View source for Sesame

{{Short description |Plant cultivated for its edible seeds}}
{{good article}}
{{Hatnote |"Black sesame" redirects here. For another "black sesame" crop plant of western and central Africa see [[Sesamum radiatum]].}}
{{other uses}}
{{Speciesbox
 |name     = Sesame
 |image     = Sesamum indicum - Köhler–s Medizinal-Pflanzen-129.jpg
 |image_caption = Sesame plant
 |genus     = Sesamum
 |species    = indicum
 |authority   = [[Carl Linnaeus |L.]]
 |synonyms   =
  {{Plainlist |style=margin-left: 1em; text-indent: -1em; |
* ''Dysosmon amoenum'' <small>Raf.</small>
* ''Sesamum africanum'' <small>Tod.</small>
* ''Sesamum occidentalis'' <small>Heer & Regel</small>
* ''Sesamum oleiferum'' <small>Sm.</small>
* ''Sesamum orientale'' <small>L.</small>
* ''Volkameria orientalis'' <small>(L.) Kuntze</small>
  }}
 |synonyms_ref = <ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.theplantlist.org/tpl1.1/record/kew-2588550 |title=The Plant List: A Working List of All Plant Species |access-date=14 January 2015}}</ref>
}}
'''Sesame''' ({{IPAc-en |ˈ |s |ɛ |s |ə |m |i}};<ref>{{cite EPD |18}}</ref><ref>{{cite LPD |3}}</ref> ''Sesamum indicum'') is a plant in the genus ''[[Sesamum]]'', also called '''benne'''.<ref name=mw>{{cite dictionary |entry=Benne |url=https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/benne |access-date=2023-02-08 |dictionary=Merriam-Webster |title=Definition of BENNE }}</ref> Numerous wild relatives occur in Africa and a smaller number in India.<!--<ref name="Bedigian-2015"/>--> It is widely [[naturalization (biology) |naturalized]] in tropical regions around the world and is cultivated for its edible seeds, which grow in pods. World production in 2018 was {{convert|6|e6t|e6lt|abbr=off}}, with [[Sudan]], [[Myanmar]], and [[India]] as the largest producers.<!--<ref name=faostat/>-->

Sesame seed is one of the oldest [[oilseed]] crops known, domesticated well over 3,000 years ago. ''Sesamum'' has many other species, most being wild and native to [[sub-Saharan Africa]].<!--<ref name="Bedigian-2015"/>--> ''S. indicum,'' the cultivated type, originated in India.<!--<ref name="Y. P. S. Bajaj"/><ref name="Bedigian-2015"/>--> It tolerates drought conditions well, growing where other crops fail.<!--<ref name=rram/><ref name=drl2/>--> Sesame has one of the highest oil contents of any seed. With a rich, nutty flavor, it is a common ingredient in cuisines around the world.<!--<ref name=rhan/><name="Oplinger Putnam 1990"/>--> Like other foods, it can trigger [[allergy |allergic]] reactions in some people and is one of the nine most common [[allergen]]s outlined by the [[Food and Drug Administration]].<!--<ref name=adatia/><ref name="SesameLaw2021"/>-->

== Etymology ==

The word "sesame" is from [[Latin]] ''sesamum'' and [[Greek language |Greek]] σήσαμον: ''sēsamon''; which in turn are derived from ancient [[Semitic languages]] such as [[Akkadian language|Akkadian]] ''šamaššamu''.<ref>{{cite dictionary |entry=Teel, Sesame |date=15 October 2023 |dictionary=Merriam-Webster |url=http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/sesame |title=Definition of SESAME }}</ref> From these roots, words with the generalized meaning "oil, liquid fat" were derived.<ref name="Bedigian-2010">{{cite book |title=Sesame: The genus ''Sesamum'' |editor-last=Bedigian |editor-first=Dorothea |year=2010 |page=400 |isbn=978-1-4200-0520-2 |publisher=CRC Press |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=o9PLBQAAQBAJ&q=sesame+from+arabic+semsem&pg=PA400}}</ref>

The word "benne" was first recorded in [[English language |English]] in 1769; it comes from the African American creole [[Gullah language|Gullah]] ''benne'', which in turn derives from [[Maninka language |Malinke]] ''bĕne''.<ref>{{cite web |last=Bryan |first=Sarah |title=Benne for Good Luck |url=https://www.ncfolk.org/2016/benne-for-good-luck/ |access-date=2021-07-26 |website=North Carolina Folklife Institute |date=2015}}</ref><ref name=mw/>

== Origins and history ==

[[File:Leiden University Library - Seikei Zusetsu vol. 20, page 006 - 胡麻 - Sesamum indicum L., 1804.jpg|thumb |left |upright |From the ''[[Seikei Zusetsu]]'' agriculture encyclopedia, 1804]]

