View source for Seawall

{{Short description|Form of coastal defence}}
{{not to be confused with|Breakwater (structure)|Mole (architecture)|Revetment}}{{Distinguish|Sea wall (British politics)}}
[[File:seawallventnor.jpg|thumb|upright=1.25|An example of a modern seawall in [[Ventnor]] on the [[Isle of Wight, England]]]]
[[File:Malecon Havana.JPG|thumb|People socializing and walking at the [[Malecón, Havana]]]]
[[File:SeawallUranganQLD.jpg|thumb|upright|Seawall at [[Urangan, Queensland]]]]

A '''seawall''' (or '''sea wall''') is a form of [[Coastal management|coastal defense]] constructed where the [[sea]], and associated coastal processes, impact directly upon the landforms of the [[coast]]. The purpose of a seawall is to protect areas of human habitation, conservation, and leisure activities from the action of [[tides]], [[wave]]s, or [[tsunami]]s.<ref>Kamphuis, W J. (2010) Introduction to Coastal Engineering and Management. World Scientific Publishing Co Ltd. Singapore.</ref> As a seawall is a static feature, it will conflict with the dynamic nature of the coast and impede the exchange of sediment between land and sea.<ref>{{citation|doi=10.1080/08920750601169659|title=Facts, Fictions, and Failures of Integrated Coastal Zone Management in Europe|journal=Coastal Management|volume=35|issue=2–3|pages=375–398|year=2007|last1=Shipman|first1=Brian|last2=Stojanovic|first2=Tim|bibcode=2007CoasM..35..375S |s2cid=153826622}}</ref>

Seawall designs factor in local climate, coastal position, wave regime (determined by [[Wave characteristic method|wave characteristics]] and effectors), and value (morphological characteristics) of landform. Seawalls are [[hard engineering]] shore-based structures that protect the coast from erosion.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Seawall Construction |url=https://www.kinddesigns.com/ |access-date=2025-06-23 |website=KindDesigns |language=en-US}}</ref> Various [[environmental issues]] may arise from the construction of a seawall, including the disruption of sediment movement and transport patterns.<ref>Kraus, N & McDougal. (1996) ''The Effects of Seawalls on the Beach: Part I: An Updated Literature Review'' in Journal of Coastal Research. Vol. 12, No. 3.</ref> Combined with a high construction cost, this has led to increasing use of other [[soft engineering]] coastal management options such as [[beach replenishment]].

Seawalls are constructed from various materials, most commonly [[reinforced concrete]], boulders, steel, or [[gabion]]s. Other possible construction materials include vinyl, wood, aluminum, fiberglass composite, and biodegradable sandbags made of [[jute]] and [[coir]].<ref>Clarke, J R. 1994. Integrated Management of Coastal Zones. Fao Corporate Document Repository, USA.</ref> In the [[UK]], ''seawall'' also refers to an earthen bank used to create a [[polder]], or a [[dike construction]]. The type of material used for construction is hypothesized to affect the settlement of coastal organisms, although the precise mechanism has yet to be identified.<ref>Hsiung AR, Tan WT, Loke LHL, Firth LB and others (2020) Little evidence that lowering the pH of concrete supports greater biodiversity on tropical and temperate seawalls. Mar Ecol Prog Ser 656:193-205</ref>

==Types==
A seawall works by reflecting incident wave energy back into the sea, thus reducing the energy available to cause erosion.<ref>Kajendra, R. (2011)</ref> Seawalls have two specific weaknesses. Wave reflection from the wall may result in [[hydrodynamic scour]] and subsequent lowering of the sand level of the fronting beach.<ref>Masselink, G and Hughes, M J. (2003) ''Introduction to Coastal Processes and Geomorphology''. Oxford University Press. New York. Ch 11.</ref>  Seawalls may also accelerate the erosion of adjacent, unprotected coastal areas by affecting the [[littoral drift]] process.<ref>NOAA. (2007) Shoreline Management: Alternatives to Hardening the Shore. Retrieved online 15 April 2011 from: http://coastalmanagement.noaa.gov/shoreline.html</ref>

