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{{Short description|Human emotional need}}
{{hatnote group|{{redirect|Self respect|the human rights movement|Self-Respect Movement}}{{other uses|Self esteem (disambiguation)}}}}
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'''Self-esteem''' is confidence in one's own worth, abilities, or morals. Self-esteem encompasses beliefs about oneself (for example, "I am loved", "I am worthy") as well as emotional states, such as triumph, [[despair]], [[pride]], and [[shame]].<ref name=":0">{{cite book |last=Hewitt |first=John P. |chapter=The Social Construction of Self-Esteem|editor-first1=Shane J.|editor-last1=Lopez|editor-first2=C.R.|editor-last2=Snyder|title=Oxford Handbook of Positive Psychology |year=2009 |publisher=Oxford University Press |pages=217–224 |isbn=978-0-19-518724-3 }}</ref> Smith and Mackie define it by saying "The [[self-concept]] is what we think about the self; self-esteem, is the positive or negative evaluations of the self, as in how we feel about it (see [[self]])."<ref name="SmithMackie">{{cite book |last1=Smith |first1=Eliot R. |title=Social Psychology |last2=Mackie |first2=Diane M. |publisher=Psychology Press |year=2007 |isbn=978-1-84169-408-5 |edition=3rd |location=Hove |pages=107}}</ref>

The construct of self-esteem has been shown to be a desirable one in psychology, as it is associated with a variety of positive outcomes, such as academic achievement,<ref name=":1">{{cite journal |last=Marsh |first=H.W. |year=1990 |title=Causal ordering of academic self-concept and academic achievement: A multiwave, longitudinal path analysis |journal=Journal of Educational Psychology |volume=82 |issue=4 |pages=646–656 |doi=10.1037/0022-0663.82.4.646}}</ref><ref name="ecuador">{{cite thesis |type=bachelor thesis |last1=Urbina Robalino |first1=Gisella del Rocio |last2=Eugenio Piloso |first2=Mery Aracely |others=Advised by S. Yagual |title=Efectos de la violencia intrafamiliar en el autoestima de los estudiantes de octavo y noveno año de la Escuela de educación básica 11 de Diciembre... |language=es |publisher=[[Universidad Estatal Península de Santa Elena]] |date=2015 |location=Ecuador |url=https://repositorio.upse.edu.ec/xmlui/handle/46000/2069}}</ref> relationship satisfaction,<ref name="Orth 2014">{{cite journal |author1=Orth U. |author2=Robins R.W. |year=2014 |title=The development of self-esteem |journal=Current Directions in Psychological Science |volume=23 |issue=5 |pages=381–387 |doi=10.1177/0963721414547414 |s2cid=38796272}}</ref> happiness,<ref name="BaumeisterCampbell2003">{{cite journal |last1=Baumeister |first1=R. F. |last2=Campbell |first2=J. D. |last3=Krueger |first3=J. I. |last4=Vohs |first4=K. D. |year=2003 |title=Does High Self-Esteem Cause Better Performance, Interpersonal Success, Happiness, or Healthier Lifestyles? |journal=Psychological Science in the Public Interest |volume=4 |issue=1 |pages=1–44 |doi=10.1111/1529-1006.01431 |issn=1529-1006 |pmid=26151640 |doi-access=free}}</ref> and lower rates of criminal behavior. The benefits of high self-esteem are thought to include improved mental and physical health, and less anti-social behavior<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Orth |first1=Ulrich |last2=Robins |first2=Richard W. |title=Is High Self-Esteem Beneficial? Revisiting a Classic Question |journal=American Psychologist |date=2022 |volume=77 |issue=1 |pages=5–17|doi=10.1037/amp0000922 |pmid=35357851 |pmc=9306298 }}</ref> while drawbacks of low self-esteem have been found to be anxiety, loneliness, and increased vulnerability to substance abuse.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Self-Esteem |url=https://cmhc.utexas.edu/selfesteem.html |website=University of Texas Counselling and Medical Centre}}</ref>

Self-esteem can apply to a specific attribute or globally. Psychologists usually regard self-esteem as an enduring personality characteristic (''trait self-esteem''), though normal, short-term variations (''state self-esteem'') also exist. Synonyms or near-synonyms of self-esteem include: self-worth,<ref name=":2">{{cite web|url=http://www.bartleby.com/61/58/S0245800.html|title=self-worth: The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language|website=Bartleby.com|access-date=11 December 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090125161206/http://www.bartleby.com/61/58/S0245800.html|archive-date=25 January 2009}}</ref> self-regard,<ref name=":3">{{cite web|url=http://www.bartleby.com/61/18/S0241800.html|title=self-regard: The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language|website=Bartleby.com|access-date=11 December 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090125161136/http://www.bartleby.com/61/18/S0241800.html|archive-date=25 January 2009}}</ref> self-respect,<ref name=":4">{{cite web|url=http://www.bartleby.com/61/23/S0242300.html|title=self-respect: The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language|website=Bartleby.com|access-date=11 December 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090124182437/http://www.bartleby.com/61/23/S0242300.html|archive-date=24 January 2009}}</ref><ref>The [[Macquarie Dictionary]]. Compare {{cite book | last=Corsini | first=Raymond J. | title=The Dictionary of Psychology | publisher=Psychology Press | publication-place=Philadelphia, Penn. | year=1999 | isbn=1-58391-028-X}}</ref> and self-integrity.

==History==
The concept of self-esteem has its origins in the 18th century, first expressed in the writings of the [[Scottish Enlightenment|Scottish enlightenment]] thinker [[David Hume]]. Hume posits that it is important to value and think well of oneself because it serves a motivational function that enables people to explore their full potential.<ref name=":5">{{Cite book|first=David|last=Hume|chapter-url=https://davidhume.org/texts/m/app2|title=An Enquiry concerning the Principles of Morals|chapter=Of Self-Love|year=1777|orig-date=1751|access-date=2019-12-15}}</ref><ref>{{Citation|last1=Morris|first1=William Edward|title=David Hume|year=2019|url=https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/sum2019/entries/hume/|encyclopedia=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy|editor-last=Zalta|editor-first=Edward N.|edition=Summer 2019|publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University|access-date=2019-12-17|last2=Brown|first2=Charlotte R.}}</ref>

The identification of self-esteem as a distinct psychological construct has its origins in the work of philosopher and psychologist, [[William James]]. James identified multiple dimensions of the self, with two levels of hierarchy: processes of knowing (called the "I-self") and the resulting knowledge about the self (the "Me-self"). The observation about the self and storage of those observations by the I-self creates three types of knowledge, which collectively account for the Me-self, according to James. These are the material self, social self, and spiritual self. The social self comes closest to self-esteem, comprising all characteristics recognized by others. The material self consists of representations of the body and possessions and the spiritual self of descriptive representations and evaluative dispositions regarding the self. This view of self-esteem as the collection of an individual's attitudes toward itself remains today.<ref name="James1892">{{cite book |last=James |first=William |title=Psychology: The briefer course |publisher=Henry Holt |year=1892 |edition=9th |location=New York |pages=240–241}}</ref>

In the mid-1960s, social psychologist Morris Rosenberg defined self-esteem as a feeling of self-worth and developed the [[Rosenberg self-esteem scale]] (RSES), which became the most widely used scale to measure self-esteem in the social sciences.<ref name="BaumeisterSmartBoden1996">{{cite journal |last1= Baumeister |first1= Roy F. |last2= Smart |first2= L. |last3= Boden |first3= J. |year= 1996 |title= Relation of threatened egotism to violence and aggression: The dark side of self-esteem |journal= [[Psychological Review]] |volume= 103 |issue= 1 |pages= 5–33 |doi= 10.1037/0033-295X.103.1.5 |pmid= 8650299|citeseerx= 10.1.1.1009.3747 }}</ref>

In the early 20th century, the [[Behaviorism|behaviorist movement]] shunned introspective study of mental processes, emotions, and feelings, replacing introspection with objective study through experiments on behaviors observed in relation with the environment. Behaviorism viewed the human being as an animal subject to reinforcements, and suggested making psychology an experimental science, similar to chemistry or biology. Consequently, clinical trials on self-esteem were overlooked, since behaviorists considered the idea less amenable to rigorous measurement.<ref name="Bonet">{{cite book|chapter=Prólogo|first=José-Vicente|last=Bonet|title=Sé amigo de ti mismo: manual de autoestima|year=1997|editor-first=Sal|editor-last=Terrae|publisher=Maliaño|location=Cantabria, España|language=es-ES|isbn=978-84-293-1133-4|edition=15ᵃ}}</ref>

In the mid-20th century, the rise of [[Phenomenology (psychology)|phenomenology]] and [[humanistic psychology]] led to a renewed interest in self-esteem as a treatment for psychological disorders such as depression, anxiety, and personality disorders. Psychologists started to consider the relationship between [[psychotherapy]] and the personal satisfaction of people with high self-esteem as useful to the field. This led to new elements being introduced to the concept of self-esteem, including the reasons why people tend to feel less worthy and why people become discouraged or unable to meet challenges by themselves.<ref name="Bonet"/>

In 1992, the [[political scientist]] [[Francis Fukuyama]] associated self-esteem with what [[Plato]] called {{transliteration|grc|[[thumos|thymos]]}}—the "[[spiritedness]]" part of the [[Plato's tripartite theory of soul|Platonic soul]].<ref name=":6">{{cite book
| last1 = Fukuyama | first1 = Francis
| author-link1 = Francis Fukuyama
| year = 1992
| title = The End of History and the Last Man
| location = New York | publisher = Simon and Schuster
| publication-date = 2006
| pages = xvi-xvii
| isbn = 978-0-7432-8455-4
| quote = ...Plato in the ''Republic''... noted that there were three parts to the soul, a desiring part, a reasoning part, and a part that he called ''thymos'', or 'spiritedness.'... The propensity to feel self-esteem arises out of the part of the soul called ''thymos''.}}</ref>