Sesame seed is considered to be the oldest [[oilseed]] crop known to humanity.<ref name="Ram Catlin Romero 1990">{{cite book |last1=Ram |first1=Raghav |first2=David |last2=Catlin |first3=Juan |last3=Romero |first4=Craig |last4=Cowley |chapter=Sesame: New Approaches for Crop Improvement |pages=225–228 |editor1=Janick, J. |editor2=Simon, J.E. |title=Advances in new crops |location=Oregon |publisher=Timber Press |year=1990 |url=http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/proceedings1990/v1-225.html}}</ref> The genus has many species, and most are wild and native to sub-Saharan Africa.<ref name="Bedigian-2015">{{cite journal |last=Bedigian |first=Dorothea |title=Systematics and evolution in ''Sesamum'' L. (Pedaliaceae), part 1: Evidence regarding the origin of sesame and its closest relatives |journal=[[Webbia (journal) |Webbia]] |publisher=[[University of Florence]] |volume=70 |issue=1 |date=2015-01-02 |doi=10.1080/00837792.2014.968457 |pages=1–42 |bibcode=2015Webbi..70....1B |s2cid=85002894|doi-access=free }}</ref> ''Sesamum indicum'', the cultivated type,<ref name="Y. P. S. Bajaj">{{cite book |first1=T. |last1=Ogasawara |first2=K. |last2=Chiba |first3=M. |last3=Tada |chapter=''Sesamum indicum'' L. (Sesame): In Vitro Culture, and the Production of Naphthoquinone and Other Secondary Metabolites |title=Medicinal and Aromatic Plants X |editor=Y. P. S. Bajaj |publisher=Springer |date=1988 |isbn=978-3-540-62727-2}}</ref><ref>''Proceedings of the Harlan Symposium'' 1997- [http://www2.bioversityinternational.org/publications/Web_version/47/begin.htm The Origins of Agriculture and Crop Domestication] {{Webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120527094040/http://www2.bioversityinternational.org/publications/Web_version/47/begin.htm |date=2012-05-27 }} Retrieved 2012-06-17</ref> originated in India.<ref name="Bedigian-2010" /><ref>{{Cite book |last1=Zohary |first1=Daniel |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=C1H6_XWJS_gC&q=wild%2520sesame%2520native&pg=PA140 |title=Domestication of Plants in the Old World: The Origin and Spread of Cultivated Plants in West Asia, Europe, and the Nile Valley |last2=Hopf |first2=Maria |date=2000 |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |isbn=978-0-19-850357-6 |page=140}}</ref><ref name="Bedigian-2015" />

Archaeological remnants of charred sesame dating to about 3500–3050 BC shows that sesame was domesticated in the [[Indian subcontinent]] at least 5500 years ago.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Bedigian |first1=Dorothea |last2=Harlan |first2=Jack R. |date=1986 |title=Evidence for Cultivation of Sesame in the Ancient World |journal=Economic Botany |volume=40 |issue=2 |pages=137–154 |doi=10.1007/BF02859136 |jstor=4254846 |bibcode=1986EcBot..40..137B |s2cid=24408335}}</ref><ref name="Oplinger Putnam 1990">{{cite book |chapter=Sesame |title=Alternative Field Crops Manual |last1=Oplinger |first1=E.S. |last2=Putnam |first2=D.H. |last3=Kaminski |first3=A.R. |author4=C.V. Hanson |author5=E.A. Oelke |author6=E.E. Schulte |author7=J.D. Doll |display-authors=3 |publisher=[[Purdue University]] |date=May 1990 |url=http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/afcm/sesame.html}}</ref> The [[archaeobotanist]] Dorian Q. Fuller <!--of University College London--> states that trading of sesame between Mesopotamia and the Indian subcontinent occurred by 2000 BC.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Fuller |first=Dorian Q. |journal=Asian Agri-History |volume=7 |number=2 |date=2003 |pages=127–137 |title=Further Evidence on the Prehistory of Sesame |url=http://www.homepages.ucl.ac.uk/~tcrndfu/articles/Sesame2.pdf}}</ref> It is possible that the [[Indus Valley civilization]] exported [[sesame oil]] to [[Mesopotamia]], where it was known as ''ilu'' in [[Sumerian language |Sumerian]] and ''ellu'' in [[Akkadian language |Akkadian]], similar to the Dravidian languages [[Kannada]] and [[Malayalam]] ''eḷḷu'', Tamil ''eḷ''.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Martha |first=T. Roth |title=The Assyrian Dictionary of the Oriental Institute of the University of Chicago (CAD) Volume 4, E |year=1958 |isbn=978-0-91-898610-8 |location=Chicago |page=106}}</ref>

Sesame was cultivated in ancient Egypt.<ref>{{cite book |last=David |first=Ann Rosalie |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RulD63Y3BlAC |title=Handbook to Life in Ancient Egypt |date=1999 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-513215-1 |page=168}}</ref> Egyptians called it ''sesemt'', and it is included in the list of medicinal drugs in the scrolls of the {{circa}} 1550 BC ''[[Ebers Papyrus]]''. Excavations of King Tutankhamen uncovered baskets of sesame among other grave goods, suggesting that sesame was present in Egypt by 1350 BC.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book |last1=Voeks |first1=Robert |title=African Ethnobotany in the Americas |last2=Rashford |first2=John |year=2013 |location=Springer, New York |pages=67–123}}</ref> Sesame was grown and pressed to extract oil at least 750 BC in the empire of [[Urartu]].<ref name="Oplinger Putnam 1990"/> Others believe it may have originated in [[Ethiopia]].<ref>{{cite book |last=Peter |first=K.V. |title=Handbook of herbs and spices Volume 2 |date=2012 |page=449}}</ref>

Historically, sesame was favored for its ability to grow in areas that do not support the growth of other crops. It is a robust crop that needs little farming support—it grows in drought conditions, in high heat, with residual moisture in soil after monsoons are gone or even when rains fail or when rains are excessive. It can be grown by subsistence farmers at the edge of deserts, earning it the name of survivor crop from the sesame breeder Derald Ray Langham.<ref name="drl2">{{cite web |title=Phenology of Sesame |first=Derald Ray |last=Langham |publisher=American Sesame Growers Association |url=http://www.sesamegrowers.org/langham144-182.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110628021818/http://www.sesamegrowers.org/langham144-182.pdf |archive-date=2011-06-28}}</ref>