Different designs of man-made [[Tsunami barrier|tsunami barriers]] include building reefs and forests to above-ground and submerged seawalls.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=O'Shaughnessy |first1=Kathryn A. |last2=Hawkins |first2=Stephen J. |last3=Evans |first3=Ally J. |last4=Hanley |first4=Mick E. |last5=Lunt |first5=Paul |last6=Thompson |first6=Richard C. |last7=Francis |first7=Robert A. |last8=Hoggart |first8=Simon P. G. |last9=Moore |first9=Pippa J. |last10=Iglesias |first10=Gregorio |last11=Simmonds |first11=David |last12=Ducker |first12=James |last13=Firth |first13=Louise B. |date=2020-04-01 |title=Design catalogue for eco-engineering of coastal artificial structures: a multifunctional approach for stakeholders and end-users |journal=Urban Ecosystems |language=en |volume=23 |issue=2 |pages=431–443 |doi=10.1007/s11252-019-00924-z |s2cid=209492205 |issn=1573-1642|doi-access=free |bibcode=2020UrbEc..23..431O |hdl=2160/ece4983e-53ee-4e96-8771-f81c8f4fc41a |hdl-access=free }}</ref> Starting just weeks after the disaster, in January 2005, India began planting ''[[Casuarina]]'' and [[coconut]] [[sapling]]s on its coast as a natural barrier against future disasters like the [[2004 Indian Ocean earthquake]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.news24.com/World/Archives/TsunamiDisaster/India-builds-tsunami-barrier-20050114|title=India builds tsunami barrier|date=January 14, 2005|publisher=News 24|access-date=March 29, 2011}}</ref> Studies have found that an offshore tsunami wall could reduce tsunami wave heights by up to 83%.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://eprints.utm.my/11064/|title=Design of a tsunami barrier to The North of Penang Island|date=25 November 2010|publisher=Universiti Teknologi Malaysia Institutional Repository|access-date=March 29, 2011|archive-date=12 November 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171112073937/http://eprints.utm.my/11064/}}</ref>

The appropriate seawall design relies on location-specific aspects, including surrounding erosion processes.<ref name="georesources.co.uk">GeoResources. (2001) Coastal management. Retrieved online 18 April 2011 from: {{cite web |url=http://www.georesources.co.uk/coastman.htm |title=GeoResources - Geography website |access-date=2011-04-30 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20120801145205/http://www.georesources.co.uk/coastman.htm |archive-date=2012-08-01 }}</ref> There are three main types of seawalls: vertical, curved, stepped, and mounds (see table below).

{| class="wikitable"
|-
|+ Seawall types
|-
! Type
! width=140px | Illustration
! Advantages
! Disadvantages
! width=140px | Example
|-
! rowspan=2 width=50px style="background:{{period color|carboniferous}}" | Vertical
| colspan="4"  style="text-align:center; background:#ddf8f8;"| Vertical seawalls are built in particularly exposed situations. These reflect wave energy. Under storm conditions a non-breaking [[standing wave]] pattern can form, resulting in a stationary [[clapotic]] wave which moves up and down but does not travel horizontally.<ref name="isbn0-12-161856-0">{{Cite book|author=Carter, Bill |title=Coastal environments: an introduction to the physical, ecological, and cultural systems of coastlines |publisher=Academic Press |location=Boston |year=1989 |page= 50 |isbn=0-12-161856-0}}</ref><ref name="isbn0-8493-2891-8">{{Cite book |author=Matzner, Richard A. |title=Dictionary of geophysics, astrophysics, and astronomy |publisher=CRC Press |location=Boca Raton |year=2001 |page=81 |isbn=0-8493-2891-8 |url=http://astropole.ru/astronomy/library/common/Dictionary_of_Geophysics.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070722014123/http://astropole.ru/astronomy/library/common/Dictionary_of_Geophysics.pdf |archive-date=2007-07-22 |bibcode=2001dgaa.book.....M }}</ref> These waves promote erosion at the toe of the wall and can cause severe damage to the seawall.<ref name="isbn0-8493-8425-7">{{Cite book|author=Beer, Tom |title=Environmental oceanography |publisher=CRC Press |location=Boca Raton |year=1997 |page= 44 |isbn=0-8493-8425-7 | quote = ... the reflected wave energy interacted with the incoming waves to produce standing waves known as clapotis, which promote erosion at the toe of the wall.}}</ref> In some cases, piles are placed in front of the wall to lessen wave energy slightly.
|-
| align=center | [[File:Vertical seawall.png|140px]]
| 
* The first implemented, most easily designed and constructed type of seawall.
* Vertical seawalls deflect wave energy away from the coast.
* Loose rubble can absorb wave energy.
| 
* These can suffer a lot of expensive damage in a short period of time.
* Vertical design can be undercut by high-wave energy environments over a long period of time.
| [[File:PikiWiki Israel 13555 Acre seawall.jpg|right|140px]]
|-
! rowspan=2 width=50px style="background:{{period color|paleozoic}}" | Curved
| colspan="4"  style="text-align:center; background:#ddf8f8;"| Curved or stepped seawalls are designed to enable waves to break to dissipate wave energy and to repel waves back to the sea. The curve can also prevent the wave [[wave overtopping|overtopping]] the wall and provides additional protection for the toe of the wall.
|-
| align=center | [[File:Curved concrete seawall.png|140px]]
| 
* Concave structure introduces a dissipative element.
* The curve can prevent waves from overtopping the wall and provides extra protection for the toe of the wall
* Curved seawalls aim to re-direct most of the incident energy, resulting in low reflected waves and much reduced turbulence.
| 
* More complex engineering and design process.
* The deflected waves can scour material at the base of the wall causing them to become undermined.
| [[File:Curved Seawall, Pett Levels - geograph.org.uk - 1503255.jpg|right|140px]]
|-
! rowspan=2 width=50px style="background:{{period color|ordovician}}" | Mound
| colspan="4"  style="text-align:center; background:#ddf8f8;"| Mound type seawalls, using [[revetment]]s or [[riprap]], are used in less demanding settings where lower energy erosional processes operate. The least exposed sites involve the lowest-cost bulkheads and revetments of sand bags or [[geotextiles]]. These serve to armour the shore and minimise erosion and may be either watertight or porous, which allows water to filter through after the wave energy has been dissipated.<ref>{{cite journal | author = Milligan J, O'riordan T | year = 2007 | title = Governance for Sustainable Coastal Futures | journal = Coastal Management | volume = 35 | issue = 4| pages = 499–509 | doi=10.1080/08920750701525800| bibcode = 2007CoasM..35..499M | s2cid = 154733601 }}</ref>
|-
| align=center | [[File:Rubblemound 2.png|140px]]
| 
* Current designs use porous designs of rock, concrete armour.
* Slope and loose material ensure maximum dissipation of wave energy.
* Lower cost option.
| 
* Shorter life expectancy.
* Cannot withstand or protect from high-energy conditions effectively.
| [[File:11-8-07 riprap photo.jpg|right|140px]]
|}

