00 (hardcover ISBN 0-674-00364-0), $25.00 (paperback ISBN 0-674-00785-9)|journal=Social Science Japan Journal|volume=5|issue=2|pages=273–275|doi=10.1093/ssjj/05.2.273|issn=1369-1465}}</ref><ref name=":0" /> The 2011 [[Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster|Fukushima Daiichi Nuclear Power Plant disaster]] and 1947–1991 [[Nuclear testing at Bikini Atoll|Marshall Islands nuclear bomb testing]] led to dangerous radionuclide contamination of local sea life which, in the latter case, remained as of 2008.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Johnston|first1=Barbara Rose|last2=Barker|first2=Holly M.|date=2020-03-26|title=Consequential Damages of Nuclear War|doi=10.1201/9781315431819|isbn=978-1-315-43181-9|s2cid=241941148}}</ref><ref name=":0" />

A widely cited study in [[JAMA (journal)|JAMA]] which synthesized government and [[MEDLINE]] reports, and meta-analyses to evaluate risks from methylmercury, dioxins, and polychlorinated biphenyls to cardiovascular health and links between fish consumption and neurologic outcomes concluded that: <blockquote>"The benefits of modest fish consumption (1-2 servings/wk) outweigh the risks among adults and, excepting a few selected fish species, among women of childbearing age. Avoidance of modest fish consumption due to confusion regarding risks and benefits could result in thousands of excess CHD [congenital heart disease] deaths annually and suboptimal neurodevelopment in children."<ref name=":1" /> </blockquote>

==Mislabelling==
{{main|Seafood mislabelling}}
[[File:Grilled Albacore Tuna (Rare).jpg|alt=|thumb|[[Escolar]] is sometimes difficult to distinguish from tuna when cooked. Unlike tuna, escolar is associated with [[keriorrhea]] and severe cramping following consumption.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Center for Food Safety and Applied Nutrition (U.S.)|url=https://www.fda.gov/files/food/published/Bad-Bug-Book-2nd-Edition-%28PDF%29.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200419055143/https://www.fda.gov/files/food/published/Bad-Bug-Book-2nd-Edition-%28PDF%29.pdf|archive-date=19 April 2020|title=The bad bug book: foodborne pathogenic microorganisms and natural toxins handbook|publisher=U.S. Food & Drug Administration, Center for Food Safety & Applied Nutrition|lccn=2004616584|page=237|oclc=49526684}}</ref> In many restaurants, most fish labeled as tuna, white tuna, or albacore are mislabeled escolar.<ref name=":2">{{Cite book|last=Kimberly Warner; Walker Timme; Beth Lowell; Michael Hirschfield|title=Oceana study reveals seafood fraud nationwide|publisher=Oceana|year=2013|oclc=828208760}}</ref><ref name=":3" />]]
Due to the wide array of options in the seafood marketplace, seafood is far more susceptible to mislabeling than terrestrial food.<ref name=":0" /> There are more than 1,700 species of seafood in the United States' consumer marketplace, 80 – 90% of which are imported and less than 1% of which are tested for fraud.<ref name=":2" /> However, more recent research into seafood imports and consumption patterns among consumers in the United States suggests that 35%-38% of seafood products are of domestic origin.<ref>{{Cite journal|doi = 10.1073/pnas.1905650116|title = Opinion: To create sustainable seafood industries, the United States needs a better accounting of imports and exports|year = 2019|last1 = Gephart|first1 = Jessica A.|last2 = Froehlich|first2 = Halley E.|last3 = Branch|first3 = Trevor A.|journal = Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences|volume = 116|issue = 19|pages = 9142–9146|pmid = 31068476|pmc = 6511020|doi-access = free}}</ref>  consumption suggests Estimates of mislabelled seafood in the United States range from 33% in general up to 86% for particular species.<ref name=":2" />