== Botany ==

Sesame is a perennial plant growing {{convert|50|to|100|cm|ftin|abbr=on}} tall, with opposite leaves {{convert|4|to|14|cm |in|abbr=on|0}} long with an entire margin; they are broad [[lanceolate]], to {{convert |5 |cm |in |abbr=on}} broad, at the base of the plant, narrowing to just {{convert|1|cm|in|abbr=on}} broad on the flowering stem. The flowers are tubular, {{convert|2.5|to|3|cm|in|abbr=on}} long.<ref name="Wei Zhao Wang 2022"/> The flowers vary in colour, from white to pink or purple.<ref>{{cite web |title=Sesame |url=https://www.flower-db.com/en/flowers/sesamum-indicum |website=Flower Database |access-date=20 December 2024}}</ref>

The fruit is a [[capsule (fruit)|capsule]], normally pubescent. The length of the fruit capsule varies from {{convert|2 to 3|cm|in|abbr=on}}, its width varies between {{convert|0.6 and 1.2|cm|in|abbr=on}}; there are four locules. The seeds are either white or black.<ref name="Wei Zhao Wang 2022">{{cite journal |last1=Wei |first1=Panpan |last2=Zhao |first2=Fenglan |last3=Wang |first3=Zhen |last4=Wang |first4=Qibao |last5=Chai |first5=Xiaoyun |last6=Hou |first6=Guige |last7=Meng |first7=Qingguo |display-authors=5 |title=Sesame (Sesamum indicum L.): A Comprehensive Review of Nutritional Value, Phytochemical Composition, Health Benefits, Development of Food, and Industrial Applications |journal=Nutrients |volume=14 |issue=19 |date=2022-09-30 |pmid=36235731 |pmc=9573514 |doi=10.3390/nu14194079 |doi-access=free |page=4079}}</ref>

Sesame seeds are small. Their sizes vary widely by cultivar. Typically, the seeds are 3 to 4×2×1 mm (0.12 to 0.16×0.08×0.04 in). The seeds are ovate, slightly flattened, and somewhat thinner at the eye of the seed (hilum) than at the opposite end. The mass of 100 seeds sampled from a market in [[Ibadan]], Nigeria is 0.203 g, meaning that one gram of sesame consists of around 493 seeds.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Tunde-Akintunde |first1=T. Y. |last2=Akintunde |first2=B. O. |date=2004-05-01 |title=Some Physical Properties of Sesame Seed |url=http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1537511004000236 |journal=Biosystems Engineering |volume=88 |issue=1 |pages=127–129 |doi=10.1016/j.biosystemseng.2004.01.009 |bibcode=2004BiSyE..88..127T|url-access=subscription }}</ref> 

Sesame was described as the [[species]] ''Sesamum indicum'' by [[Carl Linnaeus]] in 1753.<ref>{{cite web |title=Sesamum indicum L. |url=https://www.gbif.org/species/3172622 |publisher=Global Biodiversity Information Facility |access-date=3 January 2025}}</ref>

<gallery class=center mode=nolines widths=180 heights=180>
File:Sesamum indicum 2.jpg |Plant

File:Sasame Plant, Behbahan.jpg |Flowers and seed capsules on plant
File:Sesame in Hainan - 05.JPG |Seed capsule
File:Sa white sesame seeds.jpg |Magnified image of white sesame seeds
</gallery>

== Agriculture ==

=== Cultivation ===

Sesame varieties have adapted to many soil types. The high-yielding crops do best on fertile, well-drained, soils with a neutral pH. However, these have a low tolerance for soils with high salt and water-logged conditions. Commercial sesame crops require 90 to 120 frost-free days. Warm conditions above {{convert |23 |°C |°F}} favor growth and yields. While sesame crops can grow in poor soils, the best yields come from properly fertilized farms.<ref name="Oplinger Putnam 1990"/><ref name=Jefferson>{{cite web |title=Sesame: high value oilseed |publisher=Thomas Jefferson Agriculture Institute |year=2002 |url=http://www.extension.iastate.edu/alternativeag/cropproduction/pdf/sesame_crop_guide.pdf |access-date=2015-01-24 |archive-date=2023-03-12 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230312094714/https://www.extension.iastate.edu/alternativeag/cropproduction/pdf/sesame_crop_guide.pdf |url-status=dead}}</ref>

Flowering depends on photoperiod and cultivar. The photoperiod also affects the seed's oil content: increased photoperiod increases oil content. The oil content of the seed is inversely proportional to its protein content.<ref name="Oplinger Putnam 1990"/> Sesame is drought-tolerant, in part due to its extensive root system. However, it requires adequate moisture for germination and early growth. While the crop survives drought and the presence of excess water, the yields are significantly lower in either condition. Moisture levels before planting and flowering affect yield the most.<ref name="Oplinger Putnam 1990" /> Most commercial cultivars of sesame are intolerant of waterlogging. Rainfall late in the season prolongs growth and increases loss to dehiscence, when the seedpod shatters, scattering the seed. Wind can also cause shattering at harvest.<ref name="Oplinger Putnam 1990"/>