=== Natural barriers ===
A report published by the [[United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP)]] suggests that the tsunami of 26 December 2004 caused less damage in the areas where natural barriers were present, such as [[mangroves]], [[coral reefs]] or coastal vegetation. A Japanese study of this tsunami in Sri Lanka used satellite imagery modelling to establish the parameters of coastal resistance as a function of different types of trees.<ref>[http://www.spotimage.com/web/en/3272-satellite-imagery-and-modelling-show-how-forests-cushion-the-impact-of-tsunamis.php <nowiki>[1]</nowiki>] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110716122613/http://www.spotimage.com/web/en/3272-satellite-imagery-and-modelling-show-how-forests-cushion-the-impact-of-tsunamis.php |date=2011-07-16 }} Satellite imagery and modelling show how forests cushion the impact of tsunamis</ref> Natural barriers, such as coral reefs and mangrove forests, prevent the spread of tsunamis and the flow of coastal waters and mitigated the flood and surge of water.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.sciencenetlinks.com/sci_update.php?DocID=252|title=Tsunami Barriers|publisher=Science NetLinks|access-date=March 30, 2011}}</ref>

==Trade-offs==
A cost-benefit approach is an effective way to determine whether a seawall is appropriate and whether the benefits are worth the expense. Besides controlling erosion, consideration must be given to the effects of hardening a shoreline on natural [[coastal ecosystem]]s and human property or activities. A seawall is a static feature which can conflict with the dynamic nature of the coast and impede the exchange of sediment between land and sea. The table below summarizes some positive and negative effects of seawalls which can be used when comparing their effectiveness with other coastal management options, such as [[beach nourishment]].{{Citation needed|date=April 2021}}

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Advantages and disadvantages of seawalls according to Short (1999)<ref>Short, A. (1999) Handbook of Beach and Shoreface Morphodynamics. John Wiley and Sons Ltd. Ch 7.</ref>
|-
! Advantages !! Disadvantages
|-
|
* Long term solution in comparison to soft beach nourishment.
* Effectively minimizes loss of life in extreme events and damage to property caused by erosion.
* Can exist longer in high energy environments in comparison to 'soft' engineering methods.
* Can be used for recreation and sightseeing.
* Forms a hard and strong coastal defense.
||
* Expensive to construct.
* May be considered aesthetically unattractive.
* Reflected energy of waves leading to scour at base.
* Can disrupt natural shoreline processes and destroy shoreline habitats such as wetlands and intertidal beaches.
* Altered sediment transport processes can disrupt sand movement that can lead to increased erosion down drift from the structure. This can cause beaches to dissipate, rendering them useless for beach goers.
|}