From 1997, the [[core self-evaluations]] approach included self-esteem as one of four dimensions that comprise one's fundamental appraisal of oneself—along with [[locus of control]], [[neuroticism]], and [[self-efficacy]].<ref name="Judge1997">{{cite journal | last1= Judge |first1= T. A. |last2= Locke |first2= E. A. |last3= Durham |first3= C. C. |year= 1997 |title= The dispositional causes of job satisfaction: A core evaluations approach |journal= Research in Organizational Behavior |volume= 19 |pages= 151–188 }}</ref>  The concept of core self-evaluations has since proven to have the ability to predict job satisfaction and job performance.<ref name="Judge1997"/><ref name="judge1998b">{{cite journal |last1= Judge |first1= T. A. |last2= Locke |first2= E. A. |last3= Durham |first3= C. C. |last4= Kluger |first4= A. N. |year= 1998 |title= Dispositional effects on job and life satisfaction: The role of core evaluations |journal= Journal of Applied Psychology |volume= 83 |issue= 1 |pages= 17–34 |doi= 10.1037/0021-9010.83.1.17 |pmid= 9494439 }}</ref><ref>{{multiref2
|1={{cite journal |last1= Bono |first1= J. E. |last2= Judge |first2= T. A. |year= 2003 |title= Core self-evaluations: A review of the trait and its role in job satisfaction and job performance |journal= European Journal of Personality |volume= 17 |issue= Suppl1 |pages= S5–S18 |doi= 10.1002/per.481 |s2cid= 32495455 }}
|2={{cite journal |last1= Dormann |first1= C. |last2= Fay |first2= D. |last3= Zapf |first3= D. |last4= Frese |first4= M. |year= 2006 |title= A state-trait analysis of job satisfaction: On the effect of core self-evaluations |journal= Applied Psychology: An International Review |volume= 55 |issue= 1 |pages= 27–51 |doi= 10.1111/j.1464-0597.2006.00227.x }}
|3={{cite journal |last1= Judge |first1= T. A. |last2= Bono |first2= J. E. |year= 2001 |title= Relationship of core self-evaluations traits—self-esteem, generalized self-efficacy, locus of control, and emotional stability—with job satisfaction and job performance: A meta-analysis |journal= Journal of Applied Psychology |volume= 86 |issue= 1 |pages= 80–92 |doi= 10.1037/0021-9010.86.1.80 |pmid= 11302235 |s2cid= 6612810}} }}</ref> Self-esteem may be essential to self-evaluation.<ref name="judge1998b"/>

===In public policy===
The importance of self-esteem gained endorsement from some government and non-government groups starting around the 1970s, such that one can speak of a self-esteem movement.<ref name="BaumeisterCampbell2003" /><ref>{{cite book | last =  Nolan | first =  James L. | title = The Therapeutic State: Justifying Government at Century's End | url =  https://books.google.com/books?id=Q-dRzYK1GugC | access-date = 2013-05-06 | year = 1998 | publisher = NYU Press | isbn = 978-0-8147-5791-8 | pages = 152–161}}</ref> This movement provides evidence that psychological research can shape public policy.{{citation needed|date=July 2018}} This has expanded to recent years, such as in 2023, when psychologists are planning to re-invent the approach to research, treatments, and therapy. The new approach emphasizes population health <ref>{{cite web |title=Population Health Summit |url=https://www.health.ny.gov/events/population_health_summit/docs/what_is_population_health.pdf |website=New York State Department of Health }}</ref> where psychological researchers have prioritized one-one therapy in regards to analyzing social emotional conflict like low self-esteem.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Weir |first1=Kristen |title=Psychologists are rebranding the field, expanding the one-to-one therapy approach |url=https://www.apa.org/monitor/2023/01/trends-rebranding-psychology |website=American Psychological Association }}</ref>  {{Clarify|reason=The drafting of the first paragraph can be confusing due to unclear antecedents (i.e. the two consecutive sentences starting with 'this'). This breaks the logic chain for the reader and makes subsequent points seem non-sequitur.

Also, an outdated reference to 2023. Is there an update?|date=October 2025}} The underlying idea of the movement was that low self-esteem was the root of problems for individuals, making it the root of societal problems and dysfunctions. A leading figure of the movement, psychologist [[Nathaniel Branden]], stated: "[I] cannot think of a single psychological problem (from anxiety and depression to fear of intimacy or of success, to spouse battery or child molestation) that is not traced back to the problem of low self-esteem".<ref name="BaumeisterCampbell2003" />{{rp|3}}

It was once thought that self-esteem was primarily a feature of [[Western societies|Western individualistic societies]], as it was not observed in [[collectivist]] cultures such as Japan.<ref name=":7">
{{cite journal
 | author1= Heine S. J. |author2= Lehman D. R.
 | author3= Markus H. R. |author4= Kitayama S.
 | year = 1999
 | title = Is there a universal need for positive self-regard?
 | journal = Psychological Review | volume = 106
 | issue = 4 | pages = 766–794
 | doi = 10.1037/0033-295X.106.4.766 | pmid= 10560328
|citeseerx= 10.1.1.321.2156
 }}
</ref>
Concern about low self-esteem and its many presumed negative consequences led California assemblyman, [[John Vasconcellos]] to work to set up and fund the Task Force on Self-Esteem and Personal and Social Responsibility, in California, in 1986. Vasconcellos argued that this task force could combat many of the state's problems – from crime and teen pregnancy to school underachievement and pollution.<ref name="BaumeisterCampbell2003" /> He compared increasing self-esteem to giving out a vaccine for a disease: it could help protect people from being overwhelmed by life's challenges.

The task force set up committees in many California counties and formed a committee of scholars to review the available literature on self-esteem. This committee found very small associations between low self-esteem and its assumed consequences, ultimately showing that low self-esteem was not the root of all societal problems and not as important as the committee had originally thought. However, the authors of the paper that summarized the review of the literature still believed that self-esteem is an independent variable that affects major social problems. The task force disbanded in 1995, and the National Council for Self-Esteem and later the [[National Association for Self-Esteem]] (NASE) was established, taking on the task force's mission. Vasconcellos and [[Jack Canfield]] were members of its advisory board in 2003, and members of its masters' coalition included [[Anthony Robbins]], [[Bernie Siegel]], and [[Gloria Steinem]].<ref name="BaumeisterCampbell2003" />

== Theories ==
Many early theories suggested that self-esteem is a basic human need or [[motivation]]. American psychologist, [[Abraham Maslow]] included self-esteem in his [[hierarchy of human needs]]. He described two different forms of "esteem": the need for respect from others in the form of recognition, success, and admiration, and the need for self-respect in the form of self-love, self-confidence, skill, or aptitude.<ref name=":8">{{cite book |last=Maslow |first=A. H. |year=1987 |title=Motivation and Personality |edition=3rd |location=New York |publisher=Harper & Row |isbn=978-0-06-041987-5 }}</ref> Respect from others was believed to be more fragile and easily lost than inner self-esteem. According to Maslow, without the fulfillment of the self-esteem need, individuals will be driven to seek it and unable to grow and obtain self-actualization. Maslow also states that the healthiest expression of self-esteem "is the one which manifests in the respect we deserve for others, more than renown, fame, and flattery".  Modern theories of self-esteem explore the reasons humans are motivated to maintain a high regard for themselves. [[Sociometer]] theory maintains that self-esteem evolved to check one's level of status and acceptance in one's social group. According to ''[[Terror Management Theory]]'', self-esteem serves a protective function and reduces anxiety about life and death.<ref name=":9">{{cite journal |last=Greenberg |first=J. |year=2008 |title=Understanding the vital human quest for self-esteem |journal=Perspectives on Psychological Science |volume=3 |issue=1 |pages=48–55 |doi=10.1111/j.1745-6916.2008.00061.x |pmid=26158669 |s2cid=34963030 }}</ref>

[[Carl Rogers]] (1902–1987), an advocate of [[humanistic psychology]], theorized the origin of many people's problems to be that they despise themselves and consider themselves worthless and incapable of being loved. This is why Rogers believed in the importance of giving unconditional acceptance to a client and when this was done it could improve the client's self-esteem.<ref name="Bonet"/> In his therapy sessions with clients, he offered positive regard no matter what.<ref>{{cite journal |author1=Wickman S.A. |author2=Campbell C. | year = 2003 | title = An analysis of how Carl Rogers enacted client-centered conversation with Gloria | journal = Journal of Counseling & Development | volume = 81 | issue = 2| pages = 178–184 | doi=10.1002/j.1556-6678.2003.tb00239.x}}</ref> Indeed, the concept of self-esteem is approached since then in humanistic psychology as an [[inalienable right]] for every person, summarized in the following sentence:

{{cquote|Every human being, with no exception, for the mere fact to be it, is worthy of unconditional respect of everybody else; he deserves to esteem himself and to be esteemed.<ref name="Bonet" />}}

==Measurement==
Self-esteem is typically assessed using self-report inventories.

One of the most widely used instruments, the [[Rosenberg self-esteem scale]] (RSES)<ref>{{cite book |last=Rosenberg |first=M. |year=1965 |title=Society and the adolescent self-image |location=Princeton, NJ |publisher=Princeton University Press|doi=10.1515/9781400876136 |isbn=978-1-4008-7613-6 }}</ref> is a 10-item self-esteem scale score that requires participants to indicate their level of agreement with a series of statements about themselves. An alternative measure, the Coopersmith Inventory uses a 50-question battery over a variety of topics and asks subjects whether they rate someone as similar or dissimilar to themselves.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.macses.ucsf.edu/Research/Psychosocial/selfesteem.php#measurement|title=MacArthur SES & Health Network – Research|website=Macses.ucsf.edu|access-date=11 December 2017|archive-date=11 July 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100711155858/http://www.macses.ucsf.edu/research/psychosocial/selfesteem.php#measurement}}</ref> If a subject's answers demonstrate solid self-regard, the scale regards them as well adjusted. If those answers reveal some inner shame, it considers them to be prone to social deviance.<ref>{{cite news |last=Slater |first=Lauren |title=The Trouble With Self-Esteem |newspaper=[[The New York Times]] |date=3 Feb 2002 |access-date=27 Nov 2012 |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2002/02/03/magazine/the-trouble-with-self-esteem.html }}</ref>