=== Processing ===

Sesame seeds are protected by a capsule that bursts when the seeds are ripe. The time of this bursting, or "dehiscence", tends to vary, so farmers cut plants by hand and place them together in an upright position to continue ripening until all the capsules have opened. The 1943 discovery of an [[indehiscent]] mutant (analogous to [[Shattering (agriculture) |nonshattering]] in cereals) led breeders to try to create a high-yield variety that does not drop its seeds. Despite some progress, dehiscence continues to limit production.<ref name="Oplinger Putnam 1990"/> Agronomists in [[Israel]] are working on modern cultivars of sesame that can be harvested by mechanical means.<ref>{{Cite news |title=A Global Sesame Shortage Puts Tahini in Peril. Can Israel Save It? |first=Ronit |last=Vered |date= 22 July 2022 |work=Haaretz |url=https://www.haaretz.com/israel-news/2022-07-22/ty-article-magazine/.highlight/a-global-sesame-shortage-puts-tahini-in-peril-can-israel-save-it/00000182-2620-dfa9-a5c7-26ec51ab0000 |access-date=2023-02-08}}</ref>

Since sesame seed is small and flat, it is hard to dry after harvest because the seeds pack closely together, impeding the flow of air in a drying bin. Therefore, the harvested seeds need to be as dry as possible, and then stored at 6% moisture or less. Moist seed stores can rapidly heat up and become rancid.<ref name="rhan">{{cite web |title=Sesame profile |first1=Ray |last1=Hansen |date=August 2011 |publisher=Agricultural Marketing Resource Center |url=http://www.agmrc.org/commodities-products/grains-oilseeds/sesame-profile/ |first2=Diane |last2=Huntrods |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160121203250/http://www.agmrc.org/commodities-products/grains-oilseeds/sesame-profile/ |archive-date=2016-01-21}}</ref>

=== Production ===
{{owidslider
|start        = 2023
|list         = Template:OWID/sesame seed production#gallery
|location      = commons
|caption      =
|title        =
|language     =
|file         = [[File:sesame seed production, World, 2023 (cropped).svg|link=|thumb|upright=1.6|Sesame seed production]]
|startingView = World
}}

{{Table alignment}}
{| class="wikitable floatright col2right"
! colspan=2 |Sesame seed production<br/><small>2022, in tonnes</small>
|-
| {{SUD}} ||1,231,701
|-
| {{IND}} ||788,740
|-
| {{MYA}} ||760,926
|-
| {{TZA}} ||700,000
|-
| {{NGA}} ||450,000
|-
| {{BUR}} ||208,795
|-
| {{NIG}} ||104,088
|-
| '''World''' ||'''6,741,479'''
|-
|colspan=2 |<small>Source: [[FAOSTAT]]<br> of the [[United Nations]]<ref name="faostat">{{cite web |url=http://www.fao.org/faostat/en/#data/QC |title=Sesame seed production in 2022, Crops/World Regions/Production Quantity from pick lists |date=2024 |publisher=UN [[Food and Agriculture Organization Corporate Statistical Database]] (FAOSTAT) |access-date=12 September 2024}}</ref></small>
|}

In 2022, world production of sesame seeds was 6.7 million [[tonne]]s, led by [[Sudan]], India, and [[Myanmar]], which together accounted for 41% of the total (table).<ref name=faostat/>

The white and other lighter-colored sesame seeds are common in Europe, the Americas, West Asia, and the Indian subcontinent. The black and darker-colored sesame seeds are mostly produced in China and [[Southeast Asia]].<ref name="feedipedia">{{Cite web |title=Sesame (''Sesamum indicum'') seeds and oil meal |url=https://www.feedipedia.org/node/26 |access-date=2023-02-08 |website=www.feedipedia.org}}</ref>

In the United States most sesame is raised by farmers under contract to Sesaco, which also supplies proprietary seed.<ref>{{cite web |last=Latzke |first=Jennifer M. |title=Tiny sesame seed offers big returns for Southern Plains growers |url=https://www.hpj.com/crops/tiny-sesame-seed-offers-big-returns-for-southern-plains-growers/article_bf192233-34e2-539d-b316-b817e1b473fa.html  |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180910195546/https://www.hpj.com/crops/tiny-sesame-seed-offers-big-returns-for-southern-plains-growers/article_bf192233-34e2-539d-b316-b817e1b473fa.html |archive-date=10 September 2018 |publisher=[[High Plains Journal]] |access-date=15 March 2021}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Sesame Profile |url=https://www.agmrc.org/commodities-products/grains-oilseeds/sesame-profile |publisher=Agriculture Marketing Research Center |access-date=15 March 2021}}</ref>

=== Trade ===

Japan is the world's largest sesame importer. Sesame oil, particularly from roasted seed, is an important component of [[Japanese cuisine |Japanese cooking]] and traditionally the principal use of the seed. China is the second-largest importer of sesame, mostly oil-grade. China exports lower-priced food-grade sesame seeds, particularly to [[Southeast Asia]]. Other major importers are the United States, Canada, the Netherlands, Turkey, and France.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Japan Sesame Oil Market |url=https://www.industryarc.com/Research/japan-sesame-oil-market-report-700629 |access-date=2024-05-08 |website=IndustryARC}}</ref>