{{multiple image
 | align = right
 | direction = vertical
 | footer    = 3D simulation of wave motion near a seawall.<ref>MEDUS. (2011) Marine Engineering Division of University of Salerno. Retrieved online 10 April 2011 from: http://www.diciv.unisa.it/docenti/dentale/medus_.php {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110722063806/http://www.diciv.unisa.it/docenti/dentale/medus_.php |date=2011-07-22 }} (MEDUS)</ref>
 | width     = 160
 | image1    = AC wiki.jpg
 | alt1      = 
 | image2    = CL wiki.jpg
 | alt2      = 
 | image3    = XB wiki.jpg
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}}

Generally, seawalls can be a successful way to control coastal erosion, but only if they are constructed well and out of materials that can withstand the force of ongoing wave energy. Some understanding is needed of the coastal processes and [[Beach morphodynamics|morphodynamics]] specific to the seawall location. Seawalls can be very helpful; they can offer a more long-term solution than [[soft engineering]] options, additionally providing recreation opportunities and protection from extreme events as well as everyday erosion. Extreme natural events expose weaknesses in the performance of seawalls, and analyses of these can lead to future improvements and reassessment.{{Citation needed|date=April 2021}}

==Issues==

===Sea level rise===
[[Sea level rise]] creates an issue for seawalls worldwide as it raises both the mean normal water level and the height of waves during extreme weather events, with which the current seawall heights may be unable to cope.<ref name="Allan, J C 1999">Allan, J C, Kirk, R M, Hemmingsen, M & Hart, D. (1999) Coastal Processes in Southern Pegasus Bay: A Review – A Report to Woodward-Clyde New Zealand Ltd. and the Christchurch City Council. Land and Water Studies Ltd. Christchurch.</ref> The most recent analyses of long, good-quality tide gauge records (corrected for GIA and when possible for other vertical land motions by the Global Positioning System, GPS) indicate a mean rate of sea level rise of 1.6–1.8&nbsp;mm/yr over the twentieth century.<ref name="Cazenave, A, Le Cozannet, G">{{cite journal|doi=10.1002/2013EF000188 | volume=2 | issue=2 | title=Sea level rise and its coastal impacts | year=2014 | journal=Earth's Future | pages=15–34 | last=Cazenave | first=Anny| author-link=Anny Cazenave |bibcode=2014EaFut...2...15C | doi-access=free }}</ref> The [[Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change]] (IPCC) (1997)<ref>Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. 2007. IPCC Fourth Assessment Report: Climate Change 2007. Retrieved Online 15 April 2011 from: www.ipcc.ch/publications_and_data/publications_and_data_reports</ref> suggested that sea level rise over the next 50 – 100 years will accelerate with a projected increase in global mean sea level of +18&nbsp;cm by 2050 AD. This data is reinforced by Hannah (1990)<ref>Hannah, J. (1990)  "The Analysis of Mean Sea Level Data from New Zealand for the Period 1899–1988" in The Journal of Geophysical Research, 95, No. 88.</ref> who calculated similar statistics including a rise of between +16-19.3&nbsp;cm throughout 1900–1988. Superstorm Sandy of 2012 is an example of the devastating effects rising sea levels can cause when mixed with a perfect storm. Superstorm Sandy sent a storm surge of 4–5 m onto New Jersey's and New York's barrier island and urban shorelines, estimated at $70 billion in damage.<ref name="Ismaill, N, Williams, S">[http://meetingorganizer.copernicus.org/EGU2013/EGU2013-13464.pdf Link test], "Sea-Level Rise Implications for Coastal Protection from Southern Mediterranean to the USA Atlantic Coast." EGU General Assembly Conference Abstracts. Vol. 15. 2013.</ref> This problem could be overcome by further modeling and determining the extension of height and reinforcement of current seawalls which needs to occur for safety to be ensured in both situations. Sea level rise also will cause a higher risk of flooding and taller tsunamis.{{Citation needed|date=April 2021}}

===Hydrostatic water pressure===
Seawalls, like all [[retaining wall]]s, must relieve the buildup of [[hydrostatic|water pressure]]. Water pressure buildup is caused when [[groundwater]] is not drained from behind the seawall. Groundwater against a seawall can be from the area's natural [[water-table]], rain percolating into the ground behind the wall and waves overtopping the wall.  The water table can also rise during periods of high water ([[high tide]]). Lack of adequate [[drainage]] can cause the seawall to buckle, move, bow, crack, or collapse.  [[Sinkholes]] may also develop as the escaping water pressure erodes soil through or around the drainage system.{{Citation needed|date=April 2021}}