Implicit measures of self-esteem began to be used in the 1980s.<ref>{{cite journal |author1=Bosson J.K. |author2=Swann W.B. |author3=Pennebaker J.W. | year = 2000 | title = Stalking the perfect measure of implicit self esteem: The blind men and the elephant revisited?. | journal = Journal of Personality & Social Psychology | volume = 79 | issue = 4| pages = 631–643 | doi=10.1037/0022-3514.79.4.631|citeseerx=10.1.1.371.9919 | pmid = 11045743 }}</ref> 
These rely on indirect measures of [[cognitive processing]] thought to be linked to [[implicit self-esteem]], including the ''[[Name letter effect|name letter task]]'' (or ''initial preference task'')<ref>Koole, S. L., & Pelham, B. W. (2003). "On the nature of implicit self-esteem: The case of the name letter effect". In S. Spencer, S. Fein, & M. P. Zanna (Eds.), ''Motivated social perception: The Ontario Symposium'' (pp. 93–116). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum. {{ISBN?}}</ref><ref>
{{cite journal
 | author1= Stieger, S. |author2= Burger, C.
 | year = 2013
 | title = More complex than previously thought: New insights into the optimal administration of the Initial Preference Task.
 | journal = Self and Identity | volume = 12
 | issue = 2 | pages = 201–216
 | doi = 10.1080/15298868.2012.655897 
 |s2cid= 142080983
 | url = https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/15298868.2012.655897
 | url-access = subscription
 }}
</ref> and the Implicit Association Task.<ref>
{{cite journal
 | author1= Greenwald, A. G. |author2= McGhee, D. E.
 | author3= Schwartz, J. L. K.  
 | year = 1998
 | title = Measuring individual differences in implicit cognition: The Implicit Association Test.
 | journal = Journal of Personality and Social Psychology | volume = 74
 | issue = 6 | pages = 1464–1480
 | doi = 10.1037/0022-3514.74.6.1464 | pmid= 9654756
 |s2cid= 7840819
 | url = https://faculty.washington.edu/agg/pdf/Gwald_McGh_Schw_JPSP_1998.OCR.pdf
 }}
</ref>

Such indirect measures are designed to reduce awareness of the process of assessment. When using them to assess implicit self-esteem, psychologists apply self-relevant stimuli to the participant and then measure how quickly a person identifies positive or negative stimuli.<ref>{{cite journal |author1=Hetts J.J. |author2=Sakuma M. |author3=Pelham B.W. | year = 1999 | title = Two roads to positive regard: Implicit and explicit self-evaluation and culture | journal = Journal of Experimental Social Psychology | volume = 35 | issue = 6| pages = 512–559 | doi=10.1006/jesp.1999.1391}}</ref> For example, if a woman was given the self-relevant stimuli of female and mother, psychologists would measure how quickly she identified the negative word, evil, or the positive word, kind.

== Development across lifespan ==
Experiences in a person's life are a major source of how self-esteem develops.<ref name="BaumeisterCampbell2003" /> In the early years of a child's life, parents have a significant influence on self-esteem and can be considered the main source of positive and negative experiences a child will have.<ref name="Raboteg 2014" >{{cite journal |author1=Raboteg-Saric Z. |author2=Sakic M. | year = 2014 | title = Relations of parenting styles and friendship quality to self-esteem, life satisfaction, & happiness in adolescents | journal = Applied Research in the Quality of Life | volume = 9 | issue = 3| pages = 749–765 | doi=10.1007/s11482-013-9268-0|s2cid=143419028 }}</ref> Unconditional love from parents helps a child develop a stable sense of being cared for and respected. These feelings translate into later effects on self-esteem as the child grows older.<ref name="OlsenBrecklerWiggins">{{cite book |last1=Olsen |first1=J. M. |last2=Breckler |first2=S. J. |last3=Wiggins |first3=E. C. |year=2008 |title=Social Psychology Alive |edition=First Canadian |location=Toronto |publisher=Thomson Nelson |isbn=978-0-17-622452-3 }}{{page needed|date=December 2022}}</ref> Students in elementary school who have high self-esteem tend to have authoritative parents who are caring, supportive adults who set clear standards for their child and allow them to voice their opinion in decision making.

Although studies thus far have reported only a correlation of warm, supportive [[parenting styles]] (mainly authoritative and permissive) with children having high self-esteem, these parenting styles could easily be thought of as having some causal effect in self-esteem development.<ref name="Raboteg 2014" /><ref>{{cite book |last=Coopersmith |first=S. |year=1967 |title=The Antecedents of Self-Esteem |url=https://archive.org/details/antecedentsofsel00coop |url-access=registration |location=New York |publisher=W. H. Freeman |isbn=978-0-7167-0912-1 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Isberg |first1=R. S. |last2=Hauser |first2=S. T. |last3=Jacobson |first3=A. M. |last4=Powers |first4=S. I. |last5=Noam |first5=G. |last6=Weiss-Perry |first6=B. |last7=Fullansbee |first7=D. |year=1989 |title=Parental contexts of adolescent self-esteem: A developmental perspective |journal=Journal of Youth and Adolescence |volume=18 |issue=1 |pages=1–23 |doi=10.1007/BF02139243 |pmid=24271601 |s2cid=35823262 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Lamborn |first1=S. D. |last2=Mounts |first2=N. S. |last3=Steinberg |first3=L. |last4=Dornbusch |first4=S. M. |year=1991 |title=Patterns of Competence and Adjustment among Adolescents from Authoritative, Authoritarian, Indulgent, and Neglectful Families |journal=Child Development |volume=62 |issue=5 |pages=1049–1065 |doi=10.1111/j.1467-8624.1991.tb01588.x |pmid=1756655 }}</ref> Childhood experiences that contribute to healthy self-esteem include being listened to, being spoken to respectfully, receiving appropriate attention and affection and having accomplishments recognized and mistakes or failures acknowledged and accepted. Experiences that contribute to low self-esteem include being harshly criticized, being physically, sexually or emotionally abused, being ignored, ridiculed or teased or being expected to be "perfect" all the time.<ref>[http://cmhc.utexas.edu/selfesteem.html "Self-Esteem."] Self-Esteem. N.p., n.d. Web. 27 November 2012.</ref>

During school-aged years, academic achievement is a significant contributor to self-esteem development.<ref name="BaumeisterCampbell2003" /> Consistently achieving success or consistently failing will have a strong effect on students' individual self-esteem.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Crocker |first1=J. |last2=Sommers |first2=S. R. |last3=Luhtanen |first3=R. K. |year=2002 |title=Hopes Dashed and Dreams Fulfilled: Contingencies of Self-Worth and Graduate School Admissions |journal=Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin |volume=28 |issue=9 |pages=1275–1286 |doi=10.1177/01461672022812012 |s2cid=143985402 }}</ref> However, students can also experience low self-esteem while in school. For example, they may not have academic achievements, or they live in a troubled environment outside of school. Issues like the ones previously stated, can cause adolescents to doubt themselves. Social experiences are another important contributor to self-esteem. As children go through school, they begin to understand and recognize differences between themselves and their classmates. Using social comparisons, children assess whether they did better or worse than classmates in different activities. These comparisons play an important role in shaping the child's self-esteem and influence the positive or negative feelings they have about themselves.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Butler |first=R. |year=1998 |title=Age Trends in the Use of Social and Temporal Comparison for Self-Evaluation: Examination of a Novel Developmental Hypothesis |journal=Child Development |volume=69 |issue=4 |pages=1054–1073 |doi=10.1111/j.1467-8624.1998.tb06160.x |pmid=9768486 |doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Pomerantz |first1=E. M. |last2=Ruble |first2=D. N. |last3=Frey |first3=K. S. |last4=Grenlich |first4=F. |year=1995 |title=Meeting Goals and Confronting Conflict: Children's Changing Perceptions of Social Comparison |journal=Child Development |volume=66 |issue=3 |pages=723–738 |doi=10.1111/j.1467-8624.1995.tb00901.x |pmid=7789198 }}</ref> As children go through adolescence, peer influence becomes much more important. Adolescents make appraisals of themselves based on their relationships with close friends.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Thorne |first1=A. |last2=Michaelieu |first2=Q. |year=1996 |title=Situating Adolescent Gender and Self-Esteem with Personal Memories |journal=Child Development |volume=67 |issue=4 |pages=1374–1390 |doi=10.1111/j.1467-8624.1996.tb01802.x |pmid=8890489 }}</ref> Successful relationships among friends are very important to the development of high self-esteem for children. Social acceptance brings about confidence and produces high self-esteem, whereas rejection from peers and loneliness brings about self-doubts and produces low self-esteem.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Leary |first1=M. R. |last2=Baumeister |first2=R. F. |year=2000 |chapter=The Nature and Function of Self-Esteem: Sociometer Theory |editor-first=M. P. |editor-last=Zanna |title=Advances in Experimental Social Psychology |volume=32 |pages=1–62 |location=San Diego, CA |publisher=Academic Press |isbn=978-0-12-015232-2 }}</ref>

Self-esteem [[self-esteem in adolescence|tends to increase during adolescence]] and young adulthood, reaching a peak in middle age.<ref name="Orth 2014" /> A decrease is seen from middle age to old age with varying findings on whether it is a small or large decrease.<ref name="Orth 2014" /> Reasons for the variability could be because of differences in health, cognitive ability, and [[socioeconomic status]] in old age.<ref name="Orth 2014" /> No differences have been found between males and females in their development of self-esteem.<ref name="Orth 2014" /> Multiple cohort studies show that there is not a difference in the life-span trajectory of self-esteem between generations due to societal changes such as grade inflation in education or the presence of [[social media]].<ref name="Orth 2014" />

High levels of mastery, low risk taking, and better health are ways to predict higher self-esteem. In terms of personality, emotionally stable, extroverted, and conscientious individuals experience higher self-esteem.<ref name="Orth 2014" /> These predictors have shown that self-esteem has trait-like qualities by remaining stable over time like personality and intelligence.<ref name="Orth 2014" />  However, this does not mean it can not be changed.<ref name="Orth 2014" /> Hispanic adolescents have a slightly lower self-esteem than their black and white peers, but then slightly higher levels by age 30.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Erol |first1=R. Y. |last2=Orth |first2=U. |year=2011 |title=Self-Esteem Development From Age 14 to 30 Years: A Longitudinal Study |journal=Journal of Personality and Social Psychology |volume=101 |issue=3 |pages=607–619 |doi=10.1037/a0024299 |pmid=21728448 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author1=Maldonado L. |author2=Huang Y. |author3=Chen R. |author4=Kasen S. |author5=Cohen P. |author6=Chen H. | year = 2013 | title = Impact of early adolescent anxiety disorders on self-esteem development from adolescence to young adulthood | journal = Journal of Adolescent Health | volume = 53 | issue = 2| pages = 287–292 | doi=10.1016/j.jadohealth.2013.02.025|pmid=23648133 |pmc=3725205 }}</ref> African Americans have a sharper increase in self-esteem in adolescence and young adulthood compared to Whites. However, during old age, they experience a more rapid decline in self-esteem.<ref name="Orth 2014" />

=== Influencing factors of self-esteem in adolescence ===
{{AI-generated|section=Influencing|date=September 2025}}
Self-esteem during adolescence is a dynamic and critical aspect of psychological development, influenced by a variety of biological, psychological, and social factors. This stage of life, characterized by rapid physical changes and increased self-awareness, leaves adolescents particularly vulnerable to external influences. Peer relationships, academic performance, and societal [[beauty standards]] play pivotal roles in shaping self-esteem. [[Gender]] differences also contribute significantly to how adolescents perceive their self-worth. 
Recent research highlights how cultural and societal expectations can shape self-esteem, especially regarding self-perceptions of physical appearance. For instance, a 2023 study titled "Exploring Teenagers' Perceptions of Personal Beauty: A Quantitative Survey Analysis"<ref>{{Cite web |last=Brunori |first=Davide |date=2023 |title=Exploring Teenagers' Perceptions of Personal Beauty: A Quantitative Survey Analysis |url=https://www.academia.edu/104602064}}</ref> examined how Italian teenagers rated their own appearance. The findings revealed notable gender disparities: male participants typically rated themselves conservatively, while females often assigned themselves higher scores, sometimes a perfect 10. These patterns underscore the influence of societal beauty standards on adolescents' self-perception and their broader self-esteem development.
The study emphasizes the critical interplay between physical self-perception and self-esteem in adolescence, shedding light on how societal norms and personal identity evolve during this pivotal life stage.