Byzantine [[supply chain]]s, frequent bycatch, brand naming, species substitution, and inaccurate ecolabels all contribute to confusion for the consumer.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Jacquet|first1=Jennifer L.|last2=Pauly|first2=Daniel|date=May 2008|title=Trade secrets: Renaming and mislabeling of seafood|journal=Marine Policy|volume=32|issue=3|pages=309–318|doi=10.1016/j.marpol.2007.06.007|bibcode=2008MarPo..32..309J |citeseerx=10.1.1.182.1143|issn=0308-597X}}</ref> A 2013 study by [[Oceana (non-profit group)|Oceana]] found that one third of seafood sampled from the United States was incorrectly labeled.<ref name=":2" /> [[Lutjanidae|Snapper]] and [[tuna]] were particularly susceptible to mislabelling, and seafood substitution was the most common type of fraud. Another type of mislabelling is short-weighting, where practices such as overglasing or soaking can misleadingly increase the apparent weight of the fish.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.fishwatch.gov/eating-seafood/fraud |title=FishWatch – Fraud |access-date=2018-12-21}}</ref> For supermarket shoppers, many seafood products are unrecognisable [[Fillet (cut)|fillets]]. Without sophisticated [[Genetic testing|DNA testing]], there is no foolproof method to identify a fish species without their head, skin, and fins. This creates easy opportunities to substitute cheap products for expensive ones, a form of economic fraud.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Nutrition|first=Center for Food Safety and Applied|date=2018-11-03|title=Seafood Species Substitution and Economic Fraud|url=https://www.fda.gov/food/seafood-guidance-documents-regulatory-information/seafood-species-substitution-and-economic-fraud|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190917142917/https://www.fda.gov/food/seafood-guidance-documents-regulatory-information/seafood-species-substitution-and-economic-fraud|archive-date=17 September 2019|journal=FDA|language=en}}</ref>

Beyond financial concerns, significant health risks arise from hidden pollutants and marine toxins in an already fraught marketplace. Seafood fraud has led to widespread [[keriorrhea]] due to mislabeled escolar, mercury poisoning from products marketed as safe for pregnant women, and hospitalisation and neurological damage due to mislabeled [[Tetraodontidae#Poisoning|pufferfish]].<ref name=":3">{{Cite journal|last1=Willette|first1=Demian A.|last2=Simmonds|first2=Sara E.|last3=Cheng|first3=Samantha H.|last4=Esteves|first4=Sofia|last5=Kane|first5=Tonya L.|last6=Nuetzel|first6=Hayley|last7=Pilaud|first7=Nicholas|last8=Rachmawati|first8=Rita|last9=Barber|first9=Paul H.|date=2017-05-10|title=Using DNA barcoding to track seafood mislabeling in Los Angeles restaurants|journal=Conservation Biology|volume=31|issue=5|pages=1076–1085|doi=10.1111/cobi.12888|pmid=28075039|bibcode=2017ConBi..31.1076W |s2cid=3788104 |issn=0888-8892}}</ref> For example, a 2014 study published in [[PLOS One]] found that 15% of [[Marine Stewardship Council|MSC]] certified [[Patagonian toothfish]] originated from uncertified and mercury polluted fisheries. These fishery-stock substitutions had 100% more mercury than their genuine counterparts, "vastly exceeding" limits in Canada, New Zealand, and Australia.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Marko|first1=Peter B.|last2=Nance|first2=Holly A.|last3=van den Hurk|first3=Peter|date=2014-08-05|title=Seafood Substitutions Obscure Patterns of Mercury Contamination in Patagonian Toothfish (Dissostichus eleginoides) or "Chilean Sea Bass"|journal=PLOS ONE|volume=9|issue=8|article-number=e104140|doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0104140|pmid=25093736|pmc=4122487|bibcode=2014PLoSO...9j4140M|issn=1932-6203|doi-access=free}}</ref>

==Sustainability==
{{See also|Overfishing|Sustainable seafood|Sustainable seafood advisory lists and certification}}

Research into population trends of various species of seafood is pointing to a global collapse of seafood species by 2048. Such a collapse would occur due to pollution and [[overfishing]], threatening oceanic ecosystems, according to some researchers.<ref>[http://www.boston.com/news/nation/washington/articles/2006/11/03/world_seafood_supply_could_run_out_by_2048_researchers_warn/ World Seafood Supply Could Run Out by 2048 Researchers Warn] boston.com. Retrieved 6 February 2007</ref>