===Extreme events===
Extreme events also pose a problem as it is not easy for people to predict or imagine the strength of [[hurricane]] or storm-induced waves compared to normal, expected wave patterns. An extreme event can dissipate hundreds of times more energy than everyday waves, and calculating structures that will stand the force of coastal storms is difficult and, often the outcome can become unaffordable. For example, the Omaha Beach seawall in New Zealand was designed to prevent erosion from everyday waves only, and when a storm in 1976 carved out ten meters behind the existing seawall, the whole structure was destroyed.<ref name="georesources.co.uk"/>

=== Ecosystem impacts ===
The addition of seawalls near marine ecosystems can lead to increased shadowing effects in the waters surrounding the seawall. Shadowing reduces the light and visibility within the water, which may disrupt the distribution as well as foraging capabilities of certain species.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Sawyer|first1=Alexandra C.|last2=Toft|first2=Jason D.|last3=Cordell|first3=Jeffery R.|date=2020|title=Seawall as salmon habitat: Eco-engineering improves the distribution and foraging of juvenile Pacific salmon|url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0925857420301440|journal=Ecological Engineering|language=en|volume=151|article-number=105856|doi=10.1016/j.ecoleng.2020.105856|s2cid=218959238 |url-access=subscription}}</ref> The sediment surrounding seawalls tends to have less favorable physical properties (Higher [[calcification]] levels, less structural organization of [[crystalline]] structure, low [[silicon]] content, and less macroscale roughness) when compared to natural shorelines, which can present issues for species that reside on the seafloor.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Sedano|first1=F.|last2=Navarro-Barranco|first2=C.|last3=Guerra-García|first3=J.M.|last4=Espinosa|first4=F.|date=2020|title=Understanding the effects of coastal defence structures on marine biota: The role of substrate composition and roughness in structuring sessile, macro- and meiofaunal communities|url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0025326X20304525|journal=Marine Pollution Bulletin|language=en|volume=157|article-number=111334|doi=10.1016/j.marpolbul.2020.111334|pmid=32658698|bibcode=2020MarPB.15711334S |s2cid=220518548 |url-access=subscription}}</ref>

The Living Seawalls project, which was launched in [[Sydney]], Australia, in 2018,<ref name=pittwater>{{cite web |title=Pittwater Online News |website=Pittwater Online News |date=18 September 2021 |url=https://www.pittwateronlinenews.com/Living-Seawalls-Finalist-in-Earthshot-Prize-2021.php |access-date=13 November 2024}}</ref> aims to help many of the marine species in [[Sydney Harbour]] to flourish, thus enhancing its [[biodiversity]], by modifying the design of its seawalls. It entails covering parts of the seawalls with specially designed tiles that mimic natural [[microhabitat]]s – with crevices and other features that more closely resemble natural rocks.<ref>{{cite web |last=Pratt |first=Hope |title=Living Seawalls: the effort to save Sydney Harbour's marine life |website=City Hub |date=27 March 2024 |url=https://cityhub.com.au/living-seawalls-the-effort-to-save-sydney-harbours-marine-life/ |access-date=13 November 2024}}</ref> In September 2021, the Living Seawalls project was announced as a finalist for the international environment award the [[Earthshot Prize]].<ref name=pittwater/><ref name=funding2022>{{cite web |title=Massive funding boost to support marine biodiversity and restoration |website=This Week At Macquarie University |date=22 August 2022 |url=https://www.mq.edu.au/thisweek/2022/08/22/massive-funding-boost-to-support-marine-biodiversity-and-restoration/ |access-date=13 November 2024}}</ref> Since 2022 it has become part of Project Restore, under the auspices of the [[Sydney Institute of Marine Science]].<ref name=funding2022/>

===Other issues===
Some further issues include a lack of long-term trend data of seawall effects due to a relatively short duration of data records; modeling limitations and comparisons of different projects and their effects being invalid or unequal due to different beach types; materials; currents; and environments.<ref>Christchurch City Council. (2009) Study of the Effects of Sea Level Rise for Christchurch. [[Tonkin + Taylor]], Christchurch.</ref> Lack of maintenance is also a major issue with seawalls. In 2013, more than 5,000 feet (1,500 m) of seawall was found to be crumbling in [[Punta Gorda, Florida]]. Residents of the area pay hundreds of dollars each year for a seawall repair program. The problem is that most of the seawalls are over a half-century old and are being destroyed by only heavy downpours. If not kept in check, seawalls lose effectiveness and become expensive to repair.<ref name="Seiler L">[http://www.nbc-2.com/story/23749537/more-failing-seawalls-in-punta-gorda-isles#.UwgXf7mYbIW] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140226210609/http://www.nbc-2.com/story/23749537/more-failing-seawalls-in-punta-gorda-isles#.UwgXf7mYbIW|date=2014-02-26}}, "More failing Seawalls in Punta Gorda Isles – NBC-2.com WBBH News for Fort Myers, Cape Coral & Naples, Florida." NBC-2.com. Nbc, 21 Oct. 2013. Web. 21 Feb. 2014.</ref>