===Shame===
[[Shame]] can be a contributor to those with problems of low self-esteem.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Ehrenreich|first1=Barbara|title=Patterns for college Writing|date=2007|publisher=Bedford/St. Martin's|location=Boston|page=680|edition=12th}}{{ISBN?}}</ref> Feelings of shame usually occur because of a situation where the social self is devalued, such as a socially evaluated poor performance. Poor performance leads to a decrease in social self-esteem and an increase in shame, indicating a threat to the social self.<ref>{{cite journal |author1=Gruenewald T.L. |author2=Kemeny M.E. |author3=Aziz N. |author4=Fahey J.L. | year = 2004 | title = Acute threat to the social self: Shame, social self-esteem, and cortisol activity | journal = Psychosomatic Medicine | volume = 66 | issue = 6| pages = 915–924 | doi=10.1097/01.psy.0000143639.61693.ef|pmid=15564358 |citeseerx=10.1.1.505.5316 |s2cid=29504978 }}</ref> This increase in shame can be helped with [[self-compassion]].<ref>{{cite journal |author1=Johnson E.A. |author2=O'Brien K.A. | year = 2013 | title = Self-compassion soothes the savage ego-threat system: Effects on negative affect, shame, rumination, & depressive symptoms | journal = Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology | volume = 32 | issue = 9| page = 939963 | doi=10.1521/jscp.2013.32.9.939}}</ref><ref>In a survey on technology 60% of people using social media reported that it has impacted their self-esteem in a negative way.</ref>

===Real self, ideal self, and dreaded self===
There are three levels of self-evaluation development in relation to the real self, ideal self, and the dreaded self. The real, ideal, and dreaded selves develop in children in a sequential pattern on cognitive levels.<ref name="self-evaluation">{{cite journal |first1=F. Clark |last1=Power |first2=Vladimir T. |last2=Khmelkov |title=Character development and self-esteem: Psychological foundations and educational implications |journal=International Journal of Educational Research |volume=27 |issue=7 |pages=539–551 |doi=10.1016/S0883-0355(97)00053-0 |year=1998 |doi-access=free }}</ref>
* Moral judgment stages: Individuals describe their real, ideal, and dreaded selves with stereotypical labels, such as "nice" or "bad". Individuals describe their ideal and real selves in terms of disposition for actions or as behavioral habits. The dreaded self is often described as being unsuccessful or as having bad habits.
* Ego development stages: Individuals describe their ideal and real selves in terms of traits that are based on attitudes as well as actions. The dreaded self is often described as having failed to meet social expectations or as self-centered.
* Self-understanding stages: Individuals describe their ideal and real selves as having unified identities or characters. Descriptions of the dreaded self focus on  failure to live up to one's ideals or role expectations often because of real world problems.
This development brings with it increasingly complicated and encompassing moral demands. This level is where individuals' self-esteems can suffer because they do not feel as though they are living up to certain expectations. This feeling will moderately affect one's self-esteem with an even larger effect seen when individuals believe they are becoming their dreaded selves.<ref name="self-evaluation"/>

== Types of self-esteems ==

=== High ===
[[File:Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs.svg|thumb|300px|{{center|[[Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Hierarchy of Needs (Maslow)]]}}]]
People with a healthy level of self-esteem:<ref>Adapted from {{cite book |first=D. E. |last=Hamachek |title=Encounters with the Self |url=https://archive.org/details/encounterswithse00done |url-access=registration |publisher=Rinehart |location=New York |year=1971 |isbn=978-0-03-077785-1 }}</ref>
* firmly believe in certain values and principles, and are ready to defend them even when finding opposition, feeling secure enough to modify them in light of experience.<ref name="Bonet"/>
* are able to act according to what they think to be the best choice, trusting their own judgment, and not feeling guilty when others do not like their choice.<ref name="Bonet" />
* do not lose time worrying excessively about what happened in the past, nor about what could happen in the future. They learn from the past and plan for the future, but live in the present intensely.<ref name="Bonet" />
* fully trust in their capacity to solve problems, not hesitating after failures and difficulties. They ask others for help when they need it.<ref name="Bonet" />
* consider themselves equal in [[dignity]] to others, rather than inferior or superior, while accepting differences in certain talents, personal prestige or financial standing.<ref name="Bonet" />
* understand how they are an interesting and valuable person for others, at least for those with whom they have a friendship.<ref name="Bonet" />
* resist [[Psychological manipulation|manipulation]], collaborate with others only if it seems appropriate and convenient.<ref name="Bonet" />
* admit and accept different internal feelings and drives, either positive or negative, revealing those drives to others only when they choose.<ref name="Bonet" />
* are able to enjoy a great variety of activities.<ref name="Bonet" />
* are sensitive to feelings and needs of others; respect generally accepted social rules, and claim no right or desire to prosper at others' expense.<ref name="Bonet" />
* can work toward finding solutions and voice discontent without belittling themselves or others when challenges arise.<ref name="KidsHealth">{{cite web |last=Araujo |first=Gabriel |date=September 2023 |title=Your Child's Self-Esteem |url=http://kidshealth.org/parent/emotions/feelings/self_esteem.html |website=[[KidsHealth]]}}</ref>

=== Secure vs. defensive ===

Some people have a secure high self-esteem and can confidently maintain positive self-views without relying on external reassurance. However, others have defensive high self-esteem, and while they also report positive self-views on the Rosenberg Scale, these views are fragile and easily threatened by criticism. Defensive high self-esteem individuals internalize subconscious self-doubts and insecurities, causing them to react very negatively to any criticism they may receive. There is a need for constant positive feedback from others for these individuals to maintain their feelings of self-worth. The necessity of repeated praise can be associated with boastful, arrogant behavior or sometimes even aggressive and hostile feelings toward anyone who questions the individual's self-worth, an example of threatened egotism.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Jordan |first1=C. H. |last2=Spencer |first2=S. J. |last3=Zanna |first3=M. P. |year=2003 |chapter='I love me...I love me not': Implicit self-esteem, explicit self-esteem and defensiveness |editor1-first=S. J. |editor1-last=Spencer |editor2-first=S. |editor2-last=Fein |editor3-first=M. P. |editor3-last=Zanna |editor4-first=J. M. |editor4-last=Olsen |title=Motivated social perception: The Ontario symposium |volume=9 |pages=117–145 |location=Mahwah, NJ |publisher=Erlbaum |isbn=978-0-8058-4036-0 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Jordan |first1=C. H. |last2=Spencer |first2=S. J. |last3=Zanna |first3=M. P. |last4=Hoshino-Browne |first4=E. |last5=Correll |first5=J. |year=2003 |title=Secure and defensive high self-esteem |journal=Journal of Personality and Social Psychology |volume=85 |issue=5 |pages=969–978 |doi=10.1037/0022-3514.85.5.969 |pmid=14599258 |url=http://www.sakkyndig.com/psykologi/artvit/jordan2003.pdf }}</ref>

The ''[[Journal of Educational Psychology]]'' conducted a study in which they used a sample of 383 Malaysian undergraduates participating in [[work integrated learning]] (WIL) programs across five public universities to test the relationship between self-esteem and other psychological attributes such as self-efficacy and [[self-confidence]]. The results demonstrated that self-esteem has a positive and significant relationship with self-confidence and self-efficacy since students with higher self-esteem had better performances at university than those with lower self-esteem. It was concluded that higher education institutions and employers should emphasize the importance of undergraduates' self-esteem development.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Jaaffar|first1=Amar Hisham|last2=Ibrahim|first2=Hazril Izwar|last3=Rajadurai|first3=Jegatheesan|last4=Sohail|first4=M. Sadiq|date=2019-06-24|title=Psychological Impact of Work-Integrated Learning Programmes in Malaysia: The Moderating Role of Self-Esteem on Relation between Self-Efficacy and Self-Confidence|journal=International Journal of Educational Psychology|language=en-US|volume=8|issue=2|pages=188–213|doi=10.17583/ijep.2019.3389|issn=2014-3591|doi-access=free}}</ref>

=== Implicit and explicit ===

[[Implicit self-esteem]] refers to a person's disposition to evaluate themselves positively or negatively in a spontaneous, automatic, or unconscious manner. It contrasts with [[explicit self-esteem]], which entails more conscious and reflective self-evaluation. Both explicit self-esteem and implicit self-esteem are theoretically subtypes of self-esteem proper.

However, the validity of implicit self-esteem as a construct is highly questionable, given not only its weak or nonexistent correlation with explicit self-esteem and informant ratings of self-esteem,<ref name=":5" /><ref name=":6" /> but also the failure of multiple measures of implicit self-esteem to correlate with each other.<ref name=":8" />

Currently, there is little scientific evidence that self-esteem can be reliably or validly measured through implicit means.<ref name=":9" />

=== Narcissism and threatened egotism ===
[[Narcissism]] is a disposition people may have that represents an excessive love for one's self. It is characterized by an inflated view of self-worth. Individuals who score high on narcissism measures, Robert Raskin's Narcissistic Personality Inventory, would likely respond "true" to such prompt statements as "If I ruled the world, it would be a much better place."<ref>Barbara Krahe, ''The Social Psychology of Aggression'' (Psychology Press, 2013), 75. {{ISBN?}}</ref> There is only a moderate correlation between narcissism and self-esteem;<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Sedikieds |first1=C. |last2=Rudich |first2=E. A. |last3=Gregg |first3=A. P. |last4=Kumashiro |first4=M. |last5=Rusbult |first5=C. |year=2004 |title=Are normal narcissists psychologically healthy? Self-esteem matters |journal=Journal of Personality and Social Psychology |volume=87 |issue=3 |pages=400–416 |doi=10.1037/0022-3514.87.3.400 |pmid=15382988 |s2cid=12903591 |url=https://research.vu.nl/en/publications/155e777a-4d9d-4417-8cf2-f6e6403e2ee7 }}</ref> that is to say that an individual can have high self-esteem but low narcissism or can score high self-esteem and high narcissism.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.afterpsychotherapy.com/narcissism-vs-authentic-self-esteem/|title=Narcissism vs. Authentic Self-Esteem|date=17 January 2011|website=afterpsychotherapy.com|access-date=22 October 2017}}</ref> However, when correlation analysis is restricted to the sense of superiority or self-admiration aspects of narcissism, correlations between narcissism and self-esteem become strong.<ref name=":3" /><ref name=":2" /><ref name=":4" /> Moreover, self-esteem is positively correlated with a sense of superiority even when controlling for overall narcissism.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":1" />

Narcissism is not only defined by inflated self-esteem, but also by characteristics such as entitlement, exploitativeness, and dominance. Additionally, while positive self-image is a shared characteristic of narcissism and self-esteem, narcissistic self-appraisals are exaggerated, whereas in non-narcissistic self-esteem, positive views of the self compared with others are relatively modest. Thus, while sharing positive self-regard as a main feature, and while narcissism is defined by high self-esteem, the two constructs are not interchangeable.