Sesame seed is a high-value [[cash crop]]. Prices ranged between US${{convert |800 and 1700 |/t}} between 2008 and 2010.<ref>{{cite web |title=Oil seed prices and futures |publisher=Commodity Prices |date=July 2010 |url=http://www.agricommodityprices.com/futures_prices.php?id=144 |access-date=2012-03-19 |archive-date=2020-08-07 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200807025551/http://www.agricommodityprices.com/futures_prices.php?id=144 |url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Sesame |first=Mal |last=Bennett |publisher=Ag Market Research Center |url=http://www.agmrc.org/media/cms/sesame_38F4324EE52CB.pdf}}</ref> Prices depend on perceived quality, based on factors such as the seed's appearance, freedom from impurities, oil content of at least 40%, and sorting by size and colour.<ref name=rhan />

== Nutrition ==

=== Composition ===

{{Nutritional value
 | name      = Whole sesame seeds, dried
 | caption     = Whole, dried sesame seeds
 | serving_size  = 100 grams
 | kJ       = 2400
 | carbs      = 23.4
 | fat       = 49.7
 | protein     = 17.7
 | sugars     = 0.3
 | satfat     = 7.0
 | monofat     = 18.8
 | polyfat     = 21.8
 | fiber      = 11.8
 | water      = 4.7 g
 | calcium_mg   = 975
 | iron_mg     = 14.6
 | phosphorus_mg  = 629
 | magnesium_mg  = 351
 | sodium_mg    = 11
 | potassium_mg  = 468
 | zinc_mg     = 7.8
 | vitA_iu     = 9
 | thiamin_mg   = 0.79
 | riboflavin_mg  = 0.25
 | niacin_mg    = 4.52
 | vitB6_mg    = 0.79
 | folate_ug    = 97
 | vitC_mg     = 0
 | vitE_mg     = 0.25
 | note      = [https://fdc.nal.usda.gov/food-details/170150/nutrients Link to USDA FoodData Central entry]
}}

Dried whole sesame seeds are 5% water, 23% [[carbohydrate]]s, 50% [[fat]], and 18% [[Protein (nutrient) |protein]] (table). In a reference amount of {{cvt|100|g}}, dried sesame seeds supply 570 [[calorie]]s of [[food energy]], and are a rich source (20% or more of the [[Daily Value]], DV) of several [[B vitamins]] and [[mineral (nutrient)|dietary minerals]], such as [[calcium in biology|calcium]], [[iron in biology|iron]], and [[magnesium in biology|magnesium]] (all 75% or more of the DV, table).

The byproduct that remains after oil extraction from sesame seeds, also called sesame oil meal, is rich in protein (35–50%) and is used as feed for [[poultry]] and [[livestock]].<ref name="Oplinger Putnam 1990"/><ref name=rhan/><ref name="feedipedia"/>

As many seeds do, whole sesame seeds contain a significant amount of [[phytic acid]], which is considered an [[antinutrient]] in that it binds to certain nutritional elements consumed at the same time, especially minerals, and prevents their absorption by carrying them along as they pass through the small intestine. Heating and cooking reduce the amount of the acid in the seeds.<ref>{{cite journal |pmc=2266880 |year=2008 |last1=Bohn |first1=L. |last2=Meyer |first2=A. S. |last3=Rasmussen |first3=S. K. |title=Phytate: Impact on environment and human nutrition. A challenge for molecular breeding |journal=Journal of Zhejiang University. Science. B |volume=9 |issue=3 |pages=165–191 |doi=10.1631/jzus.B0710640 |pmid=18357620 }}</ref> The seeds contain the [[lignan]]s [[sesamolin]], [[sesamin]], [[pinoresinol]], and [[lariciresinol]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Milder |first1=Ivon E. J. |last2=Arts |first2=Ilja C. W. |last3=Betty |last4=Venema |first4=Dini P. |last5=Hollman |first5=Peter C. H. |year = 2005 |title=Lignan contents of Dutch plant foods: a database including lariciresinol, pinoresinol, secoisolariciresinol and matairesinol |journal=British Journal of Nutrition |volume=93 |issue=3 |pages=393–402 |doi=10.1079/BJN20051371 |pmid=15877880 | doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |journal=Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry |year=2011 |volume=59 |issue=7 |pages=3214–3219 |doi=10.1021/jf104311g |title=Identification of methanol-soluble compounds in sesame and evaluation of antioxidant potential of its lignans |last1=Kuo |first1=Ping-Chung |last2=Lin |first2=Mei-Chi |last3=Chen |first3=Guo-Feng |last4=Yiu |first4=Tien-Joung |last5=Tzen |first5=Jason T. C. |pmid=21391595|bibcode=2011JAFC...59.3214K }}</ref>