==History and examples==
[[File:Thekkumbhagam Coast in Paravur, Jun 2015.jpg|thumb|A seawall, made of rocks in [[Paravur, Kollam|Paravur]] near [[Kollam]] city in [[India]].]]
Seawall construction has existed since ancient times. In the first century BCE, Romans built a seawall or [[breakwater (structure)|breakwater]] at [[Caesarea Maritima]]
creating an artificial harbor (Sebastos Harbor).  The construction used [[Pozzolana]] concrete which hardens in contact with seawater.  Barges were constructed and filled with the concrete.  They were floated into position and sunk.  The resulting harbor/breakwater/seawall is still in existence today – more than 2000 years later.<ref>Does anyone have a reference for this? The closest thing I could find is: {{cite news|work=Popular Mechanics|url=https://www.popularmechanics.com/technology/infrastructure/news/a27186/ancient-roman-concrete-mixture-seawall/|title=Ancient Roman concrete mixture seawall}}</ref>

The oldest known coastal defense is believed to be a 100-meter row of boulders in the [[Mediterranean Sea]] off the coast of Israel. Boulders were positioned in an attempt to protect the coastal settlement of [[Tel Hreiz]] from sea rise following the last [[glacial maximum]]. Tel Hreiz was discovered in 1960 by divers searching for shipwrecks, but the row of boulders was not found until storms cleared a sand cover in 2012.<ref>{{Cite news |title=This village fought sea-level rise 7,000 years ago. The sea won. |language=en-US |newspaper=Washington Post |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/science/2019/12/18/this-village-fought-sea-level-rise-years-ago-sea-won/ |access-date=2023-05-03 |issn=0190-8286}}</ref>

More recently, seawalls were constructed in 1623 in [[Canvey Island]], UK, when great floods of the Thames estuary occurred, prompting the construction of protection for further events in this flood-prone area.<ref>Council of Europe. (1999) European code of conduct for coastal zones, Council of Europe, Strasbourg.</ref> Since then, seawall design has become more complex and intricate in response to an improvement in materials, technology, and an understanding of how coastal processes operate. This section will outline some key case studies of seawalls in chronological order and describe how they have performed in response to tsunamis or ongoing natural processes and how effective they were in these situations. Analyzing the successes and shortcomings of seawalls during severe natural events allows their weaknesses to be exposed, and areas become visible for future improvement.{{Citation needed|date=April 2021}}

===Canada===
The [[Seawall (Vancouver)|Vancouver Seawall]] is a stone seawall constructed around the perimeter of Stanley Park in Vancouver, [[British Columbia]]. The seawall was constructed initially as waves created by ships passing through the First Narrows eroding the area between Prospect Point and Brockton Point.  Construction of the seawall began in 1917, and since then this pathway has become one of the most used features of the park by both locals and tourists and now extends 22&nbsp;km in total.<ref>Belyea, R (21 January 1992). The [[Stanley Park]] Technical Report. Vancouver: Stanley Park Task Force, prepared by Belyea, Sorensen & Associates. P 15.</ref> The construction of the seawall also provided employment for relief workers during the Great Depression and seamen from {{HMCS|Discovery}} on [[Deadman's Island (Vancouver)|Deadman's Island]] who were facing punishment detail in the 1950s (Steele, 1985).<ref>{{cite book|author=Steele, Richard M. |date=1985|title= The Stanley Park Explorer|location= Vancouver|publisher= Whitecap Books|pages=23–24}}</ref>

Overall, the Vancouver Seawall is a prime example of how seawalls can simultaneously provide shoreline protection and a source of recreation which enhances human enjoyment of the coastal environment. It also illustrates that although shoreline erosion is a natural process, human activities, interactions with the coast, and poorly planned shoreline development projects can accelerate natural erosion rates.{{Citation needed|date=April 2021}}