Threatened [[egotism]] is a phenomenon in which narcissists respond to criticism with hostility and aggression, as it threatens their sense of self-worth.<ref name="BaumeisterSmartBoden1996" /><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Morf |first1=C. C. |last2=Rhodewalk |first2=F. |year=1993 |title=Narcissism and self-evaluation maintenance: Explorations in object relations |journal=Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin |volume=19 |issue=6 |pages=668–676 |doi=10.1177/0146167293196001 |s2cid=145525829 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Twenge |first1=J. M. |last2=Campbell |first2=W. K. |year=2003 |title='Isn't it fun to get the respect we're going to deserve?' Narcissism, social rejection, and aggression |journal=Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin |volume=29 |issue=2 |pages=261–272 |doi=10.1177/0146167202239051 |pmid=15272953 |s2cid=29837581 }}</ref>

=== Low ===

Low self-esteem can result from various factors, including genetic factors, physical appearance or weight, mental health issues, socioeconomic status, significant emotional experiences, [[social stigma]], [[peer pressure]] or [[bullying]].<ref>{{cite news |author=Jones FC |title=Low self esteem |newspaper=Chicago Defender|page=33|year=2003 |issn=0745-7014}}</ref>

A person with low self-esteem may show some of the following characteristics:<ref>{{cite journal | author = Adapted, Gill J | title = Indispensable Self-Esteem | journal = Human Development | volume = 1 | page = 1980 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Low self-esteem and confidence: Signs, causes, and treatment |url=https://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/i-have-lost-my-confidence-and-self-esteem#signs |website=www.medicalnewstoday.com |access-date=8 February 2024 |language=en |date=26 April 2022}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=McClure |first1=Auden C. |last2=Tanski |first2=Susanne E. |last3=Kingsbury |first3=John |last4=Gerrard |first4=Meg |last5=Sargent |first5=James D. |title=Characteristics Associated With Low Self-Esteem Among US Adolescents |journal=Academic Pediatrics |date=July 2010 |volume=10 |issue=4 |pages=238–244.e2 |doi=10.1016/j.acap.2010.03.007|pmid=20605547 |pmc=2914631 }}</ref>
* Heavy [[self-criticism]] and dissatisfaction.<ref name="Bonet" />
* Hypersensitivity to criticism with resentment against critics and feelings of being attacked.<ref name="Bonet" />
* Chronic indecision and an [[exaggerated]] fear of mistakes.<ref name="Bonet" />
* Excessive will to please and unwillingness to displease any petitioner.<ref name="Bonet" />
* [[Perfectionism (psychology)|Perfectionism]], which can lead to frustration when perfection is not achieved.<ref name="Bonet" />
* Neurotic guilt, dwelling on or exaggerating the magnitude of past mistakes.<ref name="Bonet" />
* Floating hostility and general defensiveness and irritability without any proximate cause.<ref name="Bonet" />
* [[Pessimism]] and a general negative outlook.<ref name="Bonet" />
* [[Envy]], invidiousness, or general resentment.<ref name="Bonet" />
* Sees temporary setbacks as permanent, intolerable conditions.<ref name="KidsHealth" />

Individuals with low self-esteem tend to be critical of themselves. Some depend on the approval and praise of others when evaluating self-worth. Others may measure their likability in terms of successes: others will accept themselves if they succeed but will not if they fail.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Baldwin |first1=M. W. |last2=Sinclair |first2=L. |year=1996 |title=Self-esteem and 'if...then' contingencies of interpersonal acceptance |journal=Journal of Personality and Social Psychology |volume=71 |issue=6 |pages=1130–1141 |doi=10.1037/0022-3514.71.6.1130 |pmid=8979382 |s2cid=7294467 }}</ref> People with chronic low self esteem are at a higher risk for experiencing psychotic disorders; and this behavior is closely linked to forming psychotic symptoms as well.<ref>Warman DM, Lysaker PH, Luedtke B, Martin JM (2010) "Self-esteem and delusionproneness". ''JNervMentDis.'' 198:455–457.</ref><ref>Smith B, Fowler DG, Freeman D, Bebbington P, Bashforth H, Garety P, Dunn G,Kuipers E (2006) "Emotion and psychosis: Links between depression, self-esteem,negative schematic beliefs and delusions and hallucinations". ''Schizophr Res.'' 86:181–188</ref><ref>Garety PA, Kuipers E, Fowler D, Freeman D, Bebbington PE (2001) "A cognitivemodel of the positive symptoms of psychosis". ''Psychol Med.'' 31:189–195.</ref><ref>Bentall RP, Kinderman P, Kaney S (1994) "The self, attributional processes andabnormal beliefs: Towards a model of persecutory delusions". ''Behav Res Ther.'' 32:331–341</ref><ref>Karatzias T, Gumley A, Power K, O'Grady M (2007) "Illness appraisals and self-esteemas correlates of anxiety and affective comorbid disorders in schizophrenia". ''ComprPsychiatry.'' 48:371–375.</ref><ref>Bradshaw W, Brekke JS (1999) "Subjective experience in schizophrenia: Factorsinfluencing self-esteem, satisfaction with life, and subjective distress." ''Am J Ortho-psychiatry.'' 69:254–260.</ref><ref>Blairy S, Linotte S, Souery D, Papadimitriou GN, Dikeos D, Lerer B, Kaneva R,Milanova V, Serretti A, Macciardi F, Mendlewicz J (2004) "Social adjust-ment and self-esteem of bipolar patients: A multicentric study." ''J Affect Disord.'' 79:97–103</ref><ref>Bowins B, Shugar G (1998) "Delusions and self-esteem." ''Can J Psychiatry.'' 43:154–158.</ref>{{excessive citations inline|date=August 2025}}

====Treatments====
[[Metacognitive therapy]], [[EMDR]] technique, [[mindfulness-based cognitive therapy]], [[rational emotive behavior therapy]], [[cognitive behavioral therapy]] and trait and construct therapies have been shown to improve the patient's self-esteem.<ref name="ORCID 2021">{{cite web | title=ORCID | website=orcid.org | date=2021-08-31 | url=https://orcid.org/0000-0001-5765-8776 | access-date=2021-09-07}}</ref>

=== The three states ===
This classification proposed by Martin Ross<ref name="Ross, Martín 2013">Ross, Martín. ''El Mapa de la Autoestima.'' 2013. Dunken. {{ISBN|978-9870267737}} {{page needed|date=December 2022}}</ref> distinguishes three states of self-esteem compared to the "feats" ([[wikt:triumph|triumph]]s, [[honor]]s, [[virtue]]s) and the "anti-feats" ([[wikt:defeat|defeat]]s, [[embarrassment]], [[shame]], etc.) of the individuals.<ref name="ecuador"/><ref name="Autoestima género">{{cite web|url=http://www.monografias.com/trabajos104/como-influye-genero-autoestima-adolescentes/como-influye-genero-autoestima-adolescentes.shtml|title=Como influye el genero en la Autoestima de los Adolescentes |first=Darcy |last=Leiva|website=Monografias.com|date=11 May 2015 |access-date=11 December 2017}}</ref>

==== Shattered ====
The individual does not regard themselves as valuable or lovable. They may be overwhelmed by defeat, or shame, or see themselves as such, and they name their "anti-feat". For example, if they consider that being over a certain age is an anti-feat, they define themselves with the name of their anti-feat, and say, "I am old". They express actions and feelings such as pity, insulting themselves, and they may become paralyzed by their sadness.<ref name="Ross, Martín 2013"/><ref name="digital activity">{{cite thesis|type=bachelor thesis|title=La retroalimentació entre l'autoestima i l'activitat digital al col·lectiu adolescent|language=es|trans-title=Feedback between self-esteem and digital activity in the adolescent group|last=Bonet Gallardo|first=L. |others=Advised by Huertas Bailén, Amparo|publisher=[[Universidad Autónoma de Barcelona]]|date=2015|url=http://ddd.uab.cat/record/142342?ln=en}}</ref>

==== Vulnerable ====
The individual has a generally positive [[self-image]]. However, their self-esteem is also vulnerable to the perceived risk of an imminent anti-feat (such as defeat, embarrassment, shame, discredit), consequently, they are often nervous and regularly use defense mechanisms.<ref name="digital activity"/> A typical protection mechanism of those with vulnerable self-esteem may consist in avoiding decision-making.  Although such individuals may outwardly exhibit great self-confidence, the underlying reality may be just the opposite: the apparent self-confidence is indicative of their heightened fear of anti-feats and the fragility of their self-esteem.<ref name="ecuador"/> They may also try to blame others to protect their self-image from situations that would threaten it. They may employ defense mechanisms, including attempting to lose at games and other competitions in order to protect their self-image by publicly dissociating themselves from a need to win, and asserting an independence from social acceptance which they may deeply desire. In this deep fear of being unaccepted by an individual's peers, they make poor life choices by making risky decisions.<ref name="Autoestima género"/><ref name="digital activity"/>

==== Strong ====
People with strong self-esteem have a positive [[self-image]] and enough strength so that anti-feats do not subdue their self-esteem. They have less fear of failure. These individuals appear humble, cheerful, and this shows a certain strength not to boast about feats and not to be afraid of anti-feats.<ref name="Autoestima género"/><ref name="digital activity"/>
They are capable of fighting with all their might to achieve their goals because, if things go wrong, their self-esteem will not be affected.  They can acknowledge their own mistakes precisely because their self-image is strong, and this acknowledgment will not impair or affect their self-image.<ref name="digital activity"/> They live with less fear of losing social prestige, and with more happiness and general well-being.<ref name="digital activity"/>
However, no type of self-esteem is indestructible,<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Baumeister |first1=Roy F. |last2=Campbell |first2=Jennifer D. |last3=Krueger |first3=Joachim I. |last4=Vohs |first4=Kathleen D. |date=May 2003 |title=Does High Self-Esteem Cause Better Performance, Interpersonal Success, Happiness, or Healthier Lifestyles? |journal=Psychological Science in the Public Interest |language=en |volume=4 |issue=1 |pages=1–44 |doi=10.1111/1529-1006.01431 |pmid=26151640 |issn=1529-1006|doi-access=free }}</ref> and due to certain situations or circumstances in life, one can fall from this level into any other state of self-esteem.<ref name="Ross, Martín 2013"/><ref name="digital activity"/>

=== Contingent vs. non-contingent ===
A distinction is made between contingent (or conditional<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.thesaurus.com/browse/contingent|title=Contingent Synonyms, Contingent Antonyms |website=thesaurus.com|access-date=22 October 2017}}</ref>)  and non-contingent (or unconditional<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|url=http://www.thefreedictionary.com/unconditional|title=Unconditional|access-date=11 December 2017|dictionary=[[The Free Dictionary]]}}</ref>) self-esteem.