=== Health effects ===

A [[meta-analysis]] showed that sesame consumption produced small reductions in both [[Systole |systolic]] and [[Diastole |diastolic]] [[blood pressure]];<ref name="pmid28387047">{{cite journal  | last1=Khosravi-Boroujeni | first1=Hossein | last2=Nikbakht | first2=Elham | last3=Natanelov | first3=Ernesta | last4=Khalesi | first4=Saman |title=Can sesame consumption improve blood pressure? A systematic review and meta-analysis of controlled trials |journal= [[Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture]] |volume=97 |issue=10 |pages=3087–94 |year=2017 |doi=10.1002/jsfa.8361 |pmid = 28387047 |bibcode=2017JSFA...97.3087K }}</ref> another demonstrated improvement in [[fasting blood glucose]] and [[hemoglobin A1c]].<ref>{{cite journal | last1=Sohouli | first1=Mohammad Hassan | last2=Haghshenas | first2=Niloufar | last3=Hernández-Ruiz | first3=Ángela | last4=Shidfar | first4=Farzad |title=Consumption of sesame seeds and sesame products has favorable effects on blood glucose levels but not on insulin resistance: A systematic review and meta-analysis of controlled clinical trials |journal=Phytother Res |volume=36 |issue=3 |pages=1126–1134 |date=January 2022 |pmid=35043479 |doi=10.1002/ptr.7379 |s2cid=246034854}}</ref> Sesame oil studies reported a reduction of [[oxidative stress]] markers and [[lipid peroxidation]].<ref name="pmid27074618">{{cite journal |last1=Vittori Gouveia |first1=Luciana de Almeida |last2=Cardoso |first2=Carolina Alves |last3=de Oliveira |first3=Glaucia Maria Moraes |last4=Rosa |first4=Glorimar |last5=Moreira |first5=Annie Seixas Bello |title=Effects of the Intake of Sesame Seeds (''Sesamum indicum'' L.) and Derivatives on Oxidative Stress: A Systematic Review |journal=Journal of Medicinal Food |volume=19 |issue=4 |pages=337–345 |year=2016 |doi=10.1089/jmf.2015.0075 |pmid=27074618 }}</ref>

== Possible harms ==

=== Allergy ===

{{main|Sesame allergy}}

Sesame can trigger the same [[allergic reaction]]s, including [[anaphylaxis]], as seen with other [[food allergy |food allergens]].<ref name="adatia">{{cite journal |last1=Adatia |first1=A |last2=Clarke |first2=AE |last3=Yanishevsky |first3=Y |last4=Ben-Shoshan |first4=M |title=Sesame allergy: current perspectives (Review) |journal=Journal of Asthma and Allergy |volume=10 |year=2017 |pmid=28490893 |pmc=5414576 |doi=10.2147/JAA.S113612 |pages=141–151 |doi-access=free }}</ref> A cross-reactivity exists between sesame and peanuts, hazelnuts and almonds.<ref name=adatia/><ref name="vwh">{{cite web |url=http://allergies.about.com/od/otherfoodallergies/a/sesameallergy.htm |title=Sesame seed allergy and cross-reactivity |publisher=VeryWell Health |date=4 October 2020 |access-date=7 October 2020 |archive-date=17 July 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110717105804/http://allergies.about.com/od/otherfoodallergies/a/sesameallergy.htm |url-status=dead}}</ref> In addition to food products derived from sesame seeds, such as ''[[tahini]]'' and sesame oil, persons with sesame allergies are encouraged to be aware of foods that may contain sesame, such as baked goods.<ref name=adatia/><ref name=vwh/><ref name="hc">{{cite web |title=Sesame - A priority food allergen |url=https://www.canada.ca/en/health-canada/services/food-nutrition/reports-publications/food-safety/sesame-priority-food-allergen.html |publisher=Health Canada, Government of Canada |date=2017 |access-date=7 October 2020}}</ref> In addition to food sources, individuals allergic to sesame have been warned that a variety of non-food sources may also trigger a reaction to sesame, including [[cosmetics]] and skin-care products.<ref name=hc/>

Prevalence of sesame allergy is on the order of 0.1–0.2%, but higher in countries in the Middle East and Asia where consumption is more common as part of traditional diets.<ref name=adatia/> In the United States, sesame allergy possibly affects 1.5 million individuals.<ref name="cnn">{{cite news |first=Minali |last=Nigam |title=1.5 million people in the US might have sesame allergies |work=CNN |date=5 August 2019 |url=https://www.cnn.com/2019/08/05/health/sesame-allergy-us-study/index.html?no-st=1569530150 |access-date=7 October 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |url=http://www.jacionline.org/article/S0091-6749(10)00575-0/fulltext |title=US prevalence of peanut and sesame allergy |journal =Journal of Allergy and Clinical Immunology |volume=125 |issue=6 |pages=1322–1326 |doi=10.1016/j.jaci.2010.03.029 |pmid=20462634 |date=June 2010 |last1=Sicherer |first1=Scott H. |last2=Muñoz-Furlong |first2=Anne |last3=Godbold |first3=James H. |last4=Sampson |first4=Hugh A. |doi-access=free|url-access=subscription }}</ref>

Canada requires sesame to be labelled as an allergen.<ref name=hc/> In the [[European Union]], identifying the presence of sesame, along with 13 other foods, either as an ingredient or an unintended contaminant in packaged food is compulsory.<ref>{{cite web |title=Regulation (EG) 1169/2011 (Annex II) |url=https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?uri=CELEX:32011R1169 |publisher=Eur-Lex - European Union Law, European Union |date=25 October 2011 |access-date=7 October 2020}}</ref> In the United States, the FASTER Act mandated labeling<ref name=SesameLaw2021>{{cite web |url=https://www.congress.gov/bill/117th-congress/senate-bill/578/text |title=Food Allergy Safety, Treatment, Education, and Research Act of 2021 or the FASTER Act of 2021 |date=4 April 2021 |website=Congress.gov |access-date=5 March 2022}}</ref> from 2023.<ref name="FARE">{{cite web |url=https://www.foodallergy.org/living-food-allergies/food-allergy-essentials/common-allergens/sesame |title=Sesame Allergy |website=FARE |access-date=5 March 2022}}</ref><ref name="AANetwork">{{cite web |url=https://allergyasthmanetwork.org/news/sesame-the-9th-food-allergen/ |title=Sesame Allergy and Food Labels |website=Allergy & Asthma Network |access-date=5 March 2022}}</ref>