=== India ===
On December 26, 2004, towering waves of the [[2004 Indian Ocean earthquake]] tsunami crashed against India's south-eastern coastline killing thousands. However, the former French colonial enclave of [[Puducherry (city)|Pondicherry]] escaped unscathed. This was primarily due to French engineers who had constructed (and maintained) a massive stone seawall during the time when the city was a French colony. This 300-year-old seawall effectively kept Pondicherry's historic center dry even though [[tsunami]] waves drove water {{convert|24|ft|m|abbr=on}} above the normal high-tide mark.<ref>{{Cite web |last=writer |first=CHRIS TOMLINSON, Associated Press |title=Historic town in eastern India saved from destruction by sea wall built by French |url=https://www.southcoasttoday.com/story/news/nation-world/2005/01/04/historic-town-in-eastern-india/50417434007/ |access-date=2023-10-04 |website=New Bedford Standard-Times |language=en-US}}</ref>

The barrier was initially completed in 1735 and over the years, the French continued to fortify the wall, piling huge boulders along its {{convert|1.25|mi|km|0|abbr=on}} coastline to stop erosion from the waves pounding the harbor. At its highest, the barrier running along the water's edge reaches about {{convert|27|ft|m|abbr=on}} above sea level. The boulders, some weighing up to a ton, are weathered black and brown. The seawall is inspected every year and whenever gaps appear or the stones sink into the sand, the government adds more boulders to keep it strong.<ref>{{cite book|author=Allsop, N.W.H. |date=2002|title= Breakwaters, coastal structures and coastlines|publisher= Thomas Telford|isbn=0-7277-3042-8}}.</ref>

The Union Territory of Pondicherry recorded around 600 deaths from the huge tsunami waves that struck India's coast after the mammoth underwater earthquake (which measured 9.0 on the [[moment magnitude scale]]) off Indonesia, but most of those killed were fishermen who lived in villages beyond the artificial barrier which reinforces the effectiveness of seawalls.{{Citation needed|date=April 2021}}

===Japan===
At least 43 percent of Japan's {{convert|29751|km|mi|abbr=on}}<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/japan/|website=CIA.gov|title=The World Factbook|date=13 February 2024 }}</ref> coastline is lined with concrete seawalls or other structures designed to protect the country against high waves, typhoons, or even tsunamis.<ref>{{cite news| title= Japan's Seawalls Didn't Provide Security from tsunami |work=The Star| url= http://www.thestar.com/news/world/article/953485--japan-s-seawalls-didn-t-provide-security-from-tsunami | archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20121024031831/http://www.thestar.com/news/world/article/953485--japan-s-seawalls-didn-t-provide-security-from-tsunami | archive-date= October 24, 2012 |date=March 13, 2011|author=Norimitsu Onishi|author-link=Norimitsu Onishi}}</ref> During the [[2011 Tōhoku earthquake and tsunami]], the seawalls in most areas were overwhelmed. In [[Kamaishi]], {{convert|4|m|ft|adj=on}} waves surmounted the seawall – the world's largest, erected a few years ago in the city's harbor at a depth of {{convert|63|m|ft|abbr=on}}, a length of {{convert|2|km|mi|abbr=on}} and a cost of $1.5 billion – and eventually submerged the city center.<ref name="nippon-sekai.com">Msubi (2011) Seawalls are no Match for Japan Tsunami. Retrieved online 8 April 2011 from: {{cite web|website=nippon-sekai.com |url=http://www.nippon-sekai.com/main/articles/great-east-japan-earthquake-of-2011/sea-walls-were-no-match-for-this-tsunami/ |title=great-east-japan-earthquake-of-2011/sea-walls-were-no-match-for-this-tsunami| edition= Archived copy |access-date=2011-04-30 |url-status=usurped |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120308192317/http://www.nippon-sekai.com/main/articles/great-east-japan-earthquake-of-2011/sea-walls-were-no-match-for-this-tsunami/ |archive-date=2012-03-08 }}</ref>

The risks of dependence on seawalls were most evident in [[Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster|the crisis at the Fukushima Dai-ichi and Fukushima Dai-ni nuclear power plants]], both located along the coast close to the earthquake zone, as the tsunami washed over walls that were supposed to protect the plants. Arguably, the additional defense provided by the seawalls presented an extra margin of time for citizens to evacuate and also stopped some of the full force of energy which would have caused the wave to climb higher in the backs of coastal valleys. In contrast, the seawalls also acted in a negative way to trap water and delay its retreat.{{Citation needed|date=April 2021}}