''Contingent self-esteem'' is derived from external sources, such as what others say, one's success or failure, one's competence,<ref name="Koivula-et-al-2002">{{Cite journal  | last1 = Koivula | first1 = Nathalie  | last2 = Hassmén | first2 = Peter  | last3 = Fallby | first3 = Johan  | title = Self-esteem and perfectionism in elite athletes: effects on competitive anxiety and self-confidence  | journal = Personality and Individual Differences  | volume = 32 | issue = 5  | year = 2002  | pages = 865–875  | doi = 10.1016/S0191-8869(01)00092-7}}</ref> or [[relationship-contingent self-esteem]].

Therefore, contingent self-esteem is marked by instability, unreliability, and vulnerability. Persons lacking a non-contingent self-esteem are "predisposed to an incessant pursuit of self-value".<ref>{{cite web|author=Victoria Blom|title='Striving for Self-esteem' (Department of Psychology, Stockholm University, 2011)|page=17|url=http://www.diva-portal.org/smash/get/diva2:406035/FULLTEXT01.pdf}}</ref> However, because the pursuit of contingent self-esteem is based on receiving approval, it is doomed to fail, as no one receives constant approval, and disapproval often evokes depression. Furthermore, fear of disapproval inhibits activities in which failure is possible.<ref name="psychologytoday.com">{{cite web|url=http://www.psychologytoday.com/articles/201112/the-boom-and-bust-ego|title=The Boom and Bust Ego|website=Psychology Today|access-date=11 December 2017}}</ref>

{{Quote box|width=20em|fontsize = 90%|bgcolor = #F0F0F0|quote="The courage to be is the courage to accept oneself, in spite of being unacceptable.... This is the Pauline-Lutheran doctrine of 'justification by faith.'" [[Paul Tillich]]<ref>Paul Tillich, ''Terry Lectures: Courage to Be'' (Yale University, 2000) 164.</ref>}}
''Non-contingent self-esteem'' is described as true, stable, and solid.<ref>Christopher J. Mruk, ''Self-esteem Research, Theory, and Practice'' (Springer, 1995), 88.</ref> It springs from a belief that one is "acceptable period, acceptable before life itself, ontologically acceptable".<ref>Terry D. Cooper, ''Paul Tillich and Psychology: Historic and Contemporary Explorations in Theology, Psychotherapy, and Ethics'' (Mercer University, 2006). 7. {{ISBN?}}</ref> Belief that one is "ontologically acceptable" is to believe that one's acceptability is "the way things ''are'' without contingency".<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ahpcc.org.uk/includes/articles/selfesteem.pdf|title=Self-esteem/OKness: a personal story|website=Ahpcc.org.uk|access-date=11 December 2017}}</ref> In this belief, as expounded by theologian [[Paul Tillich]], acceptability is not based on a person's virtue. It is an acceptance given "in spite of our guilt, not because we have no guilt".<ref>Terry D. Cooper, ''Paul Tillich and Psychology: Historic and Contemporary Explorations in Theology, Psychotherapy, and Ethics'' (Mercer University,2006). 5. {{ISBN?}}</ref>

Psychiatrist [[Thomas A Harris]] drew on Tillich for his classic ''[[I'm OK – You're OK]]'' that addresses non-contingent self-esteem. Harris translated Tillich's "acceptable" by the vernacular ''OK'', a term that means "acceptable".<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|url=http://www.thefreedictionary.com/OK|title=OK|access-date=11 December 2017|dictionary=[[The Free Dictionary]]}}</ref> The Christian message, said Harris, is not "YOU CAN BE OK, IF"; it is "YOU ARE ACCEPTED, unconditionally".<ref>Thomas A. Harris, ''I'm OK – You're OK'' (Harper and Row), 1969, 235.</ref>

A secure non-contingent self-esteem springs from the belief that one is ontologically acceptable and accepted.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://academic.udayton.edu/jackbauer/PGSG/Kernis%2003%20opt%20s-esteem%20authenticity%20copy.pdf|title=Toward a Conceptualization of Optimal Self-Esteem|author=Michael H. Kernis|website=Academic.udayton.edu|access-date=11 December 2017|archive-date=17 April 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180417183904/http://academic.udayton.edu/jackbauer/PGSG/Kernis%2003%20opt%20s-esteem%20authenticity%20copy.pdf}}</ref>

=== Domain-specific self-esteem ===
Whereas global self-esteem addresses how individuals appraise themselves in their entirety, domain-specific self-esteem facets relate to how they appraise themselves in various pertinent domains of life. Such functionally distinct facets of self-esteem may comprise self-evaluations in social, emotional, body-related, school performance-related, and creative-artistic domains.<ref name="Burger et al"/><ref>
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They have been found to be predictive of outcomes related to psychological functioning, health, education, and work.<ref>
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Low self-esteem in the social domain (i.e., self-perceived social competence), for example, has been repeatedly identified as a risk factor for bullying victimization.<ref>
{{cite journal
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{{cite journal
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 }} [[File:CC-BY icon.svg|50px]]  Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/  Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License].</ref>

==Importance==
[[Abraham Maslow]] states that psychological health is not possible unless the essential core of the person is fundamentally accepted, loved and respected by others and by oneself. Self-esteem allows people to face life with more confidence, benevolence, and optimism, and thus easily reach their goals and self-actualize.<ref name="Branden">[https://books.google.com/books?id=psvHFOqRuhkC&pg=PA9 Nathaniel Branden. ''Cómo mejorar su autoestima'']. 1987. Versión traducida: 1990. 1ª edición en formato electrónico: enero de 2010. Ediciones Paidós Ibérica. {{ISBN|978-8449323478}}.</ref>

Self-esteem may make people convinced they deserve happiness.<ref name="Branden" /> The ability to understand and develop positive self-esteem is essential for building healthy relationships with others. When people have a positive view of themselves, they are more likely to treat others with respect, compassion, and kindness. This creates the foundation for strong, positive relationships that are built on mutual respect and understanding.<ref name="Branden" /> For [[Erich Fromm]], the love of others and love of ourselves are not alternatives. On the contrary, an attitude of love toward themselves will be found in all those who are capable of loving others. Self-esteem allows creativity at the workplace and is a specially critical condition for teaching professions.<ref name="Miranda">Christian Miranda. [https://www.redalyc.org/pdf/551/55130179.pdf La autoestima profesional: una competencia mediadora para la innovación en las prácticas pedagógicas] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110722230252/http://redalyc.uaemex.mx/pdf/551/55130179.pdf |date=2011-07-22 }}. Revista Iberoamericana sobre Calidad, Eficacia y Cambio en Educación. 2005. Volume 3, number 1. PDF format.</ref>

José-Vicente Bonet claims that the importance of self-esteem is obvious as a lack of self-esteem is, he says, not a loss of esteem from others, but self-rejection. Bonet claims that this corresponds to [[major depressive disorder]].<ref name="Bonet" /> [[Freud]] also claimed that the depressive has suffered "an extraordinary diminution in his self-regard, an impoverishment of his ego on a grand scale... He has lost his self-respect".<ref>Sigmund Freud, ''On Metapsychology'' (PFL 11) pp. 254–256</ref>

[[The Yogyakarta Principles]], a document on [[international human rights law]], addresses the discriminatory attitude toward [[LGBT]] people that makes their self-esteem low to be subject to human rights violation including [[human trafficking]].<ref>[[The Yogyakarta Principles]], Preamble and Principles 11</ref> The [[World Health Organization]] recommends in "[[Suicide prevention|Preventing Suicide]]",<ref>{{cite journal|last1=World Health Organization|title=Preventing suicide: A global imperative|journal=World Health Organization – Mental Health|date=2014|page=92|url=https://www.who.int/mental_health/suicide-prevention/world_report_2014/en/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140905121318/http://www.who.int/mental_health/suicide-prevention/world_report_2014/en/|archive-date=September 5, 2014|url-access=<!--WP:URLACCESS-->}}</ref> published in 2000, that strengthening students' self-esteem is important to protect children and adolescents against mental distress and despondency, enabling them to cope adequately with difficult and stressful life situations.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.who.int/mental_hearth/media/en/62.pdf|title=Preventing Suicide, A resource for teachers and other school staff, WHO, Geneva, 2000|website=who.int|access-date=22 October 2017}}{{dead link|date=December 2021|bot=medic}}{{cbignore|bot=medic}}</ref>

Not only does higher self-esteem increase happiness, but it is also associated with improved stress coping and increased willingness to take on challenging tasks.<ref name="Schacter">{{cite book |last1=Schacter |first1=Daniel L. |first2=Daniel T. |last2=Gilbert |first3=Daniel M. |last3=Wegner |chapter=Self Esteem |title=Psychology |location=New York |publisher=Worth |year=2009 |edition=Second |isbn=978-0-7167-5215-8 |chapter-url-access=registration |chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/psychology0000scha_e2x8 }}</ref> In contrast, a study examined the impact of boosting self-esteem. It found that high self-esteem does offer some benefits, but they are limited. It is often a result, rather than a cause, of success. The researchers also found that efforts to boost self-esteem may not consistently lead to improved performance, and that self-esteem's influence on life outcomes is modest, except for a temporary increase in positive [[self-image]] awareness.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Baumeister |first1=Roy F. |last2=Campbell |first2=Jennifer D. |last3=Krueger |first3=Joachim I. |last4=Vohs |first4=Kathleen D. |year=2003 |title=Does High Self-Esteem Cause Better Performance, Interpersonal Success, Happiness, or Healthier Lifestyles? |journal=Psychological Science in the Public Interest |language=en |volume=4 |issue=1 |pages=1–44 |doi=10.1111/1529-1006.01431 |pmid=26151640 |issn=1529-1006|doi-access=free }}</ref>

=== Correlations ===

From the late 1970s to the early 1990s many Americans assumed as a matter of course that students' self-esteem acted as a critical factor in the grades that they earned in school, in their [[Interpersonal relationship|relationships]] with their peers, and in their later success in life. Under this assumption, some American groups created programs which aimed to increase the self-esteem of students. Until the 1990s, little peer-reviewed and controlled research took place on this topic.