=== Contamination ===

Contamination by ''[[Salmonella]]'', ''[[E.coli]]'', [[pesticide]]s, or other [[pathogen]]s may occur in large batches of sesame seeds, such as in September 2020 when high levels of a common industrial compound, [[ethylene oxide]], was found in a 250-[[tonne]] shipment of sesame seeds from India.<ref name="fsn-20">{{Cite web |first=Joe |last=Whitworth |title=EU toughens rules for sesame seeds from India |url=https://www.foodsafetynews.com/2020/09/multi-country-recalls-due-to-ethylene-oxide-in-sesame-seeds/ |publisher=Food Safety News |date=30 October 2020}}</ref><ref name="conn">{{cite news |first=Hannah |last=Thompson |title=France recalls sesame seed products due to toxic pesticide |url=https://www.connexionfrance.com/French-news/France-recalls-sesame-seed-products-due-to-toxic-pesticide-ethylene-oxide |access-date=28 November 2020 |work=The Connexion |date=4 November 2020}}</ref> After detection in Belgium, [[product recall |recalls]] for dozens of products and stores were issued across the [[European Union]], totaling some 50 countries.<ref name=fsn-20/><ref name=conn/> Products with an [[organic certification]] were also affected by the contamination.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.fsai.ie/news_centre/food_alerts/Source_Bulk_Sesame.html |title=Recall of Organic Sesame Seeds and Organic Omega Seed Mix From The Source Bulk Foods, Rathmines, Due to the Presence of the Unauthorised Pesticide Ethylene Oxide |website=www.fsai.ie}}</ref> Regular governmental food inspection for sesame contamination, as for ''Salmonella'' and ''E. coli'' in [[tahini]], [[hummus]] or seeds, has found that poor hygiene practices during processing are common sources and routes of contamination.<ref>{{cite web |title=2011-2012 Salmonella and generic E. coli in tahini and sesame seeds |url=https://www.inspection.gc.ca/food-safety-for-industry/food-chemistry-and-microbiology/microbiology/salmonella-and-generic-e-coli-in-tahini-and-sesame/eng/1430919620350/1430919620865 |publisher=Canadian Food Inspection Agency |access-date=28 November 2020 |date=4 September 2018}}</ref>

== Culinary use ==

{{See also |List of sesame seed dishes}}

Sesame seed is a common ingredient in many cuisines.  Sesame seeds, also called ''benne'', were brought into 17th-century colonial America by enslaved West Africans.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Benne Wafers |url=https://www.kingarthurbaking.com/recipes/benne-wafers-recipe |access-date=2021-07-26 |website=www.kingarthurbaking.com}}</ref> The whole plant was used in West African cuisine. The seeds thickened soups and puddings, or were roasted and infused to produce a coffee-like drink.<ref name=":0"/> Oil from the seeds substituted for butter, and served as a shortening for cakes.<ref name=":0"/> The leaves on mature plants, which are rich in mucilage, can be used as a laxative as well as a treatment for dysentery and cholera.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Bedigian |first=Dorothea |title=African Origins of Sesame Cultivation in the Americas. |year=2013 |location=Springer, New York, NY}}</ref> After arriving in North America, the plant was grown by slaves as a subsistence staple to supplement their weekly rations.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Carney |first1=Judith |title=In the Shadow of Slavery: Africa's Botanical Legacy in the Atlantic World |last2=Rosomoff |first2=Richard |year=2009 |pages=123–138}}</ref> In [[Caribbean cuisine]], sugar and white sesame seeds are combined into a bar resembling [[peanut brittle]] and sold in stores and street corners, like Bahamian Benny cakes.<ref>{{Cite web |last=BodineVictoria |date=2020-08-10 |title=Bahamian Benny Cake |url=https://www.bodinevictoria.com/post/bahamian-benny-cake |access-date=2021-07-26 |website=BodineVictoria}}</ref>

In Asia, sesame seeds are sprinkled onto [[sushi]]-style foods.<ref>{{cite news |date=2020-10-05 |title=Third-culture breakfast: Asia-inspired morning feasts from Hetty McKinnon |url=http://www.theguardian.com/food/2020/oct/06/third-culture-breakfast-asia-inspired-morning-feasts-from-hetty-mckinnon |access-date=2020-12-15 |work=[[The Guardian]]}}</ref> In Japan, whole seeds are found in many salads and baked snacks, and tan and black sesame seed varieties are roasted and used to make the flavouring ''[[gomashio]]''.<ref>{{cite web |last=Barnaby |first=Karen |title=Cultivating the savoury sprinkle |url=https://vancouversun.com/life/food/recipes/karen-barnaby-cultivating-the-savoury-sprinkle |publisher=Vancouver Sun |access-date=20 December 2024 |date=21 April 2019}}</ref> Ground black sesame and rice form [[zhimahu]], a Chinese dessert and breakfast dish.<ref>{{Cite book |last=牛奶 |title=新媳妇私房菜 |date=2011 |publisher=Hu nan ke xue ji shu chu ban she |isbn=978-7-5357-6124-8 |oclc=952301549}}</ref> The seeds and oil are used extensively in India, where sesame seeds mixed with heated [[jaggery]], sugar, or palm sugar are made into balls and bars similar to peanut brittle or nut clusters and eaten as snacks, such as ''[[chikki]]''.<ref name=Chitrodia>{{cite web |last=Chitrodia |first=Rucha Biju |title=A low-cal twist to sweet sensations |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/mumbai/A-low-cal-twist-to-sweet-sensations/articleshow/3901919.cms |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121023195025/http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2008-12-28/mumbai/27894010_1_refined-sugar-sugar-substitutes-jaggery |url-status=live |archive-date=23 October 2012|work=[[The Times of India]] |date=28 December 2008 |access-date=19 August 2012}}</ref>