A major international scientific study released in November 2006 in the journal ''[[Science (journal)|Science]]'' found that about one-third of all fishing stocks worldwide have collapsed (with a collapse being defined as a decline to less than 10% of their maximum observed abundance), and that if current trends continue all fish stocks worldwide will collapse within fifty years.<ref>"[https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/6108414.stm 'Only 50 years left' for sea fish]", BBC News. 2 November 2006.</ref> In July 2009, [[Boris Worm]] of [[Dalhousie University]], the author of the November 2006 study in ''[[Science (journal)|Science]]'', co-authored an update on the state of the world's fisheries with one of the original study's critics, [[Ray Hilborn]] of the [[University of Washington]] at Seattle. The new study found that through good fisheries management techniques even depleted fish stocks can be revived and made commercially viable again.<ref>[https://www.nytimes.com/2009/07/31/science/earth/31fish.html Study Finds Hope in Saving Saltwater Fish] ''The New York Times''. Retrieved 4 August 2009</ref> An analysis published in August 2020 indicates that seafood could theoretically increase sustainably by 36–74% by 2050 compared to current yields and that whether or not these production potentials are realised [[Sustainable food system|sustainably]] depends on several factors "such as policy reforms, technological innovation, and the extent of future shifts in demand".<ref>{{cite news |title=Food from the sea: Sustainably managed fisheries and the future |url=https://phys.org/news/2020-08-food-sea-sustainably-fisheries-future.html |access-date=6 September 2020 |work=phys.org |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Costello |first1=Christopher |last2=Cao |first2=Ling |last3=Gelcich |first3=Stefan |last4=Cisneros-Mata |first4=Miguel Á |last5=Free |first5=Christopher M. |last6=Froehlich |first6=Halley E. |last7=Golden |first7=Christopher D. |last8=Ishimura |first8=Gakushi |last9=Maier |first9=Jason |last10=Macadam-Somer |first10=Ilan |last11=Mangin |first11=Tracey |last12=Melnychuk |first12=Michael C. |last13=Miyahara |first13=Masanori |last14=de Moor |first14=Carryn L. |last15=Naylor |first15=Rosamond |last16=Nøstbakken |first16=Linda |last17=Ojea |first17=Elena |last18=O'Reilly |first18=Erin |last19=Parma |first19=Ana M. |last20=Plantinga |first20=Andrew J. |last21=Thilsted |first21=Shakuntala H. |last22=Lubchenco |first22=Jane |title=The future of food from the sea |journal=Nature |date=19 August 2020 |volume=588 |issue=7836 |pages=95–100 |doi=10.1038/s41586-020-2616-y |pmid=32814903 |bibcode=2020Natur.588...95C |s2cid=221179212 |language=en |issn=1476-4687|doi-access=free |hdl=11093/1616 |hdl-access=free }}</ref>

The [[FAO]] State of World Fisheries and Aquaculture 2004 report estimates that in 2003, of the main fish stocks or groups of resources for which assessment information is available, "approximately one-quarter were [[overexploited]], depleted or recovering from depletion (16%, 7% and 1% respectively) and needed rebuilding."<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.fao.org/3/y5600e/y5600e05.htm|title=The Status of the Fishing Fleet|publisher=Food and Agriculture Organization|work=The State of World Fisheries and Aquaculture: 2004|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180119111602/http://www.fao.org/docrep/007/y5600e/y5600e05.htm|archive-date=19 January 2018|url-status=live|access-date=22 May 2020}}</ref>

The [[National Fisheries Institute]], a trade advocacy group representing the United States seafood industry, disagree. They claim that currently observed declines in fish populations are due to natural fluctuations and that enhanced technologies will eventually alleviate whatever impact humanity is having on oceanic life.<ref>[https://www.nbcnews.com/id/wbna15532333 Seafood Could Collapse by 2050, Experts Warn], NBC News. Retrieved 22 July 2007.</ref>

==In religion==
{{See also|Kosher seafood}}
For the most part [[Islamic dietary laws]] allow the eating of seafood, though the [[Hanbali]] forbid eels, the [[Shafi]] forbid frogs and crocodiles, and the [[Hanafi]] forbid [[bottom feeder]]s such as shellfish and [[carp]].<ref>[http://www.questionsonislam.com/question/seafood-haram-or-halal Is seafood Haram or Halal?] ''Questions on Islam''. Updated 23 December 2008. Retrieved 6 January 2013.</ref> The [[Israelites|Jewish]] laws of [[Kashrut]] forbid the eating of shellfish and eels.<ref>[http://www.torah.org/advanced/shulchan-aruch/classes/chapter1.html Yoreh De'ah – Shulchan-Aruch] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120603170414/http://www.torah.org/advanced/shulchan-aruch/classes/chapter1.html |date=3 June 2012 }} Chapter 1, ''torah.org''. Retrieved 17 June 2012.</ref> In the Old Testament, the [[Mosaic covenant]] allowed the Israelites to eat [[Finfish]], but shellfish and eels were [[Abomination (Bible)|an abomination]] and not allowed.<ref>"All that are in the waters: all that... hath not fins and scales ye may not eat" ([http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Deuteronomy+14%3A9-10&version=KJV Deuteronomy 14:9–10]) and are "an abomination" ([http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Leviticus+11%3A9-12&version=KJV Leviticus 11:9–12]).</ref>