Peer-reviewed research undertaken since then has not validated previous assumptions. Recent research indicates that inflating students' self-esteems in and of itself has no positive effect on grades. [[Roy Baumeister]] has shown that inflating self-esteem by itself can actually decrease grades.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Baumeister|first=Roy F.|author2=Jennifer D. Campbell, Joachim I. Krueger and Kathleen D. Vohs|title=Exploding the Self-Esteem Myth|journal=Scientific American|volume=292|issue=1|pages=84–91|date=January 2005|url=http://www.castonline.ilstu.edu/walsh/Research%20Methods/Baumeister_2005%20-%20self%20esteem.pdf|access-date=20 February 2011|bibcode=2005SciAm.292a..84B|last3=Krueger|first3=Joachim I.|last4=Vohs|first4=Kathleen D.|doi=10.1038/scientificamerican0105-84|pmid=15724341|s2cid=121786659 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150402090441/http://www.castonline.ilstu.edu/walsh/Research%20Methods/Baumeister_2005%20-%20self%20esteem.pdf|archive-date=2 April 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite web| last =Baumeister| first =Roy| title =Self-Esteem| publisher =Education.com| date =23 December 2009| url =http://www.education.com/reference/article/self-esteem2/| access-date = 8 January 2015 }}</ref> The relationship involving self-esteem and academic results does not signify that high self-esteem contributes to high academic results. It simply means that high self-esteem may be accomplished as a result of high academic performance due to the other variables of social interactions and life events affecting this performance.<ref name="BaumeisterCampbell2003"/>

Attempts by pro-esteem advocates to encourage self-pride in students solely by reason of their uniqueness as human beings will fail if feelings of well-being are not accompanied by well-doing. It is only when students engage in personally meaningful endeavors for which they can be justifiably proud that self-confidence grows, and it is this growing self-assurance that in turn triggers further achievement.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/extending-selfesteem-theory-and-research/41A62B2CCFE1C8C4F1B335DA0B950D2D|title=Extending Self-Esteem Theory and Research: Sociological and Psychological Currents|date=2001|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-63088-7|editor-last=Owens|editor-first=Timothy J.|location=Cambridge|doi=10.1017/cbo9780511527739|editor-last2=Stryker|editor-first2=Sheldon|editor-last3=Goodman|editor-first3=Norman}}</ref>

Research has found a strong correlation between high self-esteem and self-reported happiness, but it is not yet known whether this relationship is causal. This means that although people with high self-esteem tend to report greater happiness, it is not certain whether having high self-esteem directly causes increased happiness.<ref name="BaumeisterCampbell2003" /> The relationship between self-esteem and [[life satisfaction]] is stronger in individualistic cultures.<ref>{{cite journal | url=http://www.erin.utoronto.ca/~w3psyuli/PReprints/JRP_IESE_SWB.pdf | title=Predictive validity of explicit and implicit self-esteem for subjective well-being | author=Ulrich Schimmack and Ed Diener | journal=Journal of Research in Personality | year=2003 | volume=37 | issue=2 | pages=100–106 | doi=10.1016/S0092-6566(02)00532-9}}<!--page 101 mentions two studies that demonstrate this--></ref>

In addition, people with high self-esteem have been found to be more forgiving than people with low self-esteem. This is because people with high self-esteem tend to have greater self-acceptance and are more likely to view conflict in a positive light, as an opportunity for growth and improvement. In contrast, people with low self-esteem may have a harder time forgiving others, due to a sense of insecurity and self-doubt.<ref name="EatonWardstruthers2006">{{cite journal|last1=Eaton|first1=J|last2=Wardstruthers|first2=C|last3=Santelli|first3=A|title=Dispositional and state forgiveness: The role of self-esteem, need for structure, and narcissism|journal=Personality and Individual Differences|volume=41|issue=2|year=2006|pages=371–380|issn=0191-8869|doi=10.1016/j.paid.2006.02.005}}</ref>

High self-esteem does not prevent children from smoking, drinking, taking drugs, or engaging in early sex.<ref name="BaumeisterCampbell2003" />

=== Mental health ===
Self-esteem has been associated with several mental health conditions, including depression,<ref name=":10">{{Cite journal |last1=Sowislo |first1=Julia Friederike |last2=Orth |first2=Ulrich |date=2013 |title=Does low self-esteem predict depression and anxiety? A meta-analysis of longitudinal studies. |url=http://doi.apa.org/getdoi.cfm?doi=10.1037/a0028931 |journal=Psychological Bulletin |language=en |volume=139 |issue=1 |pages=213–240 |doi=10.1037/a0028931 |pmid=22730921 |issn=1939-1455|url-access=subscription }}</ref> anxiety,<ref name=":10" /> and eating disorders.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Colmsee |first1=Isabelle-Sophie O. |last2=Hank |first2=Petra |last3=Bošnjak |first3=Michael |date=2021-01-01 |title=Low Self-Esteem as a Risk Factor for Eating Disorders |url=https://econtent.hogrefe.com/doi/10.1027/2151-2604/a000433 |journal=Zeitschrift für Psychologie |volume=229 |issue=1 |pages=48–69 |doi=10.1027/2151-2604/a000433 |s2cid=234058766 |issn=2190-8370|url-access=subscription }}</ref> For example, low self-esteem may increase the likelihood that people who experience dysfunctional thoughts will develop symptoms of depression.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Simpson |first1=J. |last2=Hillman |first2=R. |last3=Crawford |first3=T. |last4=Overton |first4=P. G. |date=2010-12-01 |title=Self-esteem and self-disgust both mediate the relationship between dysfunctional cognitions and depressive symptoms |journal=Motivation and Emotion |language=en |volume=34 |issue=4 |pages=399–406 |doi=10.1007/s11031-010-9189-2 |s2cid=145371730 |issn=1573-6644}}</ref> 
Consequently, cognitive treatment of depression helps with low self-esteem, and vice versa, addressing low self-esteem improves depressive symptoms.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://personalpsychology.com.au/blog/low-self-esteem#self-esteem-confidence-and-depression |title=What Causes Low Self-Esteem?|date=9 October 2023 }}</ref> In contrast, high self-esteem may protect against the development of mental health conditions, with research finding that high self-esteem reduces the chances of bulimia<ref name="BaumeisterCampbell2003" /> and anxiety.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Greenberg |first1=Jeff |last2=Solomon |first2=Sheldon |last3=Pyszczynski |first3=Tom |last4=Rosenblatt |first4=Abram |last5=Burling |first5=John |last6=Lyon |first6=Deborah |last7=Simon |first7=Linda |last8=Pinel |first8=Elizabeth |date=1992 |title=Why do people need self-esteem? Converging evidence that self-esteem serves an anxiety-buffering function. |url=http://doi.apa.org/getdoi.cfm?doi=10.1037/0022-3514.63.6.913 |journal=Journal of Personality and Social Psychology |language=en |volume=63 |issue=6 |pages=913–922 |doi=10.1037/0022-3514.63.6.913 |pmid=1460559 |issn=1939-1315|url-access=subscription }}</ref>

== Neuroscience ==
In research conducted in 2014 by Robert S. Chavez and Todd F. Heatherton, it was found that self-esteem is related to the connectivity of the [[frontostriatal circuit]]. The frontostriatal pathway connects the [[medial prefrontal cortex]], which deals with [[Self-knowledge (psychology)|self-knowledge]], to the [[ventral striatum]], which deals with feelings of [[motivation]] and [[Reward system|reward]]. Stronger anatomical pathways are correlated with higher long-term self-esteem, while stronger functional connectivity is correlated with higher short-term self-esteem.<ref name="Neuroscience">{{cite journal | title=Multimodal frontostriatal connectivity underlies individual differences in self-esteem | journal=[[Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience]] | volume=10 | issue=3 | pages=364–370 | publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] | date=1 May 2014 |last1=Chavez | first1=Robert S. | last2=Heatherton | first2=Todd F. | doi=10.1093/scan/nsu063 | doi-access=free | pmid=24795440 | pmc=4350482}}</ref>

== Criticism and controversy ==

[[Albert Ellis]], an influential American psychologist, argued that the concept of self-esteem is actually harmful and unhelpful.<ref name="Ellis, A. 2001">Ellis, A. (2001). ''Feeling better, getting better, staying better''. Impact Publishers {{ISBN?}} {{page needed|date=December 2022}}</ref> Although acknowledging the human propensity and tendency to ego rating as innate, he has critiqued the philosophy of self-esteem as unrealistic, illogical and self- and socially destructive – often doing more harm than good. Questioning the foundations and usefulness of generalized ego strength, he has claimed that self-esteem is based on arbitrary definitional [[premise]]s, and overgeneralized, perfectionistic and [[Grandiose delusions|grandiose thinking]].<ref name="Ellis, A. 2001" /> Acknowledging that rating and valuing behaviors and characteristics is functional and even necessary, he sees rating and valuing human beings' totality and total selves as irrational and unethical. The healthier alternative to self-esteem according to him is unconditional [[self-acceptance]] and unconditional other-[[acceptance]].<ref>{{cite book |last=Ellis |first=A. |title=The Myth of Self-esteem |location=Amherst, NY |publisher=Prometheus Books |year=2005 |isbn=978-1-59102-354-8 }}{{page needed|date=December 2022}}</ref> ''[[Rational Emotive Behavior Therapy]]'' is a psychotherapy based on this approach.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pPeFALg673MC|title=The Practice of Rational Emotive Behavior Therapy: Second Edition|first1=Albert |last1=Ellis|first2=Windy |last2=Dryden|year=2007|publisher=Springer Publishing Company|access-date=11 December 2017|via=Google Books|isbn=978-0-8261-2217-9}}</ref>