Sesame is a common ingredient in Middle Eastern cuisine. The seeds are made into ''[[tahini]]'' paste and sweet ''[[halva]]''. It is a common component of the [[Levantine cuisine|Levantine]] spice mixture ''[[za'atar]]'', popular throughout the Middle East.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.thekitchn.com/inside-the-spice-cabinet-zaatar-seasoning-blend-82566 |title=Inside the Spice Cabinet: Za'atar Seasoning Blend |website=Kitchn}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.thespruceeats.com/zaatar-middle-eastern-spice-mixture-2355844 |title=Make Your Own Za'atar Spice Mix and Kick the Flavor Up a Notch |website=The Spruce Eats}}</ref>

In Southern Italian cuisine, traditional sesame seed confections are one of many culinary remnants of the [[Muslim Sicily|Arabic period]]. These include a brittle-style [[Turrón|torrone]] served at Christmas known as [[giurgiulena]] (from the Arabic ''juljulàn'') and a lightly sweet, seed-covered biscuit called <span lang="it" dir="ltr">[[Biscotti regina|reginelle]]</span> or <span lang="it" dir="ltr">sesamini</span>.<ref>{{Citation |title=ciciulena |date=2024-03-14 |work=Wiktionary, the free dictionary |url=https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/ciciulena#Sicilian |access-date=2025-05-17 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=Biscotto regina |date=2024-12-01 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biscotto_regina |access-date=2025-05-17 |language=it}}</ref> Similar sweets are found in neighboring cultures throughout the Mediterranean.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The Story of Biscotti Regina |url=https://www.manimanuzzi.com/blog/the-story-of-biscotti-regina |access-date=2025-05-17 |website=Mani Manuzzi-Italian cakes, cookies, and more |language=en-US}}</ref>

[[Sesame oil]] is sometimes used [[cooking oil|for cooking]], though not all varieties are suitable for high-temperature [[frying]]. The "toasted" form of the oil (as distinguished from the "cold-pressed" form) has a distinctive pleasant aroma and taste, and is sometimes used as a table [[condiment]].<ref name=Andriani>{{Cite web |title=Sesame Oil, Explained: What's the Difference Between Toasted and Untoasted? |last=Andriani |first=Lynn |website=Martha Stewart |date=29 March 2019 |url= https://www.marthastewart.com/1537985/sesame-oil-about-toasted-untoasted}}</ref>

<gallery class=center mode=nolines widths=160 heights=160>
File:Sesame oil.jpg |[[Sesame oil]]
File:HK KTD 觀塘道 414 Kwun Tong Road One Pacific Centre shop 海港酒家 Victoria Harbour Restaurant food dim sum 煎堆 sesame ball 飲茶 morning tea April 2023 Px3 02.jpg |''[[Jian dui]]'' covered with sesame seeds
File:Goma dango 002.jpg |''[[Dango]]'' with sweet sesame seed sauce
File:EgFoodTahina.jpg |[[Tahini]] made of sesame seed paste
File:PikiWiki Israel 14731 Sesame Baskets.JPG |Sesame seeds are often added to baked goods and confectionery
File:Khao phan nga muan.jpg |Rolled ''khao phan'' with black sesame seeds
File:Bread Sticks With Sesame.jpg |Sesame seed breadsticks
File:"A Gingelly cake".jpg |Sesame sweet cake
File:Sesame Seed Ball (Candy).jpg |Sesame seed ball confection
File:Til-Patti 2.jpg |''Til-patti'' – a sesame brittle-type confection from India
File:Athens15 tango7174.jpg |''[[Simit]]'', ''koulouri'', or ''gevrek'', a ring-shaped bread coated with sesame seeds
File:Halva 12-2015.jpg |[[Halva]], Turkey
File:Potato bourekas.jpg |Typical [[Israeli cuisine |Israeli]] [[Bourekas]] with sesame seeds
File:Black sesame.jpg|Black sesame seeds, not to be confused with ''[[nigella sativa]]''
</gallery>

== In literature ==

{{Main |Open sesame}}

In myths, the opening of the capsule releases the treasure of sesame seeds, as applied in the story of "[[Ali Baba and the Forty Thieves]]" when the phrase "[[Open sesame]]" magically opens a sealed cave. Upon ripening, sesame pods split, releasing a pop and possibly indicating the origin of this phrase.<ref>{{cite web |title=''Sesamum indicum'' L. |first=Peter |last=Griffee |publisher=Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations |url=http://ecoport.org/ep?Plant=1937&entityDisplayCategory=full}}</ref>

== References ==

{{reflist|30em}}

== External links ==

{{Commons category|Sesame}}

* {{Wikispecies-inline|Sesamum indicum}}

{{Herbs & spices}}
{{Taxonbar|from=Q2763698}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Sesame| ]]
[[Category:Crops]]
[[Category:Crops originating from Africa]]
[[Category:CYP2D6 inhibitors]]
[[Category:Edible nuts and seeds]]
[[Category:Flora of Nepal]]
[[Category:Medicinal plants]]
[[Category:Pedaliaceae]]
[[Category:Plants described in 1753]]
[[Category:Spices]]
[[Category:Oil seeds]]