The failure of the world's largest seawall, which cost $1.5 billion to construct, shows that building stronger seawalls to protect larger areas would have been even less cost-effective. In the case of the ongoing crisis at the nuclear power plants, higher and stronger seawalls should have been built if power plants were to be built at that site. Fundamentally, the devastation in coastal areas and a final death toll predicted to exceed 10,000 could push [[Japan]] to redesign its seawalls or consider more effective alternative methods of coastal protection for extreme events. Such hardened coastlines can also provide a false sense of security to property owners and local residents as evident in this situation.<ref name="nippon-sekai.com"/>

Seawalls along the Japanese coast have also been criticized for cutting settlements off from the sea, making beaches unusable, presenting an eyesore, disturbing wildlife, and being unnecessary.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.npr.org/blogs/parallels/2014/03/11/288691168/in-tsunamis-wake-fierce-debate-over-japans-great-wall|date=11 March 2014|work=NPR|author=Craft, Lucy |title=In Tsunami's Wake, Fierce Debate Over Japan's 'Great Wall'}}</ref>

===United States===

After 2012's [[Hurricane Sandy]], [[New York City]] Mayor [[Bill de Blasio]] invested $3,000,000,000 in a hurricane restoration fund, with part of the money dedicated to building new seawalls and protection from future hurricanes.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.economist.com/news/science-and-technology/21713810-buffer-zone-lowers-intensity-incoming-storms-they-make|title=Why big hurricanes weaken before they hit America's coast|date=7 January 2017|newspaper=The Economist|access-date=2017-01-20}}</ref>
A [[New York Harbor Storm-Surge Barrier]] has been proposed, but not voted on or funded by Congress or the State of New York.{{Citation needed|date=April 2021}}

In Florida, [[tiger dam|tiger dams]] are used to protect homes near the coast.<ref name="Edlund 2022">{{cite web | last=Edlund | first=Ashley | title='An enormous effort:': Daytona Beach Shores residents seek permanent fix to damaged seawall | website=Yahoo | date=23 November 2022 | url=https://news.yahoo.com/enormous-effort-daytona-beach-shores-033559927.html | access-date=25 November 2022}}</ref><ref name="Barreto 2022">{{cite web | last=Barreto | first=Jessica | title='It's been a losing battle': Seawall collapses in South Ponte Vedra as coast reels from storms | website=Yahoo | date=23 November 2022 | url=https://news.yahoo.com/losing-battle-seawall-collapses-south-210647289.html | access-date=25 November 2022}}</ref>

== See also ==
* [[Breakwater (structure)]]
* [[Mole (architecture)]]
General:
* {{annotated link|Coastal management}}
* {{annotated link|Hard engineering}}

Related types of walls:
* {{annotated link|Accropode}}
* {{annotated link|Breakwater (structure)}}
* {{annotated link|Dike (construction)}}
* {{annotated link|Levee}}
* {{annotated link|Retaining wall}}

Specific walls:
* {{annotated link|Alaskan Way Seawall}}
* {{annotated link|Galveston Seawall}}
* {{annotated link|Georgetown Seawall}}
* {{annotated link|Gold Coast Shoreline Management Plan#Gold Coast Seawall|Gold Coast Seawall}}
* {{annotated link|Saemangeum Seawall}}
* {{annotated link|Sea Bright–Monmouth Beach Seawall}}
* {{annotated link|The Embarcadero (San Francisco)}}
* {{annotated link|Walls of Constantinople#Sea Walls}} (Constantinople seawalls)

==References==
{{Reflist|33em}}

==External links==
{{Commons category|Seawalls}}
{{Wiktionary}}
*[http://www.channelcoast.org/southeast/programme_design/defence_type/?link=seawalls.html Channel Coastal Observatory – Seawalls] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181214065806/http://www.channelcoast.org/southeast/programme_design/defence_type/?link=seawalls.html |date=2018-12-14 }}
* [http://www.coastalwight.gov.uk/coastaldefenceschemes.htm Seawalls and defences on the Isle of Wight] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211009091956/http://www.coastalwight.gov.uk/coastaldefenceschemes.htm |date=2021-10-09 }}
* [http://www.diciv.unisa.it/docenti/dentale/medus_.php MEDUS (Maritime Engineering Division University Salerno)] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110722063806/http://www.diciv.unisa.it/docenti/dentale/medus_.php |date=2011-07-22 }}
* [https://www.stltoday.com/news/national/article_cc3dc269-0cb6-5f7e-8284-62660339efab.html "Japan may rethink seawalls after tsunami", New York Times, March 14, 2011]
* [http://www.seasideseawalls.com/michigan-seawalls/how-to-build-a-seawall/ General overview of residential and small commercial steel seawall construction]

{{coastal management}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Coastal engineering]]
[[Category:Seawalls| ]]