: "There seem to be only two clearly demonstrated benefits of high self-esteem....First, it increases initiative, probably because it lends confidence. People with high self-esteem are more willing to act on their beliefs, to stand up for what they believe in, to approach others, to risk new undertakings. (This unfortunately includes being extra willing to do stupid or destructive things, even when everyone else advises against them.)...It can also lead people to ignore sensible advice as they stubbornly keep wasting time and money on hopeless causes"<ref>{{cite book |last1=Baumeister |last2=Tierney |year=2011 |title=Willpower: The Greatest's Human Strength |page=192 }}{{ISBN?}}</ref>

=== False attempts ===
For persons with low self-esteem, any positive stimulus will temporarily raise self-esteem. Therefore, possessions, sex, success, or physical appearance will produce the development of self-esteem, but the development is ephemeral at best.<ref>Nathaniel Branden, ''The Six Pillars of Self-esteem'' (Bantam, 1995), 52.{{ISBN?}} Also see Nathaniel Branden, ''How to Raise Your Self-Esteem: The Proven Action-Oriented Approach to Greater Self-Respect and Self-Confidence'' (Random House, 1988), 9. {{ISBN?}}Spanish edition: ''Cómo mejorar su autoestima'' (Paidos, 2009).{{ISBN?}}</ref> Such attempts to raise one's self-esteem by positive stimulus produce a "boom or bust" pattern. "Compliments and positive feedback" produce a boost, but a bust follows a lack of such feedback. For a person whose "self-esteem is contingent", success is "not extra sweet", but "failure is extra bitter".<ref name="psychologytoday.com" />

=== As narcissism ===

Life satisfaction, happiness, healthy behavioral practices, perceived efficacy, and academic success and adjustment have been associated with having high levels of self-esteem<ref>{{cite book|last=Harter|first=S.|editor=Eisenberg, N.|title=Contemporary topics in developmental psychology|year=1987|publisher=John Wiley|location=New York|pages=219–242|chapter=The determinants and mediational role of global self-worth in children}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last=Huebner|first=E. S.|year=1991|title=Correlates of life satisfaction in children|journal= School Psychology Quarterly|volume=6|issue=2|pages=102–111|doi=10.1037/h0088805}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last1=Lipschitz-Elhawi|first1=Racheli|last2=Itzhaky|first2=Haya|year=2005|title=Social support, mastery, self-esteem and individual adjustment among at-risk youth|journal=Child & Youth Care Forum|volume=34 |issue=5|pages=329–346|doi=10.1007/s10566-005-5906-5|s2cid=144623603 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last1=Swenson|first1=Rebecca R.|last2=Prelow|first2=Hazel M.|year=2005|title=Ethnic identity, self-esteem, and perceived efficacy as mediators of the relation of supportive parenting to psychosocial outcomes among urban adolescents|journal=Journal of Adolescence|volume=28|issue=4|pages=465–477|doi=10.1016/j.adolescence.2004.09.005|pmid=16022882 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Michaels |first1=M. |last2=Barr |first2=A. |last3=Roosa |first3=M. |last4=Knight |first4=G. |year=2007 |title=Self-Esteem: Assessing Measurement Equivalence in a Multiethnic Sample of Youth |journal=Journal of Early Adolescence |volume=27 |issue=3 |pages=269–95 |doi=10.1177/0272431607302009 |s2cid=146806309 }}</ref>{{rp|270}}{{excessive citations inline|date=February 2024}} However, a common mistake is to think that [[self-love|loving oneself]] is necessarily equivalent to narcissism, as opposed for example to what [[Erik Erikson]] speaks of as "a post-narcissistic love of the ego".<ref>{{cite book |first=Erik H. |last=Erikson |title=Childhood and Society |location=Harmondsworth |publisher=Penguin |year=1973 |page=260 |isbn=978-0-14-020754-5 |title-link=Childhood and Society }}</ref> People with healthy self-esteem accept and love themselves unconditionally, acknowledging both virtues and faults in the self, and yet, in spite of everything, are able to continue to love themselves. In narcissists, by contrast, an "uncertainty about their own worth gives rise to...a self-protective, but often totally spurious, aura of [[grandiosity]]"<ref>{{cite book |first=Simon |last=Crompton |title=All about Me |location=London |publisher=Collins |year=2007 |page=16 |isbn=978-0-00-724795-0 }}</ref>&nbsp;– producing the class "of narcissists, or people with very high, but insecure, self-esteem... fluctuating with each new episode of social praise or rejection."<ref name="SmithMackie" />{{rp|479}} For narcissists, regulating their self-esteem is their constant concern. They use defenses (such as denial, projection, self-inflation, envy, arrogance, and aggression), impression management through self-promotion, embellishment, lying, charm, and domination, and prefer high-status, competitive, and hierarchical environments to support their unstable, fragile, and impaired self-esteem.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Lancer |first1=Darlene|title=Dating, Loving, and Leaving a Narcissist: Essential Tools for Improving or Leaving Narcissistic and Abusive Relationships|date=April 6, 2022 |location=Santa Monica, CA |publisher=Carousel Books |pages=19, 34–38 |isbn=978-0-578-37318-8}}</ref>

Narcissism can thus be seen as a symptom of fundamentally low self-esteem, that is, lack of love towards oneself, but often accompanied by "an immense increase in self-esteem" based on "the [[defense mechanism]] of denial by overcompensation."<ref>{{cite book |first=Otto |last=Fenichel | author-link = Otto Fenichel | title=The Psychoanalytic Theory of Neurosis |location=London |year=1946 |pages=407–410 | publisher = Kegan Paul, Trench, Trubner & Co Ltd | url = https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.61482/page/n5/mode/2up?view=theater }}</ref>
"Idealized love of self...rejected the part of him" that he denigrates&nbsp;– "this destructive little child"<ref>{{cite book |first=Neville |last=Symington |title=Narcissism: A New Theory |location=London |publisher=Karmac |year=2003 |page=114 |isbn=978-1-85575-047-0 }}</ref> within. Instead, the narcissist emphasizes their virtues in the presence of others, just to try to convince themself that they are a valuable person and to try to stop feeling ashamed for their faults;<ref name="Bonet" />  such "people with unrealistically inflated self-views, which may be especially unstable and highly vulnerable to negative information,...tend to have poor social skills."<ref name="SmithMackie" />{{rp|126}}

== See also ==
{{Wikiquote}}
{{Columns-list|colwidth=18em|
* [[Assertiveness]]
* [[Body image]]
* [[Clinical depression]]
* [[Dunning–Kruger effect]]
* [[Emotional competence]]
* [[Fear of negative evaluation]]
* [[Gumption trap]]
* [[Health-related embarrassment]]
* [[Hubris]]
* [[Inner critic]]
* [[Invisible support]]
* [[Law of Jante]]
* [[Optimism bias]]
* [[Outline of self]]
* [[Overconfidence effect]]
* [[Passivity (behavior)|Passiveness]]
* [[Self-affirmation]]
* [[Self-enhancement]]
* [[Self-esteem functions]]
* [[Self-esteem instability]]
* [[Shyness]]
* [[Social phobia]]
}}

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==Further reading==
* Baumeister, Roy F. (April 2001). "[http://www.scientificamerican.com/article.cfm?id=violent-pride Violent Pride: Do people turn violent because of self-hate or self-love?]", in ''Scientific American'', ''284'', No. 4, pp.&nbsp;96–101
* Branden, N. (1969). ''[[The Psychology of Self-Esteem]]''. New York: Bantam.
* Branden, N. (2001). ''The psychology of self-esteem: a revolutionary approach to self-understanding that launched a new era in modern psychology''. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. {{ISBN|0787945269}}
* Burke, C. (2008) "[http://www.cormacburke.or.ke/node/370 Self-esteem: Why?; Why not?]", New York{{ISBN?}}
* {{cite journal |author1=Crocker J. |author2=Park L. E. | year = 2004 | title = The costly pursuit of self-esteem | journal = Psychological Bulletin | volume = 130 | issue = 3| pages = 392–414 | doi=10.1037/0033-2909.130.3.392 | pmid=15122925}}
* Franklin, Richard L. (1994). "Overcoming The Myth of Self-Worth: Reason and Fallacy in What You Say to Yourself." {{ISBN|0963938703}}
* Hill, S.E. & [[David Buss|Buss, D.M.]] (2006). "The Evolution of Self-Esteem." In Michael Kernis, (Ed.), ''Self Esteem: Issues and Answers: A Sourcebook of Current Perspectives.''. Psychology Press: New York. 328–333. [http://homepage.psy.utexas.edu/homepage/Group/BussLAB/pdffiles/SEMSAugust4.pdf Full text] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150823193547/http://homepage.psy.utexas.edu/homepage/Group/BussLAB/pdffiles/SEMSAugust4.pdf |date=2015-08-23 }}
* Lerner, Barbara (1985). "Self-Esteem and Excellence: The Choice and the Paradox", ''American Educator'', Winter 1985.
* Mecca, Andrew M., et al., (1989). ''The Social Importance of Self-esteem'' University of California Press, 1989. (''ed''; other editors included [[Neil J. Smelser]] and [[John Vasconcellos]])
* Mruk, C. (2006). ''Self-Esteem research, theory, and practice: Toward a positive psychology of self-esteem'' (3rd ed.). New York: Springer.{{ISBN?}}
* {{cite journal |author1=Rodewalt F. |author2=Tragakis M. W. | year = 2003 | title = Self-esteem and self-regulation: Toward optimal studies of self-esteem | journal = Psychological Inquiry | volume = 14 | issue = 1| pages = 66–70 | doi=10.1207/s15327965pli1401_02}}
* Ruggiero, Vincent R. (2000). "Bad Attitude: Confronting the Views That Hinder Student's Learning" ''American Educator''.
* Sedikides, C., & Gregg. A. P. (2003). "Portraits of the self." In M. A. Hogg & J. Cooper (Eds.), ''Sage handbook of social psychology'' (pp.&nbsp;110–138). London: Sage Publications.{{ISBN?}}
* Twenge, Jean M. (2007). ''Generation Me: Why Today's Young Americans Are More Confident, Assertive, Entitled – and More Miserable Than Ever Before''. Free Press. {{ISBN|978-0743276986}}

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{{Bullying}}
{{Narcissism}}
{{Virtues}}

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Self-Esteem}}
[[Category:Positive mental attitude]]
[[Category:Psychological attitude]]
[[Category:Conceptions of self]]
[[Category:Psychological concepts]]
[[Category:Happiness]]
[[Category:Narcissism]]