[[Pescatarian]]ism was widespread in the [[early Christian Church]], among both the clergy and laity.<ref name="WaltersPortmess2001">{{cite book |last1=Walters |first1=Kerry S. |last2=Portmess |first2=Lisa |title=Religious Vegetarianism: From Hesiod to the Dalai Lama |date=31 May 2001 |publisher=SUNY Press |isbn=978-0-7914-9067-9 |page=124 |language=en}}</ref> In ancient and medieval times, the [[Catholic Church]] forbade the practice of eating meat, eggs and dairy products during [[Lent]]. [[Thomas Aquinas]] argued that these "afford greater pleasure as food [than fish], and greater nourishment to the human body, so that from their consumption there results in a greater surplus available for seminal matter, which when abundant becomes a great incentive to lust".<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.newadvent.org/summa/3147.htm#8 |title=Summa Theologica, Q147a8 |publisher=Newadvent.org |access-date=27 August 2010}}</ref> In the United States, the Catholic practice of [[Fasting and abstinence in the Roman Catholic Church|abstaining from meat]] on Fridays during [[Lent]] has popularised the Friday [[fish fry]].<ref>{{cite web|first=Carolyn|last=Walkup |date=8 December 2003 |url=http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m3190/is_49_37/ai_111404189 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20120711081726/http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m3190/is_49_37/ai_111404189 |archive-date=11 July 2012 |title=You can take the girl out of Wisconsin, but the lure of its food remains |work=Nation's Restaurant News |access-date=2009-02-25 }}</ref><ref>{{cite news | author=Connie Mabin | date=2 March 2007 | url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2007/03/02/AR2007030201304.html | title=For Lent, Parishes Lighten Up Fish Fry | newspaper=[[Washington Post]] | access-date=2009-02-25}}</ref> In predominantly Roman Catholic areas, restaurants may adjust their menus during Lent by adding seafood items to the menu.<ref>{{cite news|first=Bill | last=Carlino |date=19 February 1990 |url=http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m3190/is_n8_v24/ai_8552611 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20120709044328/http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m3190/is_n8_v24/ai_8552611 |archive-date=9 July 2012 |title=Seafood promos aimed to 'lure' Lenten observers |work=Nation's Restaurant News |access-date=2009-02-25 }}</ref>

==See also==
{{Portal|Food|Oceans}}
{{div col|colwidth=30em}}
* [[Cold chain]]
* [[Fish as food]]
* [[Fish processing]]
* [[Fish market]]
* [[Friend of the Sea]]
* [[Got Mercury?]]
* [[Jellyfish as food]]
* [[List of fish dishes]]
* [[List of foods]]
* [[List of harvested aquatic animals by weight]]
* [[List of seafood companies]]
* [[List of seafood dishes]]
* [[List of seafood restaurants]]
* [[Oyster bar]]
* [[Raw bar]]
* [[Safe Harbor Certified Seafood]]
* [[Seafood Watch]], sustainable consumer guide (USA)
{{div col end}}

== References ==
=== Citations ===
{{Reflist}}

=== Sources ===
{{Refbegin}}
* Adamson, Melitta Weiss (2004) [https://books.google.com/books?id=jtgud2P-EGwC&q=%22Food+in+Medieval+Times%22 ''Food in Medieval Times''] Greenwood Press. {{ISBN|0-313-32147-7}}.
* Adamson, Melitta Weiss (2002) [https://books.google.com/books?id=RpC-dQJub6MC&q=%22Regional+Cuisines+of+Medieval+Europe%22 ''Regional Cuisines of Medieval Europe: A Book of Essays''] Routledge. {{ISBN|9780415929943}}.
* Alasalvar C, Miyashita K, Shahidi F and Wanasundara U (2011) [https://books.google.com/books?id=cog_Vr10mEMC&q=%22Handbook+of+Seafood+Quality%2C%22 ''Handbook of Seafood Quality, Safety and Health Applications''] John Wiley & Sons. {{ISBN|9781444347760}}.
* [[Athenaeus]] of Naucratis [https://books.google.com/books?id=wh1FAQAAIAAJ&q=fish ''The Deipnosophists; or, Banquet of the learned''] Vol 3, Charles Duke Yonge (trans) 1854. H.G. Bohn.
* [[Andrew Dalby|Dalby, A.]] (1996) [https://books.google.com/books?id=wtLgAAAAMAAJ&q=Siren+Feasts:+A+History+of+Food+and+Gastronomy+in+Greece ''Siren Feasts: A History of Food and Gastronomy in Greece''] Routledge. {{ISBN|0-415-15657-2}}.
* Granata LA, Flick GJ Jr and Martin RE (eds) (2012) [https://books.google.com/books?id=-gPaFouCFikC&q=%22The+Seafood+Industry%3A+Species%2C+Products%2C+Processing%2C+and+Safety%22 ''The Seafood Industry: Species, Products, Processing, and Safety''] John Wiley & Sons. {{ISBN|9781118229538}}.
* Green, Aliza (2007) [https://books.google.com/books?id=f1JyIFWMERUC&q=%22Field+Guide+to+Seafood%22 ''Field Guide to Seafood: How to Identify, Select, and Prepare Virtually Every Fish and Shellfish at the Market''] Quirk Books. {{ISBN|9781594741357}}.
* {{cite book|last=Kershaw|first=A. P.|title=Northern environmental disturbances|publisher=Boreal Institute for Northern Studies, University of Alberta|year=1988 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=N0SAAAAAMAAJ|isbn=978-091-905869-9}}
* McGee, Harold (2004) [https://books.google.com/books?id=bKVCtH4AjwgC&q=%22On+Food+And+Cooking%22 ''On Food And Cooking: The Science and Lore of the Kitchen''] Simon and Schuster. {{ISBN|9780684800011}}.
* Peterson, James and editors of Seafood Business (2009) [https://books.google.com/books?id=s-r5bx-SG6kC&q=%22seafood%22 ''Seafood Handbook: The Comprehensive Guide to Sourcing, Buying and Preparation''] John Wiley & Sons. {{ISBN|9780470404164}}.
* Potter, Jeff (2010) [https://books.google.com/books?id=IQ3PJY7zs6EC&q=%22Cooking+for+Geeks%22 ''Cooking for Geeks: Real Science, Great Hacks, and Good Food''] O'Reilly Media. {{ISBN|9780596805883}}.
* {{cite book |title= The Sea Otter |url= https://archive.org/details/seaotterendanger00alvi |url-access= registration |last1 = Silverstein |first1 = Alvin |author2=Silverstein, Virginia B. |author3=Silverstein, Robert A. |name-list-style=amp |year = 1995 |publisher= The Millbrook Press, Inc. |location= Brookfield, Connecticut |isbn = 978-1-56294-418-6 |oclc = 30436543 }}
* Regensteinn J M and Regensteinn C E (2000) [https://books.google.com/books?id=OFKLk3S0fzgC&dq=%22Religious+food+laws+and+the+seafood+industry%22&pg=PR8 "Religious food laws and the seafood industry"] In: R E Martin, E P Carter, G J Flick Jr and L M Davis (Eds) (2000) ''Marine and freshwater products handbook'', CRC Press. {{ISBN|9781566768894}}.
* [[Mary Ellen Snodgrass|Snodgrass, Mary Ellen]] (2004) [https://books.google.com/books?id=D7IhN7lempUC&q=%22Encyclopedia+of+Kitchen+History%22 ''Encyclopedia of Kitchen History''] {{ISBN|9781579583804}}.
* Stickney, Robert (2009) [https://books.google.com/books?id=UaT8gZaOA04C&q=%22Aquaculture:+An+Introductory+Text%22 ''Aquaculture: An Introductory Text''] CABI. {{ISBN|9781845935894}}.
* {{cite journal | last1 = Tidwell | first1 = James H. | last2 = Allan | first2 = Geoff L. | date = 2001 | title = Fish as food: aquaculture's contribution Ecological and economic impacts and contributions of fish farming and capture fisheries | journal = EMBO Reports | volume = 2 | issue = 11 | pages = 958–963 | doi = 10.1093/embo-reports/kve236 | pmc = 1084135 | pmid = 11713181 }}
{{Refend}}

==Further reading==
{{Refbegin|2}}
* Alasalvar C, Miyashita K, Shahidi F and Wanasundara U (2011) [https://books.google.com/books?id=cog_Vr10mEMC&q=%22seafood%22 ''Handbook of Seafood Quality, Safety and Health Applications''], [[John Wiley & Sons]]. {{ISBN|9781444347760}}.
* Ainsworth, Mark (2009) [https://books.google.com/books?id=o6BLJbWqWS4C&q=%22seafood%22 ''Fish and Seafood: Identification, Fabrication, Utilization''] Cengage Learning. {{ISBN|9781435400368}}.
* Anderson, James L (2003) [https://books.google.com/books?id=fhxwYnPzafYC&q=%22seafood%22 ''The International Seafood Trade''] Woodhead Publishing. {{ISBN|9781855734562}}.
* Babal, Ken (2010) [https://books.google.com/books?id=XUssk22iOO8C&q=%22seafood%22 ''Seafood Sense: The Truth about Seafood Nutrition and Safety''] ReadHowYouWant.com. {{ISBN|9781458755995}}.
* Botana, Luis M (2000) [https://books.google.com/books?id=SnDbfDd0HuIC&q=%22seafood%22 ''Seafood and Freshwater Toxins: Pharmacology, Physiology and Detection''] CRC Press. {{ISBN|9780824746339}}.
* Boudreaux, Edmond (2011) [https://books.google.com/books?id=uP4AC8TINJAC&q=%22seafood%22 ''The Seafood Capital of the World: Biloxi's Maritime History''] The History Press. {{ISBN|9781609492847}}.
* Granata LA, Martin RE and Flick GJ Jr (2012) [https://books.google.com/books?id=-gPaFouCFikC&q=%22seafood%22 ''The Seafood Industry: Species, Products, Processing, and Safety''] John Wiley & Sons. {{ISBN|9781118229538}}.
* {{cite book |title=American Catch: The Fight for Our Local Seafood |last=Greenberg |first=Paul |isbn=978-0-14-312743-7 |year=2015 |publisher=Penguin Books}}
* Luten, Joop B (Ed.) (2006) [https://books.google.com/books?id=OeeTZD13yA4C&q=%22seafood%22 ''Seafood Research From Fish To Dish: Quality, Safety and Processing of Wild and Farmed Fish''] Wageningen Academic Pub. {{ISBN|9789086860050}}.
* McDermott, Ryan (2007) [https://books.google.com/books?id=7fbAr9rbqAIC&q=%22seafood%22 ''Toward a More Efficient Seafood Consumption Advisory''] ProQuest. {{ISBN|9780549183822}}.
* Nesheim MC and Yaktine AL (Eds) (2007) [https://books.google.com/books?id=f79PXLsAA1MC&q=%22seafood%22 ''Seafood Choices: Balancing Benefits and Risks''] National Academies Press. {{ISBN|9780309102186}}.
* Shames, Lisa (2011) [https://books.google.com/books?id=XD2we1H8tHgC&dq=%22Seafood+Safety%3A+FDA+Needs+to+Improve+Oversight+of+Imported+Seafood%22&pg=PP2 ''Seafood Safety: FDA Needs to Improve Oversight of Imported Seafood and Better Leverage Limited Resources''] DIANE Publishing. {{ISBN|9781437985948}}.
* {{cite journal | doi = 10.1038/4441002d | last1 = Robson | first1 = A. | date = 2006 | title = Shellfish view of omega-3 and sustainable fisheries | journal = Nature | volume = 444 | issue = 7122| page = 1002 | bibcode = 2006Natur.444.1002R | doi-access = free }}
* Trewin C and Woolfitt A (2006) [https://books.google.com/books?id=IPnL8Hcix9MC&q=%22seafood%22 ''Cornish Fishing and Seafood''] Alison Hodge Publishers. {{ISBN|9780906720424}}.
* [[UNEP]] (2009) [https://books.google.com/books?id=iIkPzYoLBcQC&q=%22seafood%22 ''The Role of Supply Chains in Addressing the Global Seafood Crisis''] UNEP/Earthprint
* Upton, Harold F (2011) [https://books.google.com/books?id=hIJOwYq-F6sC&q=Seafood+Safety%3A+Background+Issues ''Seafood Safety: Background Issues''] DIANE Publishing. {{ISBN|9781437943832}}.

{{Refend}}

==External links==
{{Commons category|Seafood}}
{{Wikiquote}}
{{Wikivoyage|Seafood}}
* [http://wikibooks.org/wiki/Cookbook Wikibooks Cookbook]

{{Seafood|state=expanded}}
{{Edible molluscs}}
{{Edible crustaceans}}
{{Dried fish}}
{{Meat}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Seafood| ]]
[[Category:Meat|